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Title: Surgical Anatomy

Author: Joseph Maclise

Release Date: January 28, 2008 [EBook #24440]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Don Kostuch

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[Transcriber's Notes]

Thanks to Carol Presher of Timeless Antiques, Valley, Alabama,  for

lending the original book for this production. The 140 year old binding

had disintegrated, but the paper and printing was in amazingly good

condition, particularly the multicolor images.

Thanks also to the Mayo Clinic. This book has increased my appreciation

of their skilled care of my case by showing the many ways that things

could go wrong.

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Transciber's Glossary

[End Transcriber's Notes]

SURGICAL ANATOMY

BY

JOSEPH MACLISE

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS.

WITH SIXTY-EIGHT COLOURED PLATES.

PHILADELPHIA:

BLANCHARD AND LEA.

1859.

[Stamped by owner: John D. Warren, Physician & Surgeon.]

I INSCRIBE THIS WORK TO THE GENTLEMEN

WITH WHOM AS A FELLOW-STUDENT I WAS ASSOCIATED AT THE

London University College:

AND IN AN ESPECIAL MANNER, IN THEIR NAME AS WELL AS MY OWN,

I AVAIL MYSELF OF THE OPPORTUNITY TO RECORD, ON THIS PAGE,

ALBEIT IN CHARACTERS LESS IMPRESSIVE THAN THOSE WHICH ARE

WRITTEN ON THE LIVING TABLET OF MEMORY,

THE DEBT OF GRATITUDE WHICH WE OWE TO THE LATE

SAMUEL COOPER, F.R.S., AND ROBERT LISTON, F.R.S.,

TWO AMONG THE MANY DISTINGUISHED PROFESSORS OF THAT

INSTITUTION, WHOSE PUPILS WE HAVE BEEN,

AND FROM WHOM WE INHERIT THAT BETTER POSSESSION THAN LIFE

ITSELF, AN ASPIRATION FOR THE LIGHT OF SCIENCE.

JOSEPH MACLISE.

PREFACE.

The object of this work is to present to the student of medicine and the

practitioner removed from the schools, a series of dissections

demonstrative of the relative anatomy of the principal regions of the

human body. Whatever title may most fittingly apply to a work with this

intent, whether it had better be styled surgical or medical, regional,

relative, descriptive, or topographical anatomy, will matter little,

provided its more salient or prominent character be manifested in its

own form and feature. The work, as I have designed it, will itself show

that my intent has been to base the practical upon the anatomical, and

to unite these wherever a mutual dependence was apparent.

That department of anatomical research to which the name topographical

strictly applies, as confining itself to the mere account of the form

and relative location of the several organs comprising the animal body,

is almost wholly isolated from the main questions of physiological and

transcendental interest, and cannot, therefore, be supposed to speak in

those comprehensive views which anatomy, taken in its widest

signification as a science, necessarily includes. While the anatomist

contents himself with describing the form and position of organs as they

appear exposed, layer after layer, by his dissecting instruments, he

does not pretend to soar any higher in the region of science than the

humble level of other mechanical arts, which merely appreciate the

fitting arrangement of things relative to one another, and combinative

to the whole design of the form or machine of whatever species this may

be, whether organic or inorganic. The descriptive anatomist of the human

body aims at no higher walk in science than this, and hence his

nomenclature is, as it is, a barbarous jargon of words, barren of all

truthful signification, inconsonant with nature, and blindly

irrespective of the cognitio certa ex principiis certis exorta.

Still, however, this anatomy of form, although so much requiring

purification of its nomenclature, in order to clothe it in the high

reaching dignity of a science, does not disturb the medical or surgical

practitioner, so far as their wants are concerned. Although it may, and

actually does, trammel the votary who aspires to the higher

generalizations and the development of a law of formation, yet, as this

is not the object of the surgical anatomist, the nomenclature, such as

it is, will answer conveniently enough the present purpose.

The anatomy of the human form, contemplated in reference to that of all

other species of animals to which it bears comparison, constitutes the

study of the comparative anatomist, and, as such, establishes the

science in its full intent. But the anatomy of the human figure,

considered as a species, per se, is confessedly the humblest walk of the

understanding in a subject which, as anatomy, is relationary, and

branches far and wide through all the domain of an animal kingdom. While

restricted to the study of the isolated human species, the cramped

judgment wastes in such narrow confine; whereas, in the expansive gaze

over all allying and allied species, the intellect bodies forth to its

vision the full appointed form of natural majesty; and after having

experienced the manifold analogies and differentials of the many, is

thereby enabled, when it returns to the study of the one, to view this

one of human type under manifold points of interest, to the appreciation

of which the understanding never wakens otherwise. If it did not happen

that the study of the human form (confined to itself) had some practical

bearing, such study could not deserve the name of anatomical, while

anatomical means comparative, and whilst comparison implies inductive

reasoning.

However, practical anatomy, such as it is, is concerned with an exact

knowledge of the relationship of organs as they stand in reference to

each other, and to the whole design of which these organs are the

integral parts. The figure, the capacity, and the contents of the

thoracic and abdominal cavities, become a study of not more urgent

concernment to the physician, than are the regions named cervical,

axillary, inguinal, &c., to the surgeon. He who would combine both modes

of a relationary practice, such as that of medicine and surgery, should

be well acquainted with the form and structures characteristic of all

regions of the human body; and it may be doubted whether he who pursues

either mode of practice, wholly exclusive of the other, can do so with

honest purpose and large range of understanding, if he be not equally

well acquainted with the subject matter of both. It is, in fact, more

triflingly fashionable than soundly reasonable, to seek to define the

line of demarcation between the special callings of medicine and

surgery, for it will ever be as vain an endeavour to separate the one

from the other without extinguishing the vitality of both, as it would

be to sunder the trunk from the head, and give to each a separate living

existence. The necessary division of labour is the only reason that can

be advanced in excuse of specialisms; but it will be readily agreed to,

that that practitioner who has first laid within himself the foundation

of a general knowledge of matters relationary to his subject, will

always be found to pursue the speciality according to the light of

reason and science.

Anatomy--the  the knowledge based on principle--is the

foundation of the curative art, cultivated as a science in all its

branchings; and comparison is the nurse of reason, which we are fain to

make our guide in bringing the practical to bear productively. The human

body, in a state of health, is the standard whereunto we compare the

same body in a state of disease. The knowledge of the latter can only

exist by the knowledge of the former, and by the comparison of both.

Comparison may be fairly termed the pioneer to all certain knowledge. It

is a potent instrument--the only one, in the hands of the pathologist,

as well as in those of the philosophic generalizer of anatomical facts,

gathered through the extended survey of an animal kingdom. We best

recognise the condition of a dislocated joint after we have become well

acquainted with the contour of its normal state; all abnormal conditions

are best understood by a knowledge of what we know to be normal

character. Every anatomist is a comparer, in a greater or lesser degree;

and he is the greatest anatomist who compares the most generally.

Impressed with this belief, I have laid particular emphasis on imitating

the character of the normal form of the human figure, taken as a whole;

that of its several regions as parts of this whole, and that of the

various organs (contained within those regions) as its integrals or

elements. And in order to present this subject of relative anatomy in

more vivid reality to the understanding of the student, I have chosen

the medium of illustrating by figure rather than by that of written

language, which latter, taken alone, is almost impotent in a study of

this nature.

It is wholly impossible for anyone to describe form in words without the

aid of figures. Even the mathematical strength of Euclid would avail

nothing, if shorn of his diagrams. The professorial robe is impotent

without its diagrams. Anatomy being a science existing by demonstration,

(for as much as form in its actuality is the language of nature,) must

be discoursed of by the instrumentality of figure.

An anatomical illustration enters the understanding straight-forward in

a direct passage, and is almost independent of the aid of written

language. A picture of form is a proposition which solves itself. It is

an axiom encompassed in a frame-work of self-evident truth. The best

substitute for Nature herself, upon which to teach the knowledge of her,

is an exact representation of her form.

Every surgical anatomist will (if he examine himself) perceive that,

previously to undertaking the performance of an operation upon the

living body, he stands reassured and self-reliant in that degree in

which he is capable of conjuring up before his mental vision a distinct

picture of his subject. Mr. Liston could draw the same anatomical

picture mentally which Sir Charles Bell's handicraft could draw in

reality of form and figure. Scarpa was his own draughtsman.

If there may be any novelty now-a-days possible to be recognised upon

the out-trodden track of human relative anatomy, it can only be in

truthful and well-planned illustration. Under this view alone may the

anatomist plead an excuse for reiterating a theme which the beautiful

works of Cowper, Haller, Hunter, Scarpa, Soemmering, and others, have

dealt out so respectably. Except the human anatomist turns now to what

he terms the practical ends of his study, and marshals his little

knowledge to bear upon those ends, one may proclaim anthropotomy to have

worn itself out. Dissection can do no more, except to repeat

Cruveilhier. And that which Cruveilhier has done for human anatomy,

Muller has completed for the physiological interpretation of human

anatomy; Burdach has philosophised, and Magendie has experimented to the

full upon this theme, so far as it would permit. All have pushed the

subject to its furthest limits, in one aspect of view. The narrow circle

is footworn. All the needful facts are long since gathered, sown, and

known. We have been seekers after those facts from the days of

Aristotle. Are we to put off the day of attempting interpretation for

three thousand years more, to allow the human physiologist time to slice

the brain into more delicate atoms than he has done hitherto, in order

to coin more names, and swell the dictionary? No! The work must now be

retrospective, if we would render true knowledge progressive. It is not

a list of new and disjointed facts that Science at present thirsts for;

but she is impressed with the conviction that her wants can alone be

supplied by the creation of a new and truthful theory,--a generalization

which the facts already known are sufficient to supply, if they were

well ordered according to their natural relationship and mutual

dependence. "Le temps viendra peut-etre," says Fontenelle, "que 1'on

joindra en un corps regulier ces membres epars; et, s'ils sont tels

qu'on le souhaite, ils s'assembleront en quelque sorte d'eux-memes.

Plusieurs verites separees, des qu'elles sont en assez grand nombre,

offrent si vivement a 1'esprit leurs rapports et leur mutuelle

dependance, qu'il semble qu'apres les avoir detachees par une espece de

violence les unes des autres, elles cherchent naturellement a se

reunir."--(Preface sur l'utilite des Sciences, &c.)

The comparison of facts already known must henceforward be the scalpel

which we are to take in hand. We must return by the same road on which

we set out, and reexamine the things and phenomena which, as novices, we

passed by too lightly. The travelled experience may now sit down and

contemplate.

That which I have said and proved elsewhere in respect to the skeleton

system may, with equal truth, be remarked of the nervous system--namely,

that the question is not in how far does the limit of diversity extend

through the condition of an evidently common analogy, but by what rule

or law the uniform ens is rendered the diverse entity? The womb of

anatomical science is pregnant of the true interpretation of the law of

unity in variety; but the question is of longer duration than was the

life of the progenitor. Though Aristotle and Linnaeus, and Buffon and

Cuvier, and Geoffroy St. Hilaire and Leibnitz, and Gothe, have lived and

spoken, yet the present state of knowledge proclaims the Newton of

physiology to be as yet unborn. The iron scalpel has already made

acquaintance with not only the greater parts, but even with the

infinitesimals of the human body; and reason, confined to this narrow

range of a subject, perceives herself to be imprisoned, and quenches her

guiding light in despair. Originality has outlived itself; and discovery

is a long-forgotten enterprise, except as pursued in the microcosm on

the field of the microscope, which, it must be confessed, has drawn

forth demonstrations only commensurate in importance with the magnitude

of the littleness there seen.

The subject of our study, whichever it happen to be, may appear

exhausted of all interest, and the promise of valuable novelty, owing to

two reasons:--It may be, like descriptive human anatomy, so cold, poor

and sterile in its own nature, and so barren of product, that it will be

impossible for even the genius of Promethean fire to warm it; or else,

like existing physiology, the very point of view from which the mental

eye surveys the theme, will blight the fair prospect of truth, distort

induction, and clog up the paces of ratiocination. The physiologist of

the present day is too little of a comparative anatomist, and far too

closely enveloped in the absurd jargon of the anthropotomist, ever to

hope to reveal any great truth for science, and dispel the mists which

still hang over the phenomena of the nervous system. He is steeped too

deeply in the base nomenclature of the antique school, and too indolent

to question the import of Pons, Commissure, Island, Taenia, Nates,

Testes, Cornu, Hippocamp, Thalamus, Vermes, Arbor Vitro, Respiratory

Tract, Ganglia of Increase, and all such phrase of unmeaning sound, ever

to be productive of lucid interpretation of the cerebro-spinal ens.

Custom alone sanctions his use of such names; but

"Custom calls him to it!

What custom wills; should custom always do it,

The dust on antique time would lie unswept,

And mountainous error be too highly heaped,

For truth to overpeer."

Of the illustrations of this work I may state, in guarantee of their

anatomical accuracy, that they have been made by myself from my own

dissections, first planned at the London University College, and

afterwards realised at the Ecole Pratique, and School of Anatomy

adjoining the Hospital La Pitie, Paris, a few years since. As far as the

subject of relative anatomy could admit of novel treatment, rigidly

confined to facts unalterable, I have endeavoured to give it.

The unbroken surface of the human figure is as a map to the surgeon,

explanatory of the anatomy arranged beneath; and I have therefore left

appended to the dissected regions as much of the undissected as was

necessary. My object was to indicate the interior through the

superficies, and thereby illustrate the whole living body which concerns

surgery, through its dissected dead counterfeit. We dissect the dead

animal body in order to furnish the memory with as clear an account of

the structure contained in its living representative, which we are not

allowed to analyse, as if this latter were perfectly translucent, and

directly demonstrative of its component parts.

J. M

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PREFACE

INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF ANATOMY AS A SCIENCE.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 1 & 2

THE FORM OF THE THORAX, AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF ITS

CONTAINED PARTS--THE LUNGS, HEART, AND LARGER BLOOD VESSELS.

The structure, mechanism, and respiratory motions of the thoracic

apparatus. Its varieties in form, according to age and sex. Its

deformities. Applications to the study of physical diagnosis.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 3 & 4

THE SURGICAL FORM OF THE SUPERFICIAL, CERVICAL, AND FACIAL

REGIONS, AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOOD

VESSELS, NERVES, ETC.

The cervical surgical triangles considered in reference to the position

of the subclavian and carotid vessels, &c. Venesection in respect to the

external jugular vein. Anatomical reasons for avoiding transverse

incisions in the neck. The parts endangered in surgical operations on

the parotid and submaxillary glands, &c.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 5 & 6

THE SURGICAL FORM OF THE DEEP CERVICAL AND FACIAL REGIONS,

AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOOD VESSELS,

NERVES, ETC.

The course of the carotid and subclavian vessels in reference to each

other, to the surface, and to their respective surgical triangles.

Differences in the form of the neck in individuals of different age and

sex. Special relations of the vessels. Physiological remarks on the

carotid artery. Peculiarities in the relative position of the subclavian

artery.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 7 & 8

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE SUBCLAVIAN AND CAROTID

REGIONS, AND THE RELATIVE ANATOMY OF THEIR CONTENTS.

General observations. Abnormal complications of the carotid and

subclavian arteries. Relative position of the vessels liable to change

by the motions of the head and shoulder. Necessity for a fixed surgical

position in operations affecting these vessels. The operations for tying

the carotid or the subclavian at different situations in cases of

aneurism, &c. The operation for tying the innominate artery. Reasons of

the unfavourable results of this proceeding.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 9 & 10

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE EPISTERNAL OR TRACHEAL

REGION, AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF ITS MAIN BLOOD VESSELS,

NERVES, ETC.

Varieties of the primary aortic branches explained by the law of

metamorphosis. The structures at the median line of the neck. The

operations of tracheotomy and laryngotomy in the child and adult, The

right and left brachio-cephalic arteries and their varieties considered

surgically.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 11 & 12

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE AXILLARY AND BRACHIAL

REGIONS, DISPLAYING THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THEIR CONTAINED PARTS.

The operation for tying the axillary artery. Remarks on fractures of the

clavicle and dislocation of the humerus in reference to the axillary

vessels. The operation for tying the brachial artery near the axilla.

Mode of compressing this vessel against the humerus.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 13 & 14

THE SURGICAL FORMS OF THE MALE AND FEMALE AXILLAE

COMPARED.

The mammary and axillary glands in health and disease. Excision of these

glands. Axillary abscess. General surgical observations on the axilla.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 15 & 16

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE BEND OF THE ELBOW AND THE

FOREARM, SHOWING THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE VESSELS AND NERVES.

General remarks. Operation for tying the brachial artery at its middle

and lower thirds. Varieties of the brachial artery. Venesection at the

bend of the elbow. The radial and ulnar pulse. Operations for tying the

radial and ulnar arteries in several parts.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 17, 18, & 19

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE WRIST AND HAND.

General observations. Superficial and deep palmar arches. Wounds of

these vessels requiring a ligature to be applied to both ends. General

surgical remarks on the arteries of the upper limb. Palmar abscess, &c.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 20 & 21

THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE CRANIAL, NASAL,

ORAL, AND PHARYNGEAL CAVITIES, ETC.

Fractures of the cranium, and the operation of trephining anatomically

considered. Instrumental measures in reference to the fauces, tonsils,

oesophagus, and lungs.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 22

THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE SUPERFICIAL

ORGANS OF THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN.

Application to correct physical diagnosis. Changes in the relative

position of the organs during the respiratory motions. Changes effected

by disease. Physiological remarks on wounds of the thorax and on

pleuritic effusion. Symmetry of the organs, &c.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 23

THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE DEEPER ORGANS

OF THE THORAX AND THOSE OF THE ABDOMEN.

Of the heart in reference to auscultation and percussion. Of the lungs,

ditto. Relative capacity of the thorax and abdomen as influenced by the

motions of the diaphragm. Abdominal respiration. Physical causes of

abdominal herniae. Enlarged liver as affecting the capacity of the

thorax and abdomen. Physiological remarks on wounds of the lungs.

Pneumothorax, emphysema, &c.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 24

THE RELATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOODVESSELS TO THE

VISCERA OF THE THORACICO-ABDOMINAL CAVITY.

Symmetrical arrangement of the vessels arising from the median

thoracico-abdominal aorta, &c. Special relations of the aorta. Aortic

sounds. Aortic aneurism and its effects on neighbouring organs.

Paracentesis thoracis. Physical causes of dropsy. Hepatic abscess.

Chronic enlargements of the liver and spleen as affecting the relative

position of other parts. Biliary concretions. Wounds of the intestines.

Artificial anus.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 25

THE RELATION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOODVESSELS OF

THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN TO THE OSSEOUS SKELETON.

The vessels conforming to the shape of the skeleton. Analogy between the

branches arising from both ends of the aorta. Their normal and abnormal

conditions. Varieties as to the length of these arteries considered

surgically. Measurements of the abdomen and thorax compared.

Anastomosing branches of the thoracic and abdominal parts of the aorta.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 26

THE RELATION OF THE INTERNAL PARTS TO THE EXTERNAL SURFACE.

In health and disease. Displacement of the lungs from pleuritic

effusion. Paracentesis thoracis. Hydrops pericardii. Puncturation.

Abdominal and ovarian dropsy as influencing the position of the viscera.

Diagnosis of both dropsies. Paracentesis abdominis. Vascular

obstructions and their effects.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 27

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE SUPERFICIAL PARTS AND

BLOODVESSELS OF THE INGUINO-FEMORAL REGION.

Physical causes of the greater frequency of inguinal and femoral

herniae. The surface considered in reference to the subjacent parts.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 28 & 29

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE FIRST, SECOND, THIRD, AND

FOURTH LAYERS OF THE INGUINAL REGION, IN CONNEXION WITH THOSE

OF THE THIGH.

The external abdominal ring and spermatic cord. Cremaster muscle--how

formed. The parts considered in reference to inguinal hernia. The

saphenous opening, spermatic cord, and femoral vessels in relation to

femoral hernia.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 30 & 31

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE FIFTH, SIXTH, SEVENTH, AND

EIGHTH LAYERS OF THE INGUINAL REGION, AND THEIR CONNEXION WITH

THOSE OF THE THIGH.

The conjoined tendon, internal inguinal ring, and cremaster muscle,

considered in reference to the descent of the testicle and of the

hernia. The structure and direction of the inguinal canal.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 32, 33, & 34

THE DISSECTION OF THE OBLIQUE OR EXTERNAL,

AND OF THE DIRECT OR INTERNAL INGUINAL HERNIA.

Their points of origin and their relations to the inguinal rings. The

triangle of Hesselbach. Investments and varieties of the external

inguinal hernia, its relations to the epigastric artery, and its

position in the canal. Bubonocele, complete and scrotal varieties in the

male. Internal inguinal hernia considered in reference to the same

points. Corresponding varieties of both herniae in the female.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 35, 36, 37, & 38

THE DISTINCTIVE DIAGNOSIS BETWEEN EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL

INGUINAL HERNIAE, THE TAXIS, SEAT OF STRICTURE, AND THE OPERATION.

Both herniae compared as to position and structural characters. The

co-existence of both rendering diagnosis difficult. The oblique changing

to the direct hernia as to position, but not in relation to the

epigastric artery. The taxis performed in reference to the position of

both as regards the canal and abdominal rings. The seat of stricture

varying. The sac. The lines of incision required to avoid the epigastric

artery. Necessity for opening the sac.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 39 & 40

DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE NATURE OF CONGENITAL AND

INFANTILE INGUINAL HERNIAE, AND OF HYDROCELE.

Descent of the testicle. The testicle in the scrotum. Isolation of its

tunica vaginalis. The tunica vaginalis communicating with the abdomen.

Sacculated serous spermatic canal. Hydrocele of the isolated tunica

vaginalis. Congenital hernia and hydrocele. Infantile hernia. Oblique

inguinal hernia. How formed and characterized.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 41 & 42

DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS

OF INGUINAL HERNIAE IN GENERAL.

Formation of the serous sac. Formation of congenital hernia. Hernia in

the canal of Nuck. Formation of infantile hernia. Dilatation of the

serous sac. Funnel-shaped investments of the hernia. Descent of the

hernia like that of the testicle. Varieties of infantile hernia.

Sacculated cord. Oblique internal inguinal hernia--cannot be congenital.

Varieties of internal hernia. Direct external hernia. Varieties of the

inguinal canal.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 43 & 44

THE DISSECTION OF FEMORAL HERNIA AND THE SEAT OF STRICTURE.

Compared with the inguinal variety. Position and relations. Sheath of

the femoral vessels and of the hernia. Crural ring and canal. Formation

of the sac. Saphenous opening. Relations of the hernia. Varieties of the

obturator and epigastric arteries. Course of the hernia. Investments.

Causes and situations of the stricture.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 45 & 46

DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF FEMORAL

HERNIA; ITS DIAGNOSIS, THE TAXIS, AND THE OPERATION.

Its course compared with that of the inguinal hernia. Its investments

and relations. Its diagnosis from inguinal hernia, &c. Its varieties.

Mode of performing the taxis according to the course of the hernia. The

operation for the strangulated condition. Proper lines in which

incisions should be made. Necessity for and mode of opening the sac.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 47

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOODVESSELS

AND NERVES OF THE ILIAC AND FEMORAL REGIONS.

The femoral triangle. Eligible place for tying the femoral artery. The

operations of Scarpa and Hunter. Remarks on the common femoral artery.

Ligature of the external iliac artery according to the seat of aneurism.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 48 & 49

THE RELATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MALE PELVIC ORGANS.

Physiological remarks on the functions of the abdominal muscles. Effects

of spinal injuries on the processes of defecation and micturition.

Function of the bladder. Its change of form and position in various

states. Relation to the peritonaeum. Neck of the bladder. The prostate.

Puncturation of the bladder by the rectum. The pudic artery.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 50 & 51

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE SUPERFICIAL

STRUCTURES OF THE MALE PERINAEUM.

Remarks on the median line. Congenital malformations. Extravasation of

urine into the sac of the superficial fascia. Symmetry of the parts.

Surgical boundaries of the perinaeum. Median and lateral important parts

to be avoided in lithotomy, and the operation for fistula in ano.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 52 & 53

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE DEEP STRUCTURES OF THE MALE

PERINAEUM; THE LATERAL OPERATION OF LITHOTOMY.

Relative position of the parts at the base of the bladder. Puncture of

the bladder through the rectum and of the urethra in the perinaeum.

General rules for lithotomy.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 54, 55, & 56

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE MALE BLADDER AND URETHRA;

LATERAL AND BILATERAL LITHOTOMY COMPARED.

Lines of incision in both operations. Urethral muscles--their analogies

and significations. Direction, form, length, structure, &c., of the

urethra at different ages. Third lobe of the prostate. Physiological

remarks. Trigone vesical. Bas fond of the bladder. Natural form of the

prostate at different ages.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 57 & 58

CONGENITAL AND PATHOLOGICAL DEFORMITIES OF THE PREPUCE AND URETHRA;

STRICTURES AND MECHANICAL OBSTRUCTIONS OF THE URETHRA.

General remarks. Congenital phymosis. Gonorrhoeal paraphymosis and

phymosis. Effect of circumcision. Protrusion of the glans through an

ulcerated opening in the prepuce. Congenital hypospadias. Ulcerated

perforations of the urethra. Congenital epispadias. Urethral fistula,

stricture, and catheterism. Sacculated urethra. Stricture opposite the

bulb and the membranous portion of the urethra. Observations respecting

the frequency of stricture in these parts. Calculus at the bulb. Polypus

of the urethra. Calculus in its membranous portion. Stricture midway

between the meatus and bulb. Old callous stricture, its form, &c.

Spasmodic stricture of the urethra by the urethral muscles. Organic

stricture. Surgical observations.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 59 & 60

THE VARIOUS FORMS AND POSITIONS OF STRICTURES AND OTHER

OBSTRUCTIONS OF THE URETHRA; FALSE PASSAGES; ENLARGEMENTS

AND DEFORMITIES OF THE PROSTATE.

General remarks. Different forms of the organic stricture. Coexistence

of several. Prostatic abscess distorting and constricting the urethra.

Perforation of the prostate by catheters. Series of gradual enlargements

of the third lobe of the prostate. Distortion of the canal by the

enlarged third lobe--by the irregular enlargement of the three lobes--by

a nipple-shaped excrescence at the vesical orifice.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 61 & 62

DEFORMITIES OF THE PROSTATE; DISTORTIONS AND

OBSTRUCTIONS OF THE PROSTATIC URETHRA.

Observations on the nature of the prostate--its signification. Cases of

prostate and bulb pouched by catheters. Obstructions of the vesical

orifice. Sinuous prostatic canal. Distortions of the vesical orifice.

Large prostatic calculus. Sacculated prostate. Triple prostatic urethra.

Encrusted prostate. Fasciculated bladder. Prostatic sac distinct from

the bladder. Practical remarks. Impaction of a large calculus in the

prostate. Practical remarks.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 63 & 64

DEFORMITIES OF THE URINARY BLADDER; THE OPERATIONS OF SOUNDING FOR STONE;

OF CATHETERISM AND OF PUNCTURING THE BLADDER ABOVE THE PUBES.

General remarks on the causes of the various deformities, and of the

formation of stone. Lithic diathesis--its signification. The sacculated

bladder considered in reference to sounding, to catheterism, to

puncturation, and to lithotomy. Polypi in the bladder. Dilated ureters.

The operation of catheterism. General rules to be followed. Remarks on

the operation of puncturing the bladder above the pubes.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 65 & 66

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE POPLITEAL SPACE,

AND THE POSTERIOR CRURAL REGION.

Varieties of the popliteal and posterior crural vessels. Remarks on

popliteal aneurism, and the operation for tying the popliteal artery, in

wounds of this vessel. Wounds of the posterior crural arteries requiring

double ligatures. The operations necessary for reaching these vessels.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 67 & 68

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE ANTERIOR CRURAL REGION;

THE ANKLES AND THE FOOT.

Varieties of the anterior and posterior tibial and the peronaeal

arteries. The operations for tying these vessels in several situations.

Practical observations on wounds of the arteries of the leg and foot.

CONCLUDING COMMENTARY

ON THE FORM AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM AS A

WHOLE; ANOMALIES; RAMIFICATION; ANASTOMOSIS.

The double heart. Universal systemic capillary anastomosis. Its

division, by the median line, into two great lateral fields--those

subdivided into two systems or provinces--viz., pulmonary and systemic.

Relation of pulmonary and systemic circulating vessels. Motions of the

heart. Circulation of the blood through the lungs and system. Symmetry

of the hearts and their vessels. Development of the heart and primary

vessels. Their stages of metamorphosis simulating the permanent

conditions of the parts in lower animals. The primitive branchial arches

undergoing metamorphosis. Completion of these changes. Interpretation of

the varieties of form in the heart and primary vessels. Signification of

their normal condition. The portal system no exception to the law of

vascular symmetry. Signification of the portal system. The liver and

spleen as homologous organs,--as parts of the same whole quantity.

Cardiac anastomosing vessels. Vasa vasorum. Anastomosing branches of the

systemic aorta considered in reference to the operations of arresting by

ligature the direct circulation through the arteries of the head, neck,

upper limbs, pelvis, and lower limbs. The collateral circulation.

Practical observations on the most eligible situations for tying each of

the principal vessels, as determined by the greatest number of their

anastomosing branches on either side of the ligature, and the largest

amount of the collateral circulation that may be thereby carried on for

the support of distal parts.

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SURGICAL ANATOMY by  JOSEPH MACLISE

Transcriber's Glossary

Here are the definitions of some words used in the text. Medical terms

are defined only relating to humans. Words are omitted that have

ambiguous or technical meanings not expressible in lay language.

acromial (acromion)

Outward end of the spine of the scapula or shoulder blade.

adipose

Consisting of, resembling, or relating to fat.

anasarca

Pronounced, generalized edema; accumulation of serous fluid in various

tissues and cavities of the body.

anastomosing (anastomoses, anastomosis)

Communication between blood vessels by means of collateral channels,

when usual routes are obstructed. Opening between two organs or spaces

that normally are not connected.

aneurism

Localized blood-filled dilatation of a blood vessel caused by disease

or weakening of the vessel's wall.

anthropotomist (anthropotomy)

One versed in human anatomy.

aorta (aortic)

Main trunk of the arterial system, conveying blood from the left

ventricle of the heart to all of the body except the lungs.

apices (plural of apex)

Pointed end of an object; the tip.

aponeurosis

Sheet-like fibrous membrane, resembling a flattened tendon, that

serves as a fascia to bind muscles together or as a means of

connecting muscle to bone.

armamentaria

Complete equipment of a physician or medical institution, including

books, supplies, and instruments.

auscultation

Listening, either directly or through a stethoscope or other

instrument, to sounds within the body as a method of diagnosis.

axilla (axillary)

Armpit.

azygos

Occurring singly; not one of a pair.

bifid

Separated or cleft into two equal parts or lobes.

biliary

Relating to bile, the bile ducts, or the gallbladder; transporting

bile.

bistoury

Long, narrow surgical knife for minor incisions.

bougie

Slender, flexible instrument introduced into body passages, to dilate,

examine, or medicate.

brachial (brachio)

Belonging to the arm.

bubonocele

Inguinal hernia, in which the protrusion of the intestine is limited

to the region of the groin.

cannula

Metal tube for insertion into the body to draw off fluid or to

introduce medication.

carotid

Two large arteries, one on each side of the head.

cephalic

Relating to the head.

cervical

Pertaining to the neck.

chlorotic

Benign iron-deficiency anemia in adolescent girls, marked by a pale

yellow-green complexion.

clavicle

Either of two slender bones extending from the upper part of the

sternum (breastbone) to the shoulder.

coaptation

Joining together of two surfaces, such as the edges of a wound or the

ends of a broken bone.

condyle

Smooth surface area at the end of a bone, forming part of a joint.

costal

Pertaining to the ribs or the upper sides of the body.

cremaster

Suspensory muscle of the testis.

crural

Relating to the leg or thigh.

director

A smoothly grooved instrument used with a knife to limit the incision

of tissues.

distal

Situated away from the point of origin or attachment.

dropsy (dropsical) (edema)

Swelling from excessive accumulation of watery fluid in cells,

tissues, or serous cavities

emphysema

Chronic, irreversible disease of the lungs; abnormal enlargement of

air spaces in the lungs accompanied by destruction of the tissue

lining the walls of the air spaces.

emunctory

Organ or duct that removes or carries waste from the body.

epigastric (epigastrium)

Upper middle region of the abdomen.

episternal

See sternum.

esophagus

See oesophagus.

euphoneously (euphoniously)

Pleasant in sound; agreeable to the ear;

exigence

Urgency, need, demand, or requirement intrinsic to a circumstance.

extravasation

Exuding or passing out of a vessel into surrounding tissues; said of

blood, lymph or urine

fascia

A band of connective tissue supporting, or binding together internal

organs or parts of the body.

femoral

Pertaining to, or situated at, in, or near the thigh or femur.

fistula

Abnormal duct or passage resulting from injury, disease, or a

congenital disorder that connects an abscess, cavity, or hollow organ

to the body surface or to another hollow organ.

foramen (foramina)

Opening, orifice, or short passage, as in a bone.

fossa (fossae)

Small cavity or depression, as in a bone.

hepatic

Pertaining to the liver.

herniae (hernia)

Protrusion of an organ or tissue through an opening in its surrounding

walls, especially in the abdomen.

humerus

Bone in the arm of humans extending from the shoulder to the elbow.

hydragogue

Cathartics that aid in the removal of edematous fluids and thus

promote the discharge of watery fluid from the bowels.

hydrocele

An accumulation of serous fluid, usually about the testis.

hydrops

See dropsy. Edema.

iliac artery

Common iliac artery--either of two large arteries that conduct blood

to the pelvis and the legs. External iliac artery--the outer branch of

an iliac artery that becomes the femoral artery. Hypogastric

artery--internal iliac artery; the inner branch of an iliac artery

that conducts blood to the gluteal region.

infundibuliform

Shaped like a funnel.

inguinal

Relating to, or located in the groin.

innominate

Designated parts otherwise unnamed; as, the innominate artery, a great

branch of the arch of the aorta; the innominate vein, a great branch

of the superior vena cava.

inosculate

Unite by openings; connect or join so as to become or make continuous,

as fibers; blend, unite intimately

integument

Natural covering, coating, enclosure, etc., as a skin, shell, or rind.

laryngotomy

Cutting into the larynx, from the outside of the neck, to assist

respiration, or to remove foreign bodies.

ligature

Thread or wire for constriction of blood vessels or for removing

tumors by strangulation.

lithotomy

Surgery to remove one or more stones from an organ or duct.

meatus

Body opening such as the opening of the ear or the urethral canal.

metamorphosis

Profound change in form from one stage to the next, as from the

caterpillar to the pupa and from the pupa to the adult butterfly.

micturition

Passing urine; urination.

nares (naris)

Nostrils or the nasal passages.

nisus

Effort or endeavor to realize an aim.

occiput

Back part of the head or skull.

oesophagus (esophagus)

Muscular membranous tube for the passage of food from the pharynx to

the stomach.

osseous

Bone, bony;

palmar

Pertaining to, or located in the palm of the hand.

paracentesis

Puncture of the wall of a cavity to drain off fluid.

parietes

Wall of a body part, organ, or cavity.

parotid

Salivary gland situated at the base of each ear; near the ear.

percussion

Striking or tapping the surface the body for diagnostic or therapeutic

purposes.

pericardii (pericardium)

A double membranous sac protecting the heart. The layer in contact

with the heart is referred to as the visceral layer, the outer layer

in contact with surrounding organs is the parietal pericardium.

peritoneum (peritonaeum)

Serous membrane that lines the walls of the abdominal cavity and folds

inward to enclose the viscera.

pharynx (pharyngeal)

The cavity, with its surrounding membrane and muscles, that connects

the mouth and nasal passages with the esophagus.

physiology (physiologist)

Biological study of the functions of living organisms and their parts.

platysma

Broad, thin muscle on each side of the neck, from the upper part of

the shoulder to the corner of the mouth. They wrinkle the skin of the

neck and depresses the corner of the mouth.

pleura

Thin serous membrane in mammals that envelops each lung and folds back

to make a lining for the chest cavity.

pleuritic (pleurisy)

Inflammation of the pleura, often as a complication of a disease such

as pneumonia, accompanied by accumulation of fluid in the pleural

cavity, chills, fever, and painful breathing and coughing.

plexus

Network, as of nerves or blood vessels.

pneumothorax

Air or gas in the pleural cavity.

popliteal

Relating to the hollow part of the leg behind the knee joint.

probang

Long, slender, elastic rod with a sponge at the end. It is introduced

into the esophagus or larynx to remove foreign bodies or introduce

medication.

pudic

Pertaining to the external organs of generation.

pyriform

Shaped like a pear.

radius

Bone of the forearm on the thumb side. (See ulnar)

ramus

A branch, as of a nerve, or blood vessel.

raphe

Seamlike union between two parts or halves of an organ.

ratiocination

Logical reasoning.

sacculated

Formed with or having saclike expansions.

scirrhus

Hard dense cancerous growth usually arising from connective tissue.

septa

Thin partition dividing two cavities or soft masses of tissue.

sternum

Bones extending along the middle line of the ventral portion of the

body of most vertebrates, consisting in humans of a flat, narrow bone

connected with the clavicles and the true ribs; breastbone.

stricture

Abnormal narrowing of a duct or passage.

subclavian

Beneath the clavicle.

submaxillary

Pertaining to the lower jaw.

sui generis

The only example of its kind; a class of its own; unique

superficies

Outward appearance.

sutural

Junction of two bones.

symphysis

Growing together, or the fixed or nearly fixed union, of bones.

taxis

Replacing of a displaced part, or the reducing of a hernia, by

manipulation without cutting.

tegument (tegumentary, integument)

Natural outer covering.

thorax (thoracic)

Trunk between the neck and the abdomen, containing the cavity enclosed

by the ribs, sternum, and certain vertebrae, containing the heart,

lungs, etc.; chest.

trachea (tracheal)

Tube descending from the larynx to the bronchi and carrying air to the

lungs. Windpipe.

trephine (trephining)

Small circular saw with a center pin mounted on a strong hollow metal

shaft, used to remove circular disks of bone from the skull.

trocar

Sharp-pointed instrument enclosed in a cannula, used for withdrawing

fluid from a cavity, as the abdominal cavity.

tunica vaginalis

Pouch of serous membrane covering the testis and derived from the

peritoneum.

venesection (venisection, phlebotomy)

Opening a vein by incision or puncture to remove blood as a

therapeutic treatment.

viz.

Contraction of  the Latin "videre licet" meaning "it is permissible to

see," The -z- is not a letter, but originally a twirl, representing

the symbol for the ending -et. Usually read as "namely."

ulnar

Bone of the forearm on the side opposite to the thumb. (See radius)

To Title Page

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 1 & 2.

THE FORM OF THE THORACIC CAVITY, AND THE POSITION OF THE LUNGS,

HEART, AND LARGER BLOODVESSELS.

In the human body there does not exist any such space as cavity,

properly so called. Every space is occupied by its contents. The

thoracic space is completely filled by its viscera, which, in mass, take

a perfect cast or model of its interior. The thoracic viscera lie so

closely to one another, that they respectively influence the form and

dimensions of each other. That space which the lungs do not occupy is

filled by the heart, &c., and vice versa. The thoracic apparatus causes

no vacuum by the acts of either contraction or dilatation. Neither do

the lungs or the heart. When any organ, by its process of growth, or by

its own functional act, forces a space for itself, it immediately

inhabits that space entirely at the expense of neighbouring organs. When

the heart dilates, the pulmonary space contracts; and when the thoracic

space increases, general space diminishes in the same ratio.

The mechanism of the functions of respiration and circulation consists,

during the life of the animal, in a constant oscillatory nisus to

produce a vacuum which it never establishes. These vital forces of the

respiratory and circulatory organs, so characteristic of the higher

classes of animals, are opposed to the general forces of surrounding

nature. The former vainly strive to make exception to the irrevocable

law, that "nature abhors a vacuum." This act of opposition between both

forces constitutes the respiratory act, and thus the respiratory

thoracic being (like a vibrating pendulum) manifests respiratory motion,

not as an effort of volition originating solely with itself, but

according to the measure of the force of either law; as entity is

relationary, so is functionality likewise. The being is functional by

relationship; and just as a pendulum is functional, by reason of the

counteraction of two opposing forces,--viz., the force of motion and the

force of gravity,--so is a thoracic cavity (considering it as a

mechanical apparatus) functional by two opposing forces--the vital force

and the surrounding physical force. The inspiration of thoracic space is

the expiration of general space, and reciprocally.

The thoracic space is a symmetrical enclosure originally, which

aftercoming necessities modify and distort in some degree. The spaces

occupied by the opposite lungs in the adult body do not exactly

correspond as to capacity, O O, Plate 1. Neither is the cardiac space, A

E G D, Plate 1, which is traversed by the common median line,

symmetrical. The asymmetry of the lungs is mainly owing to the form and

position of the heart; for this organ inclines towards the left thoracic

side. The left lung is less in capacity than the right, by so much space

as the heart occupies in the left pulmonary side. The general form of

the thorax is that of a cone, I I N N, Plate 1, bicleft through its

perpendicular axis, H M. The line of bicleavage is exactly median, and

passes through the centre of the sternum in front, and the centres of

the dorsal vertebral behind. Between the dorsal vertebral and the

sternum, the line of median cleavage is maintained and sketched out in

membrane. This membranous middle is formed by the adjacent sides of the

opposite pleural or enveloping bags in which the lungs are enclosed. The

heart, A, Plate 1, is developed between these two pleural sacs, F F, and

separates them from each other to a distance corresponding to its own

size. The adjacent sides of the two pleural sacs are central to the

thorax, and form that space which is called mediastinum; the heart is

located in this mediastinum, U E, Plate 1. The extent of the thoracic

region ranges perpendicularly from the root of the neck, Q, Plate 1, to

the roof of the abdomen--viz., the diaphragm, P, transversely from the

ribs of one side, I N, Plate 1, to those of the other, and

antero-posteriorly from the sternum, H M, to the vertebral column. All

this space is pulmonary, except the cardiac or median space, which, in

addition to the heart, A, Plate 1, and great bloodvessels, G C B,

contains the oesophagus, bronchi, &c. The ribs are the true enclosures

of thoracic space, and, generally, in mammalian forms, they fail or

degenerate at that region of the trunk which is not pulmonary or

respiratory. In human anatomy, a teleological reason is given for

this--namely, that of the ribs being mechanically subservient to the

function of respiration alone. But the transcendental anatomists

interpret this fact otherwise, and refer it to the operation of a higher

law of formation.

The capacity of the thorax is influenced by the capacity of the abdomen

and its contents. In order to admit of full inspiration and pulmonary

expansion, the abdominal viscera recede in the same ratio as the lungs

dilate. The diaphragm, P P, Plate 1, or transverse musculo-membranous

partition which divides the pulmonary and alimentary cavities, is, by

virtue of its situation, as mechanically subservient to the abdomen as

to the thorax. And under general notice, it will appear that even the

abdominal muscles are as directly related to the respiratory act as

those of the thorax. The connexion between functions is as intimate and

indissoluble as the connexion between organs in the same body. There can

be no more striking proof of the divinity of design than by such

revelations as anatomical science everywhere manifests in facts such as

this--viz., that each organ serves in most cases a double, and in many a

triple purpose, in the animal economy.

The apex of the lung projects into the root of the neck, even to a

higher level, Q, Plate 1, than that occupied by the sternal end of the

clavicle, K. If the point of a sword were pushed through the neck above

the clavicle, at K, Plate 1, it would penetrate the apex of the right

lung, where the subclavian artery, Q, Plate 1, arches over it. In

connexion with this fact, I may mention it as very probable that the

bruit, or continuous murmur which we hear through the stethoscope, in

chlorotic females, is caused by the pulsation of the subclavian artery

against the top of the lung. The stays or girdle which braces the loins

of most women prevents the expansion of the thoracic apparatus,

naturally attained by the descent of the diaphragm; and hence, no doubt,

the lung will distend inordinately above towards the neck. It is an

interesting fact for those anatomists who study the higher

generalizations of their science, that at those very localities--viz.,

the neck and loins, where the lungs by their own natural effort are

prone to extend themselves in forced inspiration--happen the "anomalous"

creations of cervical and lumbar ribs. The subclavian artery is

occasionally complicated by the presence of these costal appendages.

If the body be transfixed through any one of the intercostal spaces, the

instrument will surely wound some part of the lung. If the thorax be

pierced from any point whatever, provided the instrument be directed

towards a common centre, A, Plate 1, the lung will suffer lesion; for

the heart is, almost completely, in the healthy living body, enveloped

in the lungs. So true is it that all the costal region (the asternal as

well as the sternal) is a pulmonary enclosure, that any instrument which

pierces intercostal space must wound the lung.

As the sternal ribs degenerate into the "false" asternal or incomplete

ribs from before, obliquely backward down to the last dorsal vertebra,

so the thoracic space takes form. The lungs range through a much larger

space, therefore, posteriorly than they do anteriorly.

The form of the thorax, in relation to that of the abdomen, may be

learned from the fact that a gunshot, which shall enter a little below

N, Plate 1, and, after traversing the body transversely, shall pass out

at a corresponding point at the opposite side, would open the thorax and

the abdomen into a common cavity; for it would pierce the thorax at N,

the arching diaphragm at the level of M, and thereat enter the belly;

then it would enter the thorax again at P, and make exit below N,

opposite. If a cutting instrument were passed horizontally from before

backward, a little below M, it would first open the abdomen, then pierce

the arching diaphragm, and pass into the thorax, opposite the ninth or

eighth dorsal vertebra.

The outward form or superficies masks in some degree the form of the

interior. The width of the thorax above does not exceed the diameter

between the points I I, of Plate 1, or the points W W, of Plate 2. If we

make percussion directly from before backwards at any place external to

I, Plate 1, we do not render the lung vibrative. The diameters between I

I and N N, Plate 1, are not equal; and these measures will indicate the

form of the thorax in the living body, between the shoulders above and

the loins below.

The position of the heart in the thorax varies somewhat with several

bodies. The size of the heart, even in a state of perfect health, varies

also in subjects of corresponding ages, a condition which is often

mistaken for pathological. For the most part, its form occupies a space

ranging from two or three lines right of the right side of the sternum

to the middle of the shafts of the fifth and sixth ribs of the left

side. In general, the length of the osseous sternum gives the exact

perpendicular range of the heart, together with its great vessels.

The aorta, C, Plates 1 and 2, is behind the upper half of the sternum,

from which it is separated by the pericardium, D, Plate 1, the thin edge

of the lung, and the mediastinal pleurae, U E, Plate 1, &c. If the heart

be injected from the abdominal aorta, the aortal arch will flatten

against the sternum. Pulmonary space would not be opened by a

penetrating instrument passed into the root of the neck in the median

line above the sternum, at L, Plate 1. But the apices of both lungs

would be wounded if the same instrument entered deeply on either side of

this median line at K K. An instrument which would pierce the sternum

opposite the insertion of the second, third, or fourth costal cartilage,

from H downwards, would transfix some part of the arch of the aorta, C,

Plate 1. The same instrument, if pushed horizontally backward through

the second, third, or fourth interspaces of the costal cartilages close

to the sternum, would wound, on the right of the sternal line, the vena

cava superior, G, Plate 1; on the left, the pulmonary artery, B, and

the descending thoracic aorta. In the healthy living body, the thoracic

sounds heard in percussion, or by means of the stethoscope, will vary

according to the locality operated upon, in consequence of the variable

thickness of those structures (muscular and osseous, &c.,) which invest

the thoracic walls. Uniformity of sound must, owing to these facts, be

as materially interrupted, as it certainly is, in consequence of the

variable contents of the cavity. The variability of the healthy thoracic

sounds will, therefore, be too often likely to be mistaken for that of

disease, if we forget to admit these facts, as instanced in the former

state. Considering the form of the thoracic space in reference to the

general form of the trunk of the living body, I see reason to doubt

whether the practitioner can by any boasted delicacy of manipulation,

detect an abnormal state of the pulmonary organs by percussion, or the

use of the stethoscope, applied at those regions which he terms

coracoid, scapulary, subclavian, &c., if the line of his examination be

directed from before backwards. The scapula, covered by thick carneous

masses, does not lie in the living body directly upon the

osseous-thorax, neither does the clavicle. As all antero-posterior

examination in reference to the lungs external to the points, I I,

between the shoulders cannot, in fact, concern the pulmonary organs, so

it cannot be diagnostic of their state either in health or disease. The

difficulties which oppose the practitioner's examination of the state of

the thoracic contents are already numerous enough, independent of those

which may arise from unanatomical investigation.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 1 & 2.

PLATE 1.

A.   Right ventricle of the heart.

B.   Origin of pulmonary artery.

C.   Commencement of the systemic aorta, ascending part of aortic arch.

D.   Pericardium investing the heart and the origins of the great

bloodvessels.

E.   Mediastinal pleura, forming a second investment for the heart,

bloodvessels, &c.

F.   Costal pleura, seen to be continuous above with that which forms

the mediastinum.

G.   Vena cava superior, entering pericardium to join V, the right

auricle.

H.   Upper third of sternum.

I I. First ribs.

K K. Sternal ends of the clavicles.

L.   Upper end of sternum.

M.   Lower end of sternum.

N N. Fifth ribs.

O O. Collapsed lungs.

P P. Arching diaphragm.

Q.   Subclavian artery.

R.   Common carotid artery, at its division into internal and external

carotids.

S S. Great pectoral muscles.

T T. Lesser pectoral muscles.

U.   Mediastinal pleura of right side.

V.   Right auricle of the heart.

Plate 1

PLATE 2.

A. Right ventricle of the heart. A a. Pericardium.

B. Pulmonary artery. B b. Pericardium.

C. Ascending aorta. C c. Transverse aorta.

D. Right auricle.

E. Ductus arteriosus in the loop of left vagus nerve, and close to

phrenic nerve of left side.

F. Superior vena cava.

G. Brachio-cephalic vein of left side.

H. Left common carotid artery.

I. Left subclavian vein.

K. Lower end of left internal jugular vein.

L. Right internal jugular vein.

M. Right subclavian vein.

N. Innominate artery--brachio-cephalic.

O. Left subclavian artery crossed by left vagus nerve.

P. Right subclavian artery crossed by right vagus nerve, whose inferior

laryngeal branch loops under the vessel.

Q. Right common carotid artery

R. Trachea.

S. Thyroid body.

T. Brachial plexus of nerves.

U. Upper end of left internal jugular vein.

V V. Clavicles cut across and displaced downwards.

W W. The first ribs.

X X. Fifth ribs cut across.

Y Y. Right and left mammae.

Z.   Lower end of sternum.

Plate 2

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 3 & 4

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 3 & 4.

THE SURGICAL FORM OF THE SUPERFICIAL CERVICAL AND FACIAL

REGIONS, AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL

BLOOD-VESSELS, NERVES, &c.

When the neck is extended in surgical position, as seen in Plates 3 and

4, its general outline assumes a quadrilateral shape, approaching to a

square. The sides of this square are formed anteriorly by the line

ranging from the mental symphysis to the top of the sternum, and

posteriorly by a line drawn between the occiput and shoulder. The

superior side of this cervical square is drawn by the horizontal ramus

of the lower maxilla, and the inferior side by the horizontal line of

the clavicle. This square space, R 16, 8, 6, Plate 4, is halved by a

diagonal line, drawn by the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle B, which cuts

the square into two triangles. In the anterior triangle, F 16, 6, Plate

4, is located the superficial common carotid artery, C, and its

branches, D, with accompanying nerves. In the posterior triangle, 9, 8,

6, Plate 4, is placed the superficial subclavian artery, A, its

branches, L M, and the brachial plexus of nerves, I. Both these

triangles and their contents are completely sheathed by that thin

scarf-like muscle, named platysma myoides, A A, Plate 3, the fibres of

which traverse the neck slantingly in a line, O A, of diagonal direction

opposite to and secant of that of the sterno-mastoid muscle.

When the skin and subcutaneous adipose membrane are removed by careful

dissection from the cervical region, certain structures are exposed,

which, even in the undissected neck, projected on the superficies, and

are the unerring guides to the localities of the blood-vessels and

nerves, &c. In Plate 4, the top of the sternum, 6; the clavicle, 7; the

"Pomum Adami," 1; the lower maxilla at V; the hyoid bone, Z; the

sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, B; and the clavicular portion of the

trapezius muscle, 8; will readily be felt or otherwise recognised

through the skin, &c. When these several points are well considered in

their relation to one another, they will correctly determine the

relative locality of those structures--the blood-vessels, nerves, &c.,

which mainly concern the surgical operation.

The middle point, between 7, the clavicle, and 6, the sternum, of Plate

4, is marked by a small triangular space occurring between the

clavicular and sternal divisions of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle.

This space marks the situation (very generally) of the bifurcation of

the innominate artery into the subclavian and common carotid arteries of

the right side; a penetrating instrument would, if passed into this

space at an inch depth, pierce first the root of the internal jugular

vein, and under it, but somewhat internal, the root of either of these

great arterial vessels, and would wound the right vagus nerve, as it

traverses this region. For some extent after the subclavian and carotid

vessels separate from their main common trunk, they lie concealed

beneath the sterno-mastoid muscle, B, Plate 4, and still deeper beneath

the sternal origins of the sterno-hyoid muscle, 5, and sterno-thyroid

muscle, some of whose fibres are traceable at the intervals. The

omo-hyoid muscle and the deep cervical fascia, as will be presently seen,

conceal these vessels also.

The subclavian artery, A, Plate 4, first appears superficial to the

above-named muscles of the cervical region just at the point where,

passing from behind the scalenus muscle, N, Plate 4, which also conceals

it, it sinks behind the clavicle. The exact locality of the artery in

this part of its course would be indicated by a finger's breadth

external to the clavicular attachment of the sterno-mastoid muscle. The

artery passes beneath the clavicle at the middle of this bone, a point

which is indicated in most subjects by that cellular interval occurring

between the clavicular origins of the deltoid and great pectoral

muscles.

The posterior cervical triangle, 9, 8, 7, Plate 4, in which the

subclavian artery is situated, is again subdivided by the muscle

omo-hyoid into two lesser regions, each of which assumes somewhat of a

triangular shape. The lower one of these embraces the vessel, A, and

those nerves of the brachial plexus, I, which are in contact with it.

The posterior belly of the omo-hyoid muscle, K, and the anterior

scalenus muscle, N, form the sides and apex of this lesser triangular

space, while the horizontal clavicle forms its base. This region of the

subclavian artery is well defined in the necks of most subjects,

especially when the muscles are put in action. In lean but muscular

bodies, it is possible to feel the projection of the anterior scalenus

muscle under the skin, external to the sterno-mastoid. The form of the

omo-hyoid is also to be distinguished in the like bodies. But in all

subjects may be readily recognised that hollow which occurs above the

clavicle, and between the trapezius, 8, and the sterno cleido-mastoid, 7

B, in the centre of which hollow the artery lies.

The contents of the larger posterior cervical triangle, formed by B, the

sterno-mastoid before; 9, the splenius; and 8, the trapezius behind,

and by the clavicle below, are the following mentioned structures--viz.,

A, the subclavian artery, in the third part of its course, as it emerges

from behind N, the scalenus anticus; L, the transversalis colli artery,

a branch of the thyroid axis, which will be found to cross the

subclavian vessel at this region; I, the brachial plexus of nerves,

which lie external to and above the vessel; H, the external jugular

vein, which sometimes, in conjunction with a plexus of veins coming from

behind the trapezius muscle, entirely conceals the artery; M, the

posterior scapular artery, a branch of the subclavian, given off from

the vessel after it has passed from behind the scalenus muscle; O,

numerous lymphatic glands; P, superficial descending branches of the

cervical plexus of nerves; and Q, ascending superficial branches of the

same plexus. All these structures, except some of the lymphatic glands,

are concealed by the platysma myoides A, as seen in Plate 3, and beneath

this by the cervical fascia, which latter shall be hereafter more

clearly represented.

In somewhat the same mode as the posterior half of the omo-hyoid

subdivides the larger posterior triangle into two of lesser dimensions,

the anterior half of the same muscle divides the anterior triangle into

two of smaller capacity.

The great anterior triangle, which is marked as that space inclosed

within the points, 6, the top of the sternum, the mental symphysis and

the angle of the maxilla; and whose sides are marked by the median line

of the neck before, the sterno-mastoid behind, and the ramus of the jaw

above, contains C, the common carotid artery, becoming superficial from

beneath the sterno-mastoid muscle, and dividing into E, the internal

carotid, and D, the external carotid. The anterior jugular vein, 3, also

occupies this region below; while some venous branches, which join the

external and internal jugular veins, traverse it in all directions, and

present obstacles to the operator from their meshy plexiform arrangement

yielding, when divided, a profuse haemorrhage.

The precise locality at which the common carotid appears from under the

sterno-mastoid muscle is, in almost all instances, opposite to the

thyroid cartilage. At this place, if an incision, dividing the skin,

platysma and some superficial branches of nerves, be made along the

anterior border of the sterno-mastoid muscle, and this latter be turned

a little aside, a process of cervical fascia, and beneath it the sheath

of the carotid artery, will successionally disclose themselves. In many

bodies, however, some degree of careful search requires to be made prior

to the full exposure of the vessel in its sheath, in consequence of a

considerable quantity of adipose tissue, some lymphatic glands, and many

small veins lying in the immediate vicinity of the carotid artery and

internal jugular vein. This latter vessel, though usually lying

completely concealed by the sterno-mastoid muscle, is frequently to be

seen projecting from under its fore part. In emaciated bodies, where the

sterno-mastoid presents wasted proportions, it will, in consequence,

leave both the main blood-vessels uncovered at this locality in the

neck.

The common carotid artery ascends the cervical region almost

perpendicularly from opposite the sterno-clavicular articulation to the

greater cornu of the os hyoides. For the greater part of this extent it

is covered by the sterno-mastoid muscle; but as this latter takes an

oblique course backwards to its insertion into the mastoid process,

while the main blood-vessel dividing into branches still ascends in its

original direction, so is it that the artery becomes uncovered by the

muscle. Even the root of the internal carotid, E, may be readily reached

at this place, where it lies on the same plane as the external carotid,

but concealed in great part by the internal jugular vein. It would be

possible, while relaxing the sterno-mastoid muscle, to compress either

the common carotid artery or its main branches against the cervical

vertebral column, if pressure were made in a direction backwards and

inwards. The facial artery V, which springs from the external carotid,

D, may be compressed against the horizontal ramus of the lower jaw-bone

at the anterior border of the masseter muscle. The temporal artery, as

it ascends over the root of the zygoma, may be compressed effectually

against this bony point.

The external jugular vein, H, Plate 4, as it descends the neck from the

angle of the jaw obliquely backwards over the sterno-mastoid muscle, may

be easily compressed and opened in any part of its course. This vein

courses downwards upon the neck in relation to that branch of the

superficial cervical plexus, named auricularis magnus nerve, Q, Plate 4,

G, Plate 3. The nerve is generally situated behind the vein, to which it

lies sometimes in close proximity, and is liable, therefore, to be

accidentally injured in the performance of phlebotomy upon the external

jugular vein. The coats of the external jugular vein, E, Plate 3, are

said to hold connexion with some of the fibres of the platysma-myoides

muscle, A A, Plate 3, and that therefore, if the vessel be divided

transversely, the two orifices will remain patent for a time.

The position of the carotid artery protects the vessel, in some degree,

against the suicidal act, as generally attempted. The depth of the

incision necessary to reach the main blood-vessels from the fore part of

the neck is so considerable that the wound seldom effects more than the

opening of some part of the larynx. The ossified condition of the

thyroid and cricoid parts of the laryngeal apparatus affords a

protection to the vessels. The more oblique the incision happens to be,

the greater probability is there that the wound is comparatively

superficial, owing to the circumstance of the instrument having

encountered one or more parts of the hyo-laryngeal range; but woeful

chance sometimes directs the weapon horizontally through that membranous

interval between the thyroid and hyoid pieces, in which case, as also in

that where the laryngeal pieces persist permanently cartilaginous, the

resistance to the cutting instrument is much less.

The anatomical position of the parotid, H, Plate 3, and submaxillary

glands, W, Plate 4, is so important, that their extirpation, while in a

state of disease, will almost unavoidably concern other principal

structures. Whether the diseased parotid gland itself or a lymphatic

body lying in connexion with it, be the subject of operation, it seldom

happens that the temporo-maxillary branch of the external carotid, F,

escapes the knife. But an accident, much more liable to occur, and one

which produces a great inconvenience afterwards to the subject, is that

of dividing the portio-dura nerve, S, Plate 4, at its exit from the

stylo-mastoid foramen, the consequence being that almost all the muscles

of facial expression become paralyzed. The masseter, L, Plate 3,

pterygoid, buccinator, 15, Plate 4, and the facial fibres of the

platysma muscles, A O, Plate 3, still, however, preserve their power, as

these structures are innervated from a different source. The orbicularis

oculi muscle, which is principally supplied by the portio-dura nerve, is

paralyzed, though it still retains a partial power of contraction, owing

to the anatomical fact that some terminal twigs of the third or motor

pair of nerves of the orbit branch into this muscle.

The facial artery, V, and the facial vein, U, Plate 4, are in close

connexion with the submaxillary gland. Oftentimes they traverse the

substance of it. The lingual nerve and artery lie in some part of their

course immediately beneath the gland. The former two are generally

divided when the gland is excised; the latter two are liable to be

wounded in the same operation.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 3 & 4.

PLATE 3.

A A A. Subcutaneous platysma myoides muscle, lying on the face, neck,

and upper part of chest, and covering the structures contained

in the two surgical triangles of the neck.

B. Lip of the thyroid cartilage.

C. Clavicular attachment of the trapezius muscle.

D. Some lymphatic bodies of the post triangle.

E. External jugular vein.

F. Occipital artery, close to which are seen some branches of the

occipitalis minor nerve of the cervical plexus.

G. Auricularis magnus nerve of the superficial cervical plexus.

H. Parotid gland.

I. Temporal artery, with its accompanying vein.

K. Zygoma.

L. Masseter muscle, crossed by the parotid duct, and some fibres of

platysma.

M. Facial vein.

N. Buccinator muscle.

O. Facial artery seen through fibres of platysma.

P. Mastoid half of sterno-mastoid muscle.

Q. Locality beneath which the commencements of the subclavian and

carotid arteries lie.

R. Locality of the subclavian artery in the third part of its course.

S. Locality of the common carotid artery at its division into internal

and external carotids.

Plate 3

PLATE 4.

A.  Subclavian artery passing beneath the clavicle, where it is crossed

by some blood-vessels and nerves.

B.  Sternal attachment of the sterno-mastoid muscle, marking the

situation of the root of common carotid.

C.  Common carotid at its point of division, uncovered by sterno-mastoid.

D.  External carotid artery branching into lingual, facial, temporal,

and occipital arteries.

E.  Internal carotid artery.

F.  Temporo-maxillary branch of external carotid artery.

G.  Temporal artery and temporal vein, with some ascending temporal

branches of portio-dura nerve.

H.  External jugular vein descending from the angle of the jaw, where it

is formed by the union of temporal and maxillary veins.

I.  Brachial plexus of nerves in connexion with A, the subclavian

artery.

K.  Posterior half of the omo-hyoid muscle.

L.  Transversalis colli artery.

M.  Posterior scapular artery.

N.  Scalenus anticus muscle.

O.  Lymphatic bodies of the posterior triangle of neck.

P.  Superficial descending branches of the cervical plexus of nerves.

Q.  Auricularis magnus nerve ascending to join the portio-dura.

R.  Occipital artery, accompanied by its nerve, and also by some

branches of the occipitalis minor nerve, a branch of cervical plexus.

S.  Portio-dura, or motor division of seventh pair of cerebral nerves.

T.  Parotid duct.

U.  Facial vein.

V.  Facial artery.

W.  Submaxillary gland.

X.  Digastric muscle.

Y.  Lymphatic body.

Z.  Hyoid bone.

1.  Thyroid cartilage.

2.  Superior thyroid artery.

3.  Anterior jugular vein.

4.  Hyoid half of omo-hyoid muscle.

5.  Sterno-hyoid muscle.

6.  Top of the sternum.

7.  Clavicle.

8.  Trapezius muscle.

9.  Splenius capitis and colli muscle.

10. Occipital half of occipito-frontalis muscle.

11. Levator auris muscle.

12. Frontal half of occipito-frontalis muscle.

13. Orbicularis oculi muscle.

14. Zygomaticus major muscle.

15. Buccinator muscle.

16. Depressor anguli oris muscle.

(Page 16)

Plate 4

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 5 & 6

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 5 & 6.

THE SURGICAL FORM OF THE DEEP CERVICAL AND FACIAL REGIONS, AND

THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOODVESSELS AND

NERVES, &c.

While the human cervix is still extended in surgical position, its

deeper anatomical relations, viewed as a whole, preserve the

quadrilateral form. But as it is necessary to remove the

sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, in order to expose the entire range of the

greater bloodvessels and nerves, so the diagonal which that muscle

forms, as seen in Plates 3 and 4, disappears, and thus both the cervical

triangles are thrown into one common region. Although, however, the

sterno-mastoid muscle be removed, as seen in Plate 5, still the great

bloodvessels and nerves themselves will be observed to divide the

cervical square diagonally, as they ascend the neck from the

sterno-clavicular articulation to the ear.

The diagonal of every square figure is the junction line of the opposite

triangles which form the square. The cervical square being indicated as

that space which lies within the mastoid process and the top of the

sternum--the symphysis of the lower maxilla and the top of the shoulder,

it will be seen, in Plate 5, that the line which the common carotid and

internal jugular vein occupy in the neck, is the diagonal; and hence the

junction line of the two surgical triangles.

The general course of the common carotid artery and internal jugular

vein is, therefore, obliquely backwards and upwards through the diagonal

of the cervical square, and passing, as it were, from the point of one

angle of the square to that of the opposite--viz., from the

sterno-clavicular junction to the masto-maxillary space; and, taking the

anterior triangle of the cervical square to be that space included

within the points marked H 8 A, Plate 5, it will be seen that the common

carotid artery ranges along the posterior side of this anterior

triangle. Again: taking the points 5 Z Y to mark the posterior triangle

of the cervical square, so will it be seen that the internal jugular

vein and the common carotid artery, with the vagus nerve between them,

range the anterior side of this posterior triangle, while the subclavian

artery, Q, passes through the centre of the inferior side of the

posterior triangle, that is, under the middle of the shaft of the

clavicle.

The main blood vessels (apparently according to original design) will be

found always to occupy the centre of the animal fabric, and to seek

deep-seated protection under cover of the osseous skeleton. The

vertebrae of the neck, like those of the back and loins, support the

principal vessels. Even in the limbs the large bloodvessels range

alongside the protective shafts of the bones. The skeletal points are

therefore the safest guides to the precise localities of the

bloodvessels, and such points are always within the easy recognition of

touch and sight.

Close behind the right sterno-clavicular articulation, but separated

from it by the sternal insertions of the thin ribbon-like muscles named

sterno-hyoid and thyroid, together with the cervical fascia, is situated

the brachio-cephalic or innominate artery, A B, Plates 5 and 6, having

at its outer side the internal jugular division of the brachio-cephalic

vein, W K, Plate 5. Between these vessels lies the vagus nerve, E, Plate

6, N, Plate 5. The common carotid artery, internal jugular vein, and

vagus nerve, hold in respect to each other the same relationship in the

neck, as far upwards as the angle of the jaw. While we view the general

lateral outline of the neck, we find that, in the same measure as the

blood vessels ascend from the thorax to the skull, they recede from the

fore-part of the root of the neck to the angle of the jaw, whereby a

much greater interval occurs between them and the mental symphysis, or

the apex of the thyroid cartilage, than happens between them and the top

of the sternum, as they lie at the root of the neck. This variation as

to the width of the interval between the vessels and fore-part of the

neck, in these two situations, is owing to two causes, 1st, the somewhat

oblique course taken by the vessels from below upwards; 2dly, the

projecting development of the adult lower jaw-bone, and also of the

laryngeal apparatus, which latter organ, as it grows to larger

proportions in the male than in the female, will cause the interval at

this place to be much greater in the one than the other. In the infant,

the larynx is of such small size, as scarcely to stand out beyond the

level of the vessels, viewed laterally.

The internal jugular vein is for almost its entire length covered by the

sterno-mastoid muscle, and by that layer of the cervical aponeurosis

which lies between the vessels and the muscle. The two vessels, K C,

Plate 5, with the vagus nerve, are enclosed in a common sheath of

cellular membrane, which sends processes between them so as to isolate

the structures in some degree from one another.

The trunk of the common carotid artery is in close proximity to the

vagus nerve, this latter lying at the vessel's posterior side. The

internal jugular vein, which sometimes lies upon and covering the

carotid, will be found in general separated from it for a little space.

Opposite the os hyoides, the internal jugular vein lies closer to the

common carotid than it does farther down towards the root of the neck.

Opposite to the sterno-clavicular articulation, the internal jugular

vein will be seen separated from the common carotid for an interval of

an inch and more in width, and at this interval appears the root of the

subclavian artery, B, Plates 5 and 6, giving off its primary branches,

viz., the thyroid axis, D, the vertebral and internal mammary arteries,

at the first part of its course.

The length of the common carotid artery varies, of course, according to

the place where the innominate artery below divides, and also according

to that place whereat the common carotid itself divides into internal

and external carotids. In general, the length of the common carotid is

considerable, and ranges between the sterno-clavicular articulation and

the level of the os hyoides; throughout the whole of this length, it

seldom or never happens that a large arterial branch is given off from

the vessel, and the operation of ligaturing the common carotid is

therefore much more likely to answer the results required of that

proceeding than can be expected from the ligature of any part of the

subclavian artery which gives off large arterial branches from every

part of its course.

The sympathetic nerve, R, Plate 6, is as close to the carotid artery

behind, as the vagus nerve, N, Plate 5, and is as much endangered in

ligaturing this vessel. The branch of the ninth nerve, E, Plate 5,

(descendens noni,) lies upon the common carotid, itself or its sheath,

and is likely to be included in the ligature oftener than we are aware

of.

The trunk of the external carotid, D, Plate 5, is in all cases very

short, and in many bodies can scarcely be said to exist, in consequence

of the thyroid, lingual, facial, temporal, and occipital branches,

springing directly from almost the same point at which the common

carotid gives off the internal carotid artery. The internal carotid is

certainly the continuation of the common arterial trunk, while the

vessel named external carotid is only a series of its branches. If the

greater size of the internal carotid artery, compared to that of the

external carotid, be not sufficient to prove that the former is the

proper continuation of the common carotid, a fact may be drawn from

comparative philosophy which will put the question beyond doubt,

namely--that as the common carotid follows the line of the cervical

vertebrae, just as the aorta follows that of the vertebrae of the trunk,

so does the internal carotid follow the line of the cephalic vertebrae.

I liken, therefore, those branches of the so-called external carotid to

be, as it were, the visceral arteries of the face and neck. It would be

quite possible to demonstrate this point of analogy, were this the place

for analogical reasoning.

The common carotid, or the internal, may be compressed against the

rectus capitis anticus major muscle, 13, Plate 6, as it lies on the

fore-part of the vertebral column. The internal maxillary artery, 16,

Plate 6, and the facial artery, G, Plate 5, are those vessels which

bleed when the lower maxilla is amputated. In this operation, the

temporal artery, 15, Plate 6, will hardly escape being divided also, it

lies in such close proximity to the neck and condyle of the jaw-bone.

The subclavian artery, B Q, Plate 5, traverses the root of the neck, in

an arched direction from the sterno-clavicular articulation to the

middle of the shaft of the clavicle, beneath which it passes, being

destined for the arm. In general, this vessel rises to a level

considerably above the clavicle; and all that portion of the arching

course which it makes at this situation over the first rib has become

the subject of operation. The middle of this arching subclavian artery

is (by as much as the thickness of the scalenus muscle, X, Plate 5)

deeper situated than either extremity of the arch of this vessel, and

deeper also than any part of the common carotid, by the same fact. So

many branches spring from all parts of the arch of the subclavian

artery, that the operation of ligaturing this vessel is less successful

than the same operation exercised on others.

The structures which lie in connexion with the arch of the subclavian

also render the operation of tying the vessel an anxious task. It is

crossed and recrossed at all points by large veins, important nerves,

and by its own principal branches. The vagus nerve, S E, Plate 6,

crosses it at B, its root; external to which place the large internal

jugular vein, K, Plate 5, lies upon it; external to this latter, the

scalenus muscle, X, Plate 5, with the phrenic nerve lying upon the

muscle, binds it fixedly to the first rib; more external still, the

common trunk of the external jugular and shoulder veins, U, Plate 5, lie

upon the vessel, and it is in the immediate vicinity of the great

brachial plexus of nerves, P P, which pass down along its humeral

border, many branches of the same plexus sometimes crossing it

anteriorly.

The depth at which the middle of the subclavian artery lies may be

learned by the space which those structures, beneath which it passes,

necessarily occupy. The clavicle at its sternal end is round and thick,

where it gives attachment to the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle. The root

of the internal jugular vein, when injected, will be seen to occupy

considerable space behind the clavicle; and the anterior scalenus muscle

is substantial and fleshy. The united spaces occupied by these

structures give the depth of the subclavian artery in the middle part of

its course.

The length of the subclavian artery between its point of branching from

the innominate and that where it gives off its first branches varies in

different bodies, but is seldom so extensive as to assure the operator

of the ultimate success of the process of ligaturing the vessel. Above

and below D, Plate 6, the thyroid axis, come off the vertebral and

internal mammary arteries internal and anterior to the scalenus muscle.

External and posterior to the scalenus, a large vessel, the post

scapular, G, Plate 6, R, Plate 5, arises. If an aneurism attack any part

of this subclavian arch, it must be in close connexion with some one of

these branches. If a ligature is to be applied to any part of the arch,

it will seldom happen that it can be placed farther than half an inch

from some of these principal collateral branches.

When the shoulder is depressed, the clavicle follows it, and the

subclavian artery will be more exposed and more easily reached than if

the shoulder be elevated, as this latter movement raises the clavicle

over the locality of the vessel. Dupuytren alludes practically to the

different depths of the subclavian artery in subjects with short necks

and high shoulders, and those with long necks and pendent shoulders.

When the clavicle is depressed to the fullest extent, if then the

sterno-cleido-mastoid and scalenus muscles be relaxed by inclining the

head and neck towards the artery, I believe it may be possible to arrest

the flow of blood through the artery by compressing it against the first

rib, and this position will also facilitate the operation of ligaturing

the vessel.

The subclavian vein, W, Plate 5, is removed to some distance from the

artery, Q, Plate 5. The width of the scalenus muscle, X, separates the

vein from the artery. An instance is recorded by Blandin in which the

vein passed in company with the artery under the scalenus muscle.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 5 & 6.

PLATE 5.

A.  Innominate artery at its point of bifurcation.

B.  Subclavian artery crossed by the vagus nerve.

C.  Common carotid artery with the vagus nerve at its outer side, and

the descendens noni nerve lying on it.

D.  External carotid artery.

E.  Internal carotid artery with the descendens noni nerve lying on it.

F.  Lingual artery passing under the fibres of the hyo-glossus muscle.

G.  Tortuous facial artery.

H.  Temporo-maxillary artery.

I.  Occipital artery crossing the internal carotid artery and jugular

vein.

K.  Internal jugular vein crossed by some branches of the cervical

plexus, which join the descendens noni nerve.

L.  Spinal accessory nerve, which pierces the sterno-mastoid muscle, to

be distributed to it and the trapezius.

M.  Cervical plexus of nerves giving off the phrenic nerve to descend

the neck on the outer side of the internal jugular vein and over the

scalenus muscle.

N.  Vagus nerve between the carotid artery and internal jugular vein.

O.  Ninth or hypoglossal nerve distributed to the muscles of the tongue.

P P. Branches of the brachial plexus of nerves.

Q.  Subclavian artery in connexion with the brachial plexus of nerves.

R R. Post scapular artery passing through the brachial plexus.

S.  Transversalis humeri artery.

T.  Transversalis colli artery.

U.  Union of the post scapular and external jugular veins, which enter

the subclavian vein by a common trunk.

V.  Post-half of the omo-hyoid muscle.

W.  Part of the subclavian vein seen above the clavicle.

X.  Scalenus muscle separating the subclavian artery from vein.

Y.  Clavicle.

Z.  Trapezius muscle.

1.  Sternal origin of sterno-mastoid muscle of left side.

2.  Clavicular origin of sterno-mastoid muscle of right side turned

down.

3.  Scalenus posticus muscle.

4.  Splenius muscle.

5.  Mastoid insertion of sterno-mastoid muscle.

6.  Internal maxillary artery passing behind the neck of lower jaw-bone.

7.  Parotid duct.

8.  Genio-hyoid muscle.

9.  Mylo-hyoid muscle, cut and turned aside.

10. Superior thyroid artery.

11. Anterior half of omo-hyoid muscle.

12. Sterno-hyoid muscle, cut.

13. Sterno-thyroid muscle, cut.

Plate 5

PLATE 6.

A.  Root of the common carotid artery.

B.  Subclavian artery at its origin.

C.  Trachea.

D.  Thyroid axis of the subclavian artery.

E.  Vagus nerve crossing the origin of subclavian artery.

F.  Subclavian artery at the third division of its arch.

G.  Post scapular branch of the subclavian artery.

H.  Transversalis humeri branch of subclavian artery.

I.  Transversalis colli branch of subclavian artery.

K.  Posterior belly of omo-hyoid muscle, cut.

L.  Median nerve branch of brachial plexus.

M.  Musculo-spiral branch of same plexus.

N.  Anterior scalenus muscle.

O.  Cervical plexus giving off the phrenic nerve, which takes tributary

branches from brachial plexus of nerves.

P.  Upper part of internal jugular vein.

Q.  Upper part of internal carotid artery.

R.  Superior cervical ganglion of sympathetic nerve.

S.  Vagus nerve lying external to sympathetic nerve, and giving off t

its laryngeal branch.

T.  Superior thyroid artery.

U.  Lingual artery separated by hyo-glossus muscle from

V.  Lingual or ninth cerebral nerve.

W.  Sublingual salivary gland.

X.  Genio-hyoid muscle.

Y.  Mylo-hyoid muscle, cut and turned aside.

Z.  Thyroid cartilage.

1.  Upper part of sterno-hyoid muscle.

2.  Upper part of omo-hyoid muscle.

3.  Inferior constrictor of pharynx.

4.  Cricoid cartilage.

5.  Crico-thyroid muscle.

6.  Thyroid body.

7.  Inferior thyroid artery of thyroid axis.

8.  Sternal tendon of sterno-mastoid muscle, turned down.

9.  Clavicular portion of sterno-mastoid muscle, turned down.

10. Clavicle.

11. Trapezius muscle.

12. Scalenus posticus muscle.

13. Rectus capitis anticus major muscle.

14. Stylo-hyoid muscle, turned aside.

15. Temporal artery.

16. Internal maxillary artery.

17. Inferior dental branch of fifth pair of cerebral nerves.

18. Gustatory branch of fifth pair of nerves.

19. External pterygoid muscle.

20. Internal pterygoid muscle.

21. Temporal muscle cut to show the deep temporal branches of fifth pair

of nerves.

22. Zygomatic arch.

23. Buccinator muscle, with buccal nerve and parotid duct.

24. Masseter muscle cut on the lower maxilla.

25. Middle constrictor of pharynx.

Plate 6

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 7 & 8

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 7 & 8.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE SUBCLAVIAN AND CAROTID REGIONS,

THE RELATIVE ANATOMY OF THEIR CONTENTS.

A perfect knowledge of the relative anatomy of any of the surgical

regions of the body must include an acquaintance with the superposition

of parts contained in each region, as well as the plane relationship of

organs which hold the same level in each layer or anatomical stratum.

The dissections in Plates 7 and 8 exhibit both these modes of relation.

A portion of each of those superficial layers, which it was necessary to

divide, in order to expose a deeper organ, has been left holding its

natural level. Thus the order of superposition taken by the integument,

the fasciae, the muscles, bones, veins, nerves, and arteries, which

occupy both the surgical triangles of the neck, will be readily

recognised in the opposite Plates.

The depth of a bloodvessel or other organ from surface will vary for

many reasons, even though the same parts in the natural order of

superposition shall overlie the whole length of the vessel or organ

which we make search for. The principal of those reasons are:--1st, that

the stratified organs themselves vary in thickness at several places;

2d, that the organ or vessel which we seek will itself incline to

surface from deeper levels occupied elsewhere; 3d, that the normal

undulations of surface will vary the depth of the particular vessels,

&c.; and 4th, that the natural mobility of the superimposed parts will

allow them to change place in some measure, and consequently influence

the relative position of the object of search. On this account it is

that the surgical anatomist chooses to give a fixed position to the

subject about to be operated on, in order to reduce the number of these

difficulties as much as possible.

In Plate 7 will be seen the surgical relationship of parts lying in the

vicinity of the common carotid artery, at the point of its bifurcation

into external and internal carotids. At this locality, the vessel will

be found, in general, subjacent to the following mentioned structures,

numbered from the superficies to its own level--viz., the common

integument and subcutaneous adipose membrane, which will vary in

thickness in several individuals; next, the platysma myoides muscle, F

L, which is identified with the superficial fascia, investing the outer

surface of the sterno-mastoid muscle; next, the deeper layer of the same

fascia, R S., which passes beneath the sterno-mastoid muscle, but over

the sheath of the vessels; and next, the sheath of the vessels, Q, which

invests them and isolates them from adjacent structures. Though the

vessel lies deeper than the level of the sterno-mastoid muscle at this

locality, yet it is not covered by the muscle in the same manner, as it

is lower down in the neck. At this place, therefore, though the actual

depth of the artery from surface will be the same, whether it be covered

or uncovered by the sterno-mastoid muscle, still we know that the

locality of the vessel relative to the parts actually superimposed will

vary accordingly. This observation will apply to the situation and

relative position of all the other vessels as well. Other occurrences

will vary the relations of the artery in regard to superjacent

structures, though the actual depth of the vessel from surface may be

the same. If the internal jugular vein covers the carotid artery, as it

sometimes does, or if a plexus of veins, gathering from the fore-part of

the neck or face, overlie the vessel, or if a chain of lymphatic bodies

be arranged upon it, as is frequently the case, the knowledge of such

occurrences will guard the judgment against being led into error by the

conventionalities of the descriptive method of anatomists. The normal

relative anatomy of the bloodvessels is taken by anatomists to be the

more frequent disposition of their main trunks and branches, considered

per se, and in connexion with neighbouring parts. But it will be seen by

this avowal that those vessels are liable to many various conditions;

and such is the case, in fact. No anatomist can pronounce with exactness

the precise figure of vessels or other organs while they lie concealed

beneath the surface. An approach to truth is all that the best

experience can boast of. The form and relations of the carotid vessels

of Plate 7 may or may not be the same as those concealed beneath the

same region of Plate 8, at the point R.

The motions of the head upon the neck, or of the neck upon the trunk,

will influence the relative position of the vessels A C B, of Plate 7,

and therefore we take a fixed surgical position, in the expectation of

finding that the carotid artery projects from under the anterior border

of the upper third of the sterno-mastoid muscle, opposite the upper

border of the thyroid cartilage; at this situation of the vessels, viz.,

R, Plate 8, opposite O, the thyroid projection, is in general to be

found the anatomical relation of the vessels as they appear dissected in

Plate 7. Of these vessels, the main trunks are less liable to anomalous

character than the minor branches.

The relative position of the subclavian artery is as liable to be

influenced by the motions of the clavicle on the sternum, as that of the

carotid is by the motions of the lower jaw-bone on the skull, or by the

larynx, in its own motions at the fore-part of the neck. It becomes as

necessary, therefore, in the performance of surgical operations upon the

subclavian artery, to fix the clavicle by depressing it, as in Plate 8,

as it is to give fixity to the lower maxilla and larynx, in the position

of Plate 7, when the carotid is the subject of operation.

The same named structures, but different as to their parts, will be

found to overlie the subclavian artery as are found to conceal the

carotid artery. The skin, the fascia, and platysma muscle, the

sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, the deep layer of the cervical fascia,

&c., cover both vessels. One additional muscle binds down the subclavian

artery, viz., the scalenus anticus. The omo-hyoid relates to both

vessels, the anterior division to the carotid, the posterior to the

subclavian.

The carotid artery lies uncovered by the sterno-mastoid muscle, opposite

to the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, or the hyoid bone; and the

subclavian artery emerges from under cover of a different part of the

same muscle, opposite the middle of the clavicle. These points of

relationship to the skeletal parts can be ascertained by the touch, in

both instances, even in the undissected body. The thyroid point, O, of

Plate 8, indicates the line, R N, which the carotid artery traverses in

the same figure, along the anterior border of the sterno-mastoid muscle,

as seen in the dissected region of Plate 7. The mid-point of the

clavicle, U, Plate 7, and the top of the sternum in the same figure,

will, while the eye follows the arching line, Z X T V, indicate with

correctness the arching course of the subclavian, such as is represented

in the dissection of that vessel, B, Plate 8.

The subclavian artery has no special sheath, properly so called; but the

deep layer of the cervical fascia, P, Plate 8, which passes under A, the

clavicular portion of the sterno-mastoid muscle, and becomes of

considerable thickness and density, sheaths over the vessel in this

region of its course.

A very complex condition of the veins which join the external jugular at

this part of the course of the subclavian artery is now and then to be

found overlying that vessel. If the hemorrhage consequent upon the

opening of these veins, or that of the external jugular, be so profuse

as to impede the operation of ligaturing the subclavian artery, it may

in some measure be arrested by compressing them against the resisting

parts adjacent, when the operator, feeling for D, the scalenus muscle,

and the first rib to which it is attached, cannot fail to alight upon

the main artery itself, B, Plate 8.

The middle of the shaft of the clavicle is a much safer guide to the

vessel than are the muscles which contribute to form this posterior

triangle of the neck, in which the subclavian vessel is located. The

form or position of the clavicle in the depressed condition of the

shoulder, as seen in Plate 8, is invariable; whereas that of the

trapezius and sterno-mastoid muscles is inconstant, these muscles being

found to stand at unequal intervals from each other in several bodies.

The space between the insertions of both these muscles is indefinite,

and may vary in degrees of width from the whole length of the clavicle

to half an inch; or, as in some instances, leaving no interval whatever.

The position of the omo-hyoid muscle will not be accounted a sure guide

to the locality of the subclavian artery, since, in fact, it varies

considerably as to its relationship with that vessel. The tense cords of

the brachial plexus of nerves, F, Plate 8, which will be found, for the

most part, ranging along the acromial border of the artery, are a much

surer guide to the vessel.

On comparing the subclavian artery, at B, Plate 8, with the common

carotid artery, at A, Plate 7, I believe that the former will be found

to exhibit, on the whole a greater constancy in respect to the

following-mentioned condition--viz., a single main arterial trunk arches

over the first rib to pass beneath the middle of the clavicle, while the

carotid artery opposite the thyroid piece of the larynx is by no means

constantly single as a common carotid trunk. The place of division of

the common carotid is not definite, and, therefore, the precise

situation in the upper two-thirds of the neck, where it may present as a

single main vessel, cannot be predicted with certainty in the

undissected body. There is no other main artery of the body more liable

to variation than that known as external carotid. It is subject to as

many changes of character in respect to the place of its branching from

the common carotid, and also in regard to the number of its own

branches, as any of the lesser arteries of the system. It is but as an

aggregate of the branches of that main arterial trunk which ranges from

the carotid foramen of the temporal bone to the aorta; and, as a branch

of a larger vessel, it is, therefore, liable to spring from various

places of the principal trunk, just as we find to be the case with all

the other minor branches of the larger arteries. Its name, external

carotid, is as unfittingly applied to it, in comparison with the vessel

from which it springs, as the name external subclavian would be if

applied to the thyroid axis of the larger subclavian vessel. The

nomenclature of surgical anatomy does not, however, court a

philosophical inquiry into that propriety of speech which comparative

science demands, nor is it supposed to be necessary in a practical point

of view.

It will, however, sound more euphoneously with reason, and at the same

time, I believe, be found not altogether unrelated to the useful, if,

when such conditions as the "anomalies of form" present themselves, we

can advance an interpretation of the same, in addition to the dry record

of them as isolated facts. Comparative anatomy, which alone can furnish

these interpretations, will therefore prove to be no alien to the

practical, while it may lend explanation to those bizarreries which

impede the way of the anthropotomist. All the anomalies of form, both as

regards the vascular, the muscular, and the osseous systems of the human

body, are analyzed by comparison through the animal series. Numerous

cases are on record of the subclavian artery being found complicated

with supernumerary ribs jutting from the 5th, 6th, or 7th cervical

vertebrae. [Footnote] To these I shall add another, in respect of the

carotid arteries--viz., that I have found them complicated with an

osseous shaft of bone, taking place of the stylo-hyoid ligament, a

condition which obtains permanently in the ruminant and other classes of

mammals.

[Footnote: I have given an explanation of these facts in my work on

Comparative Osteology and the Archetype Skeleton, to which, and also to

Professor Owen's work, entitled Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton, I

refer the reader.]

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 7 & 8.

PLATE 7.

A. Common carotid at its place of division.

B. External carotid.

C. Internal carotid, with the descending branch of the ninth nerve lying

on it.

D. Facial vein entering the internal jugular vein.

E. Sterno-mastoid muscle, covered by

F. Part of the platysma muscle.

G. External jugular vein.

H. Parotid gland, sheathed over by the cervical fascia.

I. Facial vein and artery seen beneath the facial fibres of the platysma.

K. Submaxillary salivary gland.

L. Upper part of the platysma muscle cut.

M. Cervical fascia cut.

N. Sterno-hyoid muscle.

O. Omo-hyoid muscle.

P. Sterno-thyroid muscle.

Q. Fascia proper of the vessels.

R. Layer of the cervical fascia beneath the sterno-mastoid muscle.

S. Portion of the same fascia.

T. External jugular vein injected beneath the skin.

U. Clavicle at the mid-point, where the subclavian artery passes

beneath it.

V. Locality of the subclavian artery in the third part of its course.

W. Prominence of the trapezius muscle.

X. Prominence of the clavicular portion of the sterno-cleido-mastoid

muscle.

Y. Place indicating the interval between the clavicular and sternal

insertions of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle.

Z. Projection of the sternal portion of the sterno-cleido-mastoid

muscle.

Plate 7

PLATE 8.

A. Clavicular attachment of the sterno-mastoid muscle lying over the

internal jugular vein, &c.

B. Subclavian artery in the third part of its course.

C. Vein formed by the union of external jugular, scapular, and other

veins.

D. Scalenus anticus muscle stretching over the artery, and separating it

from the internal jugular vein.

E. Post-half of omo-hyoid muscle.

F. Inner branches of the brachial plexus of nerves.

G. Clavicular portion of trapezius muscle.

H. Transversalis colli artery.

I. Layer of the cervical fascia, which invests the sterno-mastoid and

trapezius muscles.

K. Lymphatic bodies lying between two layers of the cervical fascia.

L. Descending superficial branches of the cervical plexus of nerves.

M. External jugular vein seen under the fascia which invests the

sterno-mastoid muscle.

N. Platysma muscle cut on the body of sterno-mastoid muscle.

O. Projection of the thyroid cartilage.

P. Layer of the cervical fascia lying beneath the clavicular portion of

the sterno-mastoid muscle.

Q. Layer of the cervical fascia continued from the last over the

subclavian artery and brachial plexus of nerves.

Plate 8

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 9 & 10

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 9 & 10.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE STERNO-CLAVICULAR OR TRACHEAL

REGION, AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF ITS MAIN BLOODVESSELS,

NERVES, &c.

The law of symmetry governs the development of all structures which

compose the human body; and all organized beings throughout the animal

kingdom are produced in obedience to this law. The general median line

of the human body is characterized as the point of fusion of the two

sides; and all structures or organs which range this common centre are

either symmetrically azygos, or symmetrically duplex. The azygos organ

presents as a symmetrical unity, and the duplex organ as a symmetrical

duality. The surgical anatomist takes a studious observation of this law

of symmetry; and knowing it to be one of general and almost

unexceptional occurrence, he practises according to its manifestation.

The vascular as well as the osseous skeleton displays the law of

symmetry; but while the osseous system offers no exception to this law,

the vascular system offers one which, in a surgical point of view, is of

considerable importance--namely, that behind the right sterno-clavicular

articulation, C, Plate 9, is found the artery, A, named innominate, this

being the common trunk of the right common carotid and subclavian

vessels; while on the left side, behind the left sterno-clavicular

junction, Q, Plate 10, the two vessels (subclavian, B, and carotid, A,)

spring separately from the aortic arch. This fact of asymmetrical

arrangement in the arterial trunks at the fore part of the root of the

neck is not, however, of invariable occurrence; on the contrary,

numerous instances are observed where the arteries in question, on the

right side as well as the left, arise separately from the aorta; and

thus Nature reverts to the original condition of perfect symmetry as

governing the development of even the vascular skeleton. And not

unfrequently, as if to invite us to the inquiry whether a separate

origin of the four vessels (subclavian and carotid) from the aorta, or a

double innominate condition of the vessels, were the original form with

Nature, we find her also presenting this latter arrangement of them. An

innominate or common aortic origin may happen for the carotid and

subclavian arteries of the left side, as well as the right. Hence,

therefore, while experience may arm the judgment with a general rule,

such generality should not render us unmindful of the possible

exception.

When, as in Plate 9, A, the innominate artery rises to a level with C,

the right sterno-clavicular junction, and when at this place it

bifurcates, having on its left side, D, the trachea, and on its right

side, B, the root of the internal jugular vein, together with a, the

vagus nerve, the arterial vessel is said to be of normal character, and

holding a normal position relative to adjacent organs. When, as in Plate

10, A, the common carotid, and B, the subclavian artery, rise separately

from the aortic arch to a level with Q, the left sterno-clavicular

articulation, the vessels having M, the trachea, to their inner side,

and  C D, the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins, to

their outer side, with b, the left vagus nerve, between them, then the

arterial vessels are accounted as being of normal character, and as

holding a normal relative position. Every exception to this condition of

A, Plate 9, or to that of A B, Plate 10, is said to be abnormal or

peculiar, and merely because the disposition of the vessels, as seen in

Plates 9 and 10, is taken to be general or of more frequent occurrence.

Now, though it is not my present purpose to burden this subject of

regional anatomy with any lengthy inquiry into the comparative meaning

of the facts, why a common innominate trunk should occur on the right of

the median line, while separate arterial trunks for the carotid and

subclavian arteries should spring from the aorta on the left of this

mid-line, thus making a remarkable exception to the rule of symmetry

which characterizes all the arterial vessels elsewhere, still I cannot

but regard this exceptional fact of asymmetry as in itself expressing a

question by no means foreign to the interests of the practical.

In the abstract or general survey of all those peculiarities of length

to which the innominate artery, A, Plate 9, is subject, I here lay it

down as a proposition, that they occur as graduated phases of the

bicleavage of this innominate trunk from the level of A, to the aortic

arch, in which latter phasis the aorta gives a separate origin to the

carotid and subclavian vessels of the right side as well as the left. On

the other hand, I observe that the peculiarities to the normal separate

condition of A and B, the carotid and subclavian arteries of Plate 10,

display, in the relationary aggregate, a phasial gradation of A and B

joining into a common trunk union, in which state we then find the aorta

giving origin to a right and left innominate artery. Between these two

forms of development--viz., that where the four vessels spring

separately from the aortic arch, and that where two innominate or

brachio-cephalic arteries arise from the same--may be read all the sum

of variation to which these vessels are liable. It is true that there

are some states of these vessels which cannot be said to be naturally

embraced in the above generalization; but though I doubt not that these

might be encompassed in a higher generalization; still, for all

practical ends, the lesser general rule is all-sufficient.

In many instances, the innominate artery, A, Plate 9, is of such

extraordinary length, that it rises considerably (for an inch, or even

more) above the level of C, the sternal end of the clavicle. In other

cases, the innominate artery bifurcates soon after it leaves the first

part of the aortic arch; and between these extremes as to length, the

vessel varies infinitesimally.

The innominate artery lies closer behind the right sterno-clavicular

junction than the left carotid or subclavian arteries lie in relation to

the left sterno-clavicular articulation; and this difference of depth

between the vessel of the right side and those of the left is mainly

owing to the form and direction of the aortic arch from which they take

origin. The aortic arch ranges, not alone transversely, but also from

before backward, and to the left side of the dorsal spine; and

consequently, as the innominate artery, A, Plate 9, springs from the

first or fore part of the aorta, while the left carotid and subclavian

arteries arise from the second and deeper part of its arch, the vessels

of both sides rising into the neck perpendicularly from the root in the

thorax, will still, in the cervical region, manifest a considerable

difference as to antero-posterior depth. The depth of the left

subclavian artery, B, Plate 10, from cervical surface, is even greater

than that of the left common carotid, A, Plate 10, and this latter, at

its root in the aortic arch, is deeper than the innominate artery. Both

common carotids, A A, Plates 9 and 10, hold nearly the same

antero-posterior depth on either side of the trachea, M, Plate 10, and

D, Plate 9. Although the relative depth of the arterial vessels on both

sides of the trachea is different, still they are covered by an equal

number of identical structures, taking the same order of superposition.

On either side of the episternal cervical pit, which, even in the

undissected body of male or female, infant or adult, is always a

well-marked surgical feature, may be readily recognised the converging

sternal attachments of the sterno-mastoid muscles, L G, Plate 10; and

midway between these symmetrical muscular prominences in the neck, but

holding a deeper level than them, is situated that part of the trachea

which is generally the subject of the operation of tracheotomy. The

relative anatomy of the trachea, M, Plate 10, D, Plate 9, at this

situation requires therefore to be carefully considered. The trachea is

said to incline rather to the right side of the median line; but perhaps

this observation would be more true to nature if it were accompanied by

the remark, that this seeming inclination to the right side is owing to

the fact, that the innominate artery, A, Plate 9, lies obliquely over

its fore part, near the sternum. However this may be, it certainly will

be the safer step in the operation to regard the median position of the

trachea as fixed, than to encroach upon the locality of the carotid

vessels; and to make the incision longitudinally and exactly through the

median line, while the neck is extended backwards, and the chin made to

correspond with the line of incision. And when the operator takes into

consideration the situation of the vessel A, Plate 9, and A, Plate 10,

at this region of the neck, he will at once own to the necessity of

opening the trachea, D, Plate 9, M, Plate 10, at a situation nearer the

larynx than the point marked in the figures. The course taken by the

common carotid arteries is, in respect to the trachea, divergent from

below upwards; and as these vessels will consequently be found to stand

wider apart at the level of K, I, Plate 10, than they do at the level of

M, Plate 10, so the farther upwards from the sternum we choose the point

at which to open the trachea, the less likely are we to endanger the

great arterial vessels.

In addition to the fact, that the carotid arteries at an inch above the

sternum lie nearer the median line than they do higher up in the neck,

it should always be remembered, that the trachea itself is situated much

deeper at the point M, Plate 10, D, Plate 9, than it is opposite the

points F and K of the same figures. The laryngo-tracheal line is, in the

lateral view of the neck, downwards and backwards, and therefore it will

be found always at a considerable depth from cervical surface, as it

passes behind the first bone of the sternum, midway between both

sterno-mastoid muscles.

In the operation of tracheotomy, the cutting instrument divides the

following named structures as they lie beneath the common integument: If

the incision be made directly upon the median line, the muscles F,

sterno-hyoid, and E, sterno-thyroid, Plate 9, are not necessarily

divided, as these structures and their fellows hold a somewhat lateral

position opposite to each other. Beneath these muscles and above them,

thus encasing them, the cervical fascia, f f, Plate 10, is required to

be divided, in order to expose the trachea. Beneath f f the cervical

fascia, will next be felt the rounded bilobed mass of the thyroid body,

lying on the forepart of the trachea; above the thyroid body, the

cricoid and some tracheal cartilaginous rings will be felt; and since

the thyroid body varies much as to bulk in several individuals of the

same and different sexes, as also from a consideration that its

substance is traversed by large arterial and venous vessels, it will be

therefore preferable to open the trachea above it, than through it or

below it.

On the forepart of the tracheal median line, either superficial to, or

deeper than, the cervical fascia, the tracheotomist occasionally meets

with a chain of lymphatic glands or a plexus of veins, which latter,

when divided, will trammel the operation by the copious haemorrhage

which all veins at this region of the neck are prone to supply, owing to

their direct communication with the main venous trunks of the heart; and

not unfrequently the inferior thyroid artery overlies the trachea at the

point D, Plate 9, when this thyroid vessel arises directly from the arch

of the aorta, between the roots of the innominate and left common

carotid, or when it springs from the innominate itself. The inferior

thyroid vein, sometimes single and sometimes double, overlies the

trachea at the point D, Plate 9, when this vein opens into the left

innominate venous trunk, as this latter crosses over the root of the

main arteries springing from the aorta.

Laryngotomy is, anatomically considered, a far less dangerous operation

than tracheotomy, for the above-named reasons; and the former should

always be preferred when particular circumstances do not render the

latter operation absolutely necessary. In addition to the fact, that the

carotid arteries lie farther apart from each other and from the median

place--viz., the crico-thyroid interval, which is the seat of

laryngotomy--than they do lower down on either side of the trachea, it

should also be noticed that the tracheal tube being more moveable than

the larynx, is hence more liable to swerve from the cutting instrument,

and implicate the vessels. Tracheotomy on the infant is a far more

anxious proceeding than the same operation performed on the adult;

because the trachea in the infant's body lies more closely within the

embrace of the carotid arteries, is less in diameter, shorter, and more

mobile than in the adult body.

The episternal or interclavicular region is a locality traversed by so

many vitally important structures gathered together in a very limited

space, that all operations which concern this region require more steady

caution and anatomical knowledge than most surgeons are bold enough to

test their possession of. The reader will (on comparing Plates 9 and 10)

be enabled to take account of those structures which it is necessary to

divide in the operation required for ligaturing the innominate artery,

A, Plate 9, or either of those main arterial vessels (the right common

carotid and subclavian) which spring from it; and he will also observe

that, although the same number and kind of structures overlie the

carotid and subclavian vessels, A B, of the left side, Plate 10, still,

that these vessels themselves, in consequence of their separate

condition, will materially influence the like operation in respect to

them. An aneurism occurring in the first part of the course of the right

subclavian artery, at the locality a, Plate 9, will lie so close to the

origin of the right common carotid as to require a ligature to be passed

around the innominate common trunk, thus cutting off the flow of blood

from both vessels; whereas an aneurism implicating either the left

common carotid at the point A, or the left subclavian artery at the

point B, does not, of course, require that both vessels should be

included in the same ligature. There seems to be, therefore, a greater

probability of effectually treating an aneurism of the left

brachio-cephalic vessels by ligature than attaches to those of the right

side; for if space between collateral branches, and also a lesser

caliber of arterial trunk, be advantages, allowing the ligature to hold

more firmly, then the vessels of the left side of the root of the neck

manifest these advantages more frequently than those of the right, which

spring from a common trunk. Whenever, therefore, the "peculiarity" of a

separate aortic origin of the right carotid and subclavian arteries

occurs, it is to be regarded more as a happy advantage than otherwise.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 9 & 10.

PLATE 9.

A. Innominate artery, at its point of bifurcation.

B. Right internal jugular vein, joining the subclavian vein.

C. Sternal end of the right clavicle.

D. Trachea.

E. Right sterno-thyroid muscle, cut.

F. Right sterno-hyoid muscle, cut.

G. Right sterno-mastoid muscle, cut.

a. Right vagus nerve, crossing the subclavian artery.

b. Anterior jugular vein, piercing the cervical fascia to join the

subclavian vein.

Plate 9

PLATE 10.

A. Common carotid artery of left side.

B. Left subclavian artery, having b, the vagus nerve, between it and A.

C. Lower end of left internal jugular vein, joining--

D. Left subclavian vein, which lies anterior to d, the scalenus anticus

muscle.

E. Anterior jugular vein, coursing beneath sterno-mastoid muscle and

over the fascia.

F. Deep cervical fascia, enclosing in its layers f f f, the several

muscles.

G. Left sterno-mastoid muscle, cut across, and separated from g g, its

sternal and clavicular attachments.

H. Left sterno-hyoid muscle, cut.

I. Left sterno-thyroid muscle, cut.

K. Right sterno-hyoid muscle.

L. Right sterno-mastoid muscle.

M. Trachea.

N. Projection of the thyroid cartilage.

O. Place of division of common carotid.

P. Place where the subclavian artery passes beneath the clavicle.

Q. Sternal end of the left clavicle.

Plate 10

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 11 & 12

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 11 & 12.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE AXILLARY AND BRACHIAL REGIONS,

DISPLAYING THE RELATIVE ORDER OF THEIR CONTAINED PARTS.

All surgical regions have only artificial boundaries; and these, as

might be expected, do not express the same meaning while viewed from

more points than one. These very boundaries themselves, being moveable

parts, must accordingly influence the relative position of the

structures which they bound, and thus either include within or exclude

from the particular region those structures wholly or in part which are

said to be proper to it. Of this kind of conventional surgical boundary

the moveable clavicle is an example; and the bloodvessels which it

overarches manifest consequently neither termination nor origin except

artificially from the fixed position which the bone, R, assumes, as in

Plate 11, or c*, Plate 12. In this position of the arm in relation to

the trunk, the subclavian artery, B, terminates at the point where,

properly speaking, it first takes its name; and from this point to the

posterior fold of the axilla formed by the latissimus dorsi muscle, O,

Plate 11, N, Plate 12, and the anterior fold formed by the great

pectoral muscle, K, Plate 11, I, Plate 12, the continuation of the

subclavian artery is named axillary. From the posterior fold of the

axilla, O P, Plate 11, to the bend of the elbow, the same main vessels

take the name of brachial.

When the axillary space is cut into from the forepart through the great

pectoral muscle, H K, Plate 11, and beneath this through the lesser

pectoral muscle, L I, together with the fascial processes which invest

these muscles anteriorly and posteriorly, the main bloodvessels and

nerves which traverse this space are displayed, holding in general that

relative position which they exhibit in Plate 11. These vessels, with

their accompanying nerves, will be seen continued from those of the

neck; and thus may be attained in one view a comparative estimate of the

cervical and axillary regions, together with their line of union beneath

the clavicle, c*, Plate 12, R, Plate 11, which serves to divide them

surgically.

In the neck, the subclavian artery, B, Plate 11, is seen to be separated

from the subclavian vein, A, by the breadth of the anterior scalenus

muscle, D, as the vessels arch over the first rib, F. In this region of

the course of the vessels, the brachial plexus of nerves, C, ranges

along the outer border of the artery, B, and is separated by the artery

from the vein, A, as all three structures pass beneath the clavicle, R,

and the subclavius muscle, E. From this latter point the vessels and

nerves take the name axillary, and in this axillary region the relative

position of the nerves and vessels to each other and to the adjacent

organs is somewhat changed. For now in the axillary region the vein, a,

is in direct contact with the artery, b, on the forepart and somewhat to

the inner side of which the vein lies; while the nerves, D, d, Plate 12,

embrace the artery in a mesh or plexus of chords, from which it is often

difficult to extricate it, for the purpose of ligaturing, in the dead

subject, much less the living. The axillary plexus of nerves well merits

the name, for I have not found it in any two bodies assuming a similar

order or arrangement. Perhaps the order in which branches spring from

the brachial plexus that is most constantly met with is the one

represented at D, Plate 12, where we find, on the outer border of B, the

axillary artery, a nervous chord, d, giving off a thoracic branch to

pass behind H, the lesser pectoral muscle, while the main chord itself,

d, soon divides into two branches, one the musculo-cutaneous, e, which

pierces G, the coraco-brachialis muscle, and the other which forms one

of the roots of the median nerve, h. Following that order of the nerves

as they are shown in Plate 12, they may be enumerated from without

inwards as follows:--the external or musculo-cutaneous, e; the two roots

of the median, h;  the ulnar, f; the musculo-spiral, g; the circumflex,

i; close to which are seen the origins of the internal cutaneous, the

nerve of Wrisberg, some thoracic branches, and posteriorly the

subscapular nerve not seen in this view of the parts.

The branches which come off from the axillary artery are very variable

both as to number and place of origin, but in general will be found

certain branches which answer to the names thoracic, subscapular, and

circumflex. These vessels, together with numerous smaller arteries,

appear to be confined to no fixed point of origin, and on this account

the place of election for passing a ligature around the main axillary

artery sufficiently removed from collateral branches must be always

doubtful. The subscapular artery, Q, Plate 12, is perhaps of all the

other branches that one which manifests the most permanent character;

its point of origin being in general opposite the interval between the

latissimus and sub-scapular muscles, but I have seen it arise from all

parts of the axillary main trunk. If it be required to give, in a

history of the arteries, a full account of all the deviations from the

so-called normal type to which these lesser branches here and elsewhere

are subject, such account can scarcely be said to be called for in this

place.

The form of the axillary space is conical, while the arm is abducted

from the side, and while the osseous and muscular structures remain

entire. The apex of the cone is formed at the root of the neck beneath

the clavicle, R, Plate 11, and the subclavious muscle, E, and between

the coracoid process, L*, of the scapula and the serratus magnus muscle,

as this lies upon the thoracic side; at this apex the subclavian

vessels, A B, enter the axillary space. The base of the cone is below,

looking towards the arm, and is formed in front by the pectoralis major,

K H, and behind by the latissimus dorsi, O, and teres muscles, P,

together with a dense thick fascia; at this base the axillary vessels, a

b, pass out to the arm, and become the brachial vessels, a*b*. The

anterior side of the cone is formed by the great pectoral muscle, H K,

Plate 11, and the lesser pectoral, L I. The inner side is formed by the

serratus magnus muscle, M, Plate 12, on the side of the thorax; the

external side is formed by the scapular and humeral insertion of the

subscapular muscle, the humerus and coraco-brachialis muscle; and the

posterior side is formed by the latissimus dorsi, the teres and body of

the subscapular muscle.

In this axillary region is contained a complicated mass of bloodvessels,

nerves, and lymphatic glands, surrounded by a large quantity of loose

cellular membrane and adipose tissue. All the arterial branches here

found are given off from the axillary artery; and the numerous veins

which accompany these branches enter the axillary vein. Nerves from

other sources besides those of the axillary plexus traverse the axillary

space; such nerves, for example, as those named intercosto-humeral, seen

lying on the latissimus tendon, O, Plate 11. The vein named cephalic, S,

enters the axillary space at that cellular interval occurring between

the clavicular origin of the deltoid muscle, G, and the humeral

attachment of the pectoralis major, H, which interval marks the place of

incision for tying the axillary artery.

The general course of the main vessels through the axillary space would

be indicated with sufficient accuracy by a line drawn from the middle of

the clavicle, R R, Plate 11, to the inner border of the biceps muscle,

N. In this direction of the axillary vessels, the coracoid process, L*,

from which arises the tendon of the pectoralis minor muscle, L, is to be

taken as a sure guide to the place of the artery, b, which passes, in

general, close to the inner side of this bony process. Even in the

undissected body the coracoid process may be felt as a fixed resisting

point at that cellular interval between the clavicular attachments of

the deltoid and great pectoral muscles. Whatever necessity shall require

a ligature to be placed around the axillary in preference to the

subclavian artery, must, of course, be determined by the particular

case; but certain it is that the main artery, at the place B, a little

above the clavicle, will always be found freer and more isolated from

its accompanying nerves and vein, and also more easily reached, owing to

its comparatively superficial situation, than when this vessel has

become axillary. The incision required to be made, in order to reach the

axillary artery, b, from the forepart, through the skin, both pectoral

muscles, and different layers of fasciae, must be very deep, especially

in muscular, well-conditioned bodies; and even when the level of the

vessel is gained, it will be found much complicated by its own branches,

some of which overlie it, as also by the plexus of nerves, D, Plate 12,

which embraces it on all sides, while the large axillary vein, a, Plate

11, nearly conceals it in front. This vein in Plate 11 is drawn somewhat

apart from the artery.

Sometimes the axillary artery is double, in consequence of its high

division into brachial branches. But as this peculiarity of premature

division never takes place so high up as where the vessel, B, Plate 11,

overarches the first rib, F, this circumstance should also have some

weight with the operator.

When we view the relative position of the subclavian vessels, A B, Plate

11, to the clavicle, R, we can readily understand why a fracture of the

middle of this bone through that arch which it forms over the vessels,

should interfere with the free circulation of the blood which these

vessels supply to the arm. When the clavicle is severed at its middle,

the natural arch which the bone forms over the vessels and nerves is

lost, and the free moving broken ends of the bone will be acted on in

opposing directions by the various muscles attached to its sternal and

scapular extremities. The outer fragment follows more freely than the

inner piece the action of the muscles; but, most of all, the weight of

the unsupported shoulder and arm causes the displacement to which the

outer fragment is liable. The subclavius muscle, E, like the pronator

quadratus muscle of the forearm, serves rather to further the

displacement of the broken ends of the bone than to hold them in situ.

If the head of the humerus be dislocated forwards beneath L, Plate 11,

the coracoid attachment of the pectoralis minor muscle, it must press

out of their proper place and put tensely upon the stretch the axillary

vessels and plexus of nerves. So large and resistent a body as the head

of the humerus displaced forwards, and taking the natural position of

these vessels and nerves, will accordingly be attended with other

symptoms--such as obstructed circulation and pain or partial paralysis,

besides those physical signs by which we distinguish the presence of it

as a new body in its abnormal situation.

When the main vessels and nerves pass from the axillary space to the

inner side of the arm, they become comparatively superficial in this

latter situation. The inner border of the biceps muscle is taken as a

guide to the place of the brachial artery for the whole extent of its

course in the arm. In plate 11, the artery, b*, is seen in company with

the median nerve, which lies on its fore part, and with the veins called

comites winding round it and passing with it and the nerve beneath the

fascia which encases in a fold of itself all three structures in a

common sheath. Though the axillary vein is in close contact with the

axillary artery and nerves, yet the basilic vein, d*, the most

considerable of those vessels which form the axillary vein, is separated

from the brachial artery by the fascia. The basilic vein, however,

overlies the brachial artery to its inner side, and is most commonly

attended by the internal cutaneous nerve, seen lying upon it in Plate

11, as also by that other cutaneous branch of the brachial plexus, named

the nerve of Wrisberg. If a longitudinal incision in the course of the

brachial artery be made (avoiding the basilic vein) through the

integument down to the fascia of the arm, and the latter structure be

slit open on the director, the artery will be exposed, having the median

nerve lying on its outer side in the upper third of the arm, and passing

to its inner side towards the bend of the elbow, as at b*, Plate 12. The

superior and inferior profunda arteries, seen springing above and below

the point b, Plate 12, are those vessels of most importance which are

given off from the brachial artery, but the situation of their origin is

very various. The ulnar nerve, f, lies close to the inner side of the

main arterial trunk, as this latter leaves the axilla, but from this

place to the inner condyle, Q, behind which the ulnar nerve passes into

the forearm, the nerve and artery become gradually more and more

separated from each other in their descent. The musculo-spiral nerve, g,

winds under the brachial artery at the middle of the arm, but as this

nerve passes deep between the short and long heads of the triceps

muscle, P, and behind the humerus to gain the outer aspect of the limb,

a little care will suffice for avoiding the inclusion of it in the

ligature.

The brachial artery may be so effectually compressed by the fingers on

the tourniquet, against the humerus in any part of its course through

the arm, as to stop pulsation at the wrist.

The tourniquet is a less manageable and not more certain compressor of

the arterial trunk than is the hand of an intelligent assistant. At

every region of the course of an artery where the tourniquet is

applicable, a sufficient compression by the hand is also attainable with

greater ease to the patient; and the hand may compress the vessel at

certain regions where the tourniquet would be of little or no use, or

attended with inconvenience, as in the locality of the subclavian

artery, passing over the first rib, or the femoral artery, passing over

the pubic bone, or the carotid vessels in the neighbourhood of the

trachea, as they lie on the fore part of the cervical spinal column.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 11 & 12.

PLATE 11.

A. Subclavian vein, crossed by a branch of the brachial plexus given to

the subclavius muscle; a, the axillary vein; a *, the basilic vein,

having the internal cutaneous nerve lying on it.

B. Subclavian artery, lying on F, the first rib; b, the axillary artery;

b *, the brachial artery, accompanied by the median nerve and venae

comites.

C. Brachial plexus of nerves; c*, the median nerve.

D. Anterior scalenus muscle.

E. Subclavius muscle.

F F. First rib.

G. Clavicular attachment of the deltoid muscle.

H. Humeral attachment of the great pectoral muscle.

I. A layer of fascia, encasing the lesser pectoral muscle.

K. Thoracic half of the great pectoral muscle.

L. Coracoid attachment of the lesser pectoral muscle.

L*. Coracoid process of the scapula.

M. Coraco-brachialis muscle.

N. Biceps muscle.

O. Tendon of the latissimus dorsi muscle, crossed by the

intercosto-humeral nerves.

P. Teres major muscle, on which and O is seen lying Wrisberg's nerve.

Q. Brachial fascia, investing the triceps muscle. .

R R. Scapular and sternal ends of the clavicle.

S. Cephalic vein, coursing between the deltoid and pectoral muscles, to

enter at their cellular interval into the axillary vein beneath E, the

subclavius muscle.

Plate 11

PLATE 12.

A. Axillary vein, cut and tied; a, the basilic vein, cut.

B. Axillary artery; b, brachial artery, in the upper part of its course,

having h, the median nerve, lying rather to its outer side; b*, the

artery in the lower part of its course, with the median nerve to its

inner side.

C. Subclavius muscle.

C*. Clavicle.

D. Axillary plexus of nerves, of which d is a branch on the coracoid

border of the axillary artery; e, the musculo-cutaneous nerve, piercing

the coraco-brachialis muscle; f, the ulnar nerve; g, musculo-spiral

nerve; h, the median nerve; i, the circumflex nerve.

E. Humeral part of the great pectoral muscle.

F. Biceps muscle.

G. Coraco-brachialis muscle.

H. Thoracic half of the lesser pectoral muscle.

I. Thoracic half of the greater pectoral muscle.

K. Coracoid attachment of the lesser pectoral muscle.

K*. Coracoid process of the scapula.

L. Lymphatic glands.

M. Serratus magnus muscle.

N. Latissimus dorsi muscle.

O. Teres major muscle.

P. Long head of triceps muscle.

Q. Inner condyle of humerus.

Plate 12

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 13 & 14

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 13 & 14.

THE SURGICAL FORM OF THE MALE AND FEMALE AXILLAE COMPARED.

Certain characteristic features mark those differences which are to be

found in all corresponding regions of both sexes. Though the male and

female bodies, in all their regions, are anatomically homologous or

similar at basis, yet the constituent and corresponding organs of each

are gently diversified by the plus or minus condition, the more or the

less, which the development of certain organs exhibits; and this

diversity, viewed in the aggregate, constitutes the sexual difference.

That diversity which defines the sexual character of beings of the same

species, is but a link in that extended chain of differential gradation

which marks its progress through the whole animal kingdom. The female

breast is a plus glandular organ, situated, pendent, in that very

position where, in a male body, the unevolved mamma is still

rudimentarily manifested.

The male and female axillae contain the same number and species of

organs; and the difference by which the external configuration of both

are marked mainly arises from the presence of the enlarged mammary

gland, which, in the female, Plate 14, masks the natural outline of the

pectoral muscle, E, whose axillary border is overhung by the gland; and

thus this region derives its peculiarity of form, contrasted with that

of the male subject.

When the dissected axilla is viewed from below, the arm being raised,

and extended from the side, its contained parts, laid deeply in their

conical recess, are sufficiently exposed, at the same time that the

proper boundaries of the axillary cavity are maintained. In this point

of view from which the axillary vessels are now seen, their relative

position, in respect to the thorax and the arm, are best displayed. The

thickness of that fleshy anterior boundary formed by both pectoral

muscles, E F, Plate 13, will be marked as considerable; and the depth at

which these muscles conceal the vessels, A B, in the front aspect of the

thoracico-humeral interval, will prepare the surgeon for the

difficulties he is to encounter when proceeding to ligature the axillary

artery at the incision made through the anterior or pectoral wall of

this axillary space.

The bloodvessels of the axilla follow the motions of the arm; and

according to the position assumed by the arm, these vessels describe

various curves, and lie more or less removed from the side of the

thorax. While the arm hangs close to the side, the axillary space does

not (properly speaking) exist; and in this position, the axillary

vessels and nerves make a general curve from the clavicle at the point

K, Plate 14, to the inner side of the arm, the concavity of the curve

being turned towards the thoracic side. But when the arm is abducted

from the side, and elevated, the vessels which are destined to supply

the limb follow it, and in this position they take, in reality, a

serpentine course; the first curve of which is described, in reference

to the thorax, from the point K to the head of the humerus; and the next

is that bend which the head of the humerus, projecting into the axilla

in the elevated position of the member, forces them to make around

itself in their passage to the inner side of the arm. The vessels may be

readily compressed against the upper third of the humerus by the finger,

passed into the axilla, and still more effectually if the arm be raised,

as this motion will rotate the tuberous head of the humerus downwards

against them.

The vessels and nerves of the axilla are bound together by a fibrous

sheath derived from the membrane called costo-coracoid; and the base or

humeral outlet of this axillary space, described by the muscles C, K, E,

G, Plate 13, is closed by a part of the fascial membrane, g, extended

across from the pectoral muscle, E, to the latissimus dorsi tendon, K.

In the natural position of the vessels at that region of their course

represented in the Plates, the vein A overlies the artery B, and also

conceals most of the principal nerves. In order to show some of these

nerves, in contact with the artery itself, the axillary vein is drawn a

little apart from them.

The axillary space gives lodgment to numerous lymphatic glands, which

are either directly suspended from the main artery, or from its

principal branches, by smaller branches, destined to supply them. These

glands are more numerous in the female axilla, Plate 14, than in the

male, Plate 13, and while they seem to be, as it were, indiscriminately

scattered here and there through this region, we observe the greater

number of them to be gathered together along the axillary side of the

great pectoral muscle; at which situation, h, in the diseased condition

of the female breast, they will be felt to form hard, nodulated masses,

which frequently extend as far up through the axillary space as the root

of the neck, involving the glands of this latter region also in the

disease.

The contractile motions of the pectoral muscle, E, of the male body,

Plate 13, are during life readily distinguishable; and that boundary

which it furnishes to the axillary region is well defined; but in the

female form, Plate 14, the general contour of the muscle E, while in

motion, is concealed by the hemispherical mammary gland, F, which,

surrounded by its proper capsule, lies loosely pendent from the fore

part of the muscle, to which, in the healthy state of the organ, it is

connected only by free-moving bonds of lax cellular membrane. The

motions of the shoulder upon the trunk do not influence the position of

the female mammary gland, for the pectoral muscle acts freely beneath

it; but when a scirrhus or other malignant growth involves the mammary

organ, and this latter contracts, by the morbid mass, a close adhesion

to the muscle, then these motions are performed with pain and

difficulty.

When it is required to excise the diseased female breast, (supposing the

disease to be confined to the structure of the gland itself,) the

operation may be performed confidently and without difficulty, in so far

as the seat of operation does not involve the immediate presence of any

important nerves or bloodvessels. But when the disease has extended to

the axillary glands, the extirpation of these (as they lie in such close

proximity to the great axillary vessels and their principal branches)

requires cautious dissection. It has more than once happened to eminent

surgeons, that in searching for and dissecting out these diseased

axillary glands, H, h, Plate 14, the main artery has been wounded.

As the coracoid process points to the situation of the artery in the

axilla, so the coraco-brachialis muscle, C, marks the exact locality of

the vessel as it emerges from this region; the artery ranges along the

inner margin of both the process and the muscle, which latter, in fleshy

bodies, sometimes overhangs and conceals it. When the vessel has passed

the insertion of the coraco-brachialis, it becomes situated at the inner

side of the biceps, which also partly overlaps it, as it now lies on the

forepart of the brachialis  anticus. As the general course of the

artery, from where it leaves the axilla to the bend of the elbow, is one

of winding from the inner side to the forepart of the limb, so should

compression of the vessel, when necessary, be directed in reference to

the bone accordingly--viz., in the upper or axillary region of the arm,

from within outwards, and in the lower part of the arm, from before

backwards.

All incised, lacerated, or contused wounds of the arm and shoulder,

happening by pike, bayonet, sabre, bullet, mace, or arrow, on the outer

aspect of the limb, are (provided the weapon has not broken the bones)

less likely to implicate the great arteries, veins, and nerves. These

instruments encountering the inner or axillary aspect of the member,

will of course be more likely to involve the vessels and nerves in the

wound. In severe compound fractures of the humerus occurring from force

applied at the external side of the limb, the brachial vessels and

nerves have been occasionally lacerated by the sharp jagged ends of the

broken bone,--a circumstance which calls for immediate amputation of the

member.

The axilla becomes very frequently the seat of morbid growths, which,

when they happen to be situated beneath the dense axillary fascia, and

have attained to a large size, will press upon the vessels and nerves of

this region, and cause very great inconvenience. Adipose and other kind

of tumours occurring in the axilla beneath the fascia, and in close

contact with the main vessels, have been known to obstruct these vessels

to such a degree, as to require the collateral or anastomatic

circulation to be set up for the support; of the limb. When abscesses

take place in the axilla, beneath the fascia, it is this structure which

will prevent the matter from pointing; and it is required, therefore, to

lay this fascia freely open by a timely incision. The accompanying

Plates will indicate the proper direction in which such incision should

be made, so as to avoid the vessels A, B. When the limb is abducted from

the side, the main vessels and nerves take their position parallel with

the axis of the arm. The axillary vessels and nerves being thus liable

to pressure from the presence of large tumours happening in their

neighbourhood, will suggest to the practitioner the necessity for

fashioning of a proper form and size all apparatus, which in fracture or

dislocation of the shoulder-bones shall be required to bear forcibly

against the axillary region. While we know that the locality of the main

vessels and nerves is that very situation upon which a pad or fulcrum

presses, when placed in the axilla for securing the reduction of

fractures of the clavicle, the neck of the humerus, or scapula, so

should this member of the fracture apparatus be adapted, as well to

obviate this pressure upon these structures, as to give the needful

support to the limb in reference to the clavicle, &c. The habitual use,

for weeks or more, of a hard, resisting fulcrum in the axilla, must act

in some degree like the pad of a tourniquet, arresting the flow of a

vigorous circulation, which is so essential to the speedy union of all

lesions of bones. And it should never be lost sight of, that all

grievously coercive apparatus, which incommode the suffering patient,

under treatment, are those very instruments which impede the curative

process of Nature herself.

The anatomical mechanism of the human body, considered as a whole, or

divisible into regions, forms a study so closely bearing upon practice,

that the surgeon, if he be not also a mechanician, and fully capable of

making his anatomical knowledge suit with the common principles of

mechanics, while devising methods for furthering the efforts, of Nature

curatively, may be said to have studied anatomy to little or no purpose.

The shoulder apparatus, when studied through the principle of mechanics,

derives an interest of practical import which all the laboured

description of the schools could never supply to it, except when

illustrating this principle.

The disposal of the muscular around the osseous elements of the shoulder

apparatus, forms a study for the surgeon as well in the abnormal

condition of these parts, as in their normal arrangement; for in

practice he discovers that that very mechanical principle upon which

both orders of structures (the osseous and muscular) are grouped

together for normal articular action, becomes, when the parts are

deranged by fracture or, other accident, the chief cause whereby

rearrangement is prevented, and the process of reunion obstructed. When

a fracture happens in the shaft of the humerus, above or below the

insertions of the pectoral and latissimus dorsi muscles, these are the

very agents which when the bone possessed its integrity rendered it

functionally fitting, and which, now that the bone is severed, produce

the displacement of the lower fragment from the upper one. To counteract

this source of derangement, the surgeon becomes the mechanician, and

now, for the first time, he recognises the necessity of the study of

topographical anatomy.

When a bone is fractured, or dislocated to a false position and retained

there by the muscular force, the surgeon counteracts this force upon

mechanical principle; but while he puts this principle in operation, he

also acknowledges to the paramount necessity of ministering to the ease

of Nature as much as shall be consistent with the effectual use of the

remedial agent; and in the present state of knowledge, it is owned, that

that apparatus is most efficient which simply serves both objects, the

one no less than the other. And, assuming this to be the principle which

should always guide us in our treatment of fractures and dislocations, I

shall not hesitate to say, that the pad acting as a fulcrum in the

axilla, or the perineal band bearing as a counterextending force upon

the groin (the suffering body of the patient being, in both instances,

subjected for weeks together to the grievous pressure and irritation of

these members of the apparatus), do not serve both objects, and only one

incompletely; I say incompletely, for out of every six fractures of

either clavicle or thigh-bone, I believe that, as the result of our

treatment by the present forms of mechanical contrivances, there would

not be found three cases of coaptation of the broken ends of the bone so

complete as to do credit to the surgeon. The most pliant and portable of

all forms of apparatus which constitute the hospital armamentaria, is

the judgment; and this cannot give its approval to any plan of

instrument which takes effect only at the expense of the patient.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 13 & 14.

PLATE 13.

A. Axillary vein, drawn apart from the artery, to show the nerves lying

between both vessels. On the bicipital border of the vein is seen the

internal cutaneous nerve; on the tricipital border is the nerve of

Wrisberg, communicating with some of the intercosto-humeral nerves; a,

the common trunk of the venae comites, entering the axillary vein.

B. Axillary artery, crossed by one root of the median nerve; b, basilic

vein, forming, with a, the axillary vein, A.

C. Coraco-brachialis muscle.

D. Coracoid head of the biceps muscle.

E. Pectoralis major muscle.

F. Pectoralis minor muscle.

G. Serratus magnus muscle, covered by g, the axillary fascia, and

perforated, at regular intervals, by the nervous branches called

intercosto-humeral.

H. Conglobate gland, crossed by the nerve called "external respiratory"

of Bell, distributed to the serratus magnus muscle. This nerve descends

from the cervical plexus.

I. Subscapular artery.

K. Tendon of latissimus dorsi muscle.

L. Teres major muscle.

Plate 13

PLATE 14.

A. Axillary vein.

B. Axillary artery.

C. Coraco-brachialis muscle.

D. Short head of the biceps muscle.

E. Pectoralis major muscle.

F. Mammary gland, seen in section.

G. Serratus magnus muscle.

H. Lymphatic gland; h h, other glands of the lymphatic class.

I. Subscapular artery, crossed by the intercosto-humeral nerves and

descending parallel to the external respiratory nerve. Beneath the

artery is seen a subscapular branch of the brachial plexus, given

to the latissimus dorsi muscle.

K. Locality of the subclavian artery.

L. Locality of the brachial artery at the bend of the elbow.

Plate 14

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 15 & 16

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 15 & 16.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE BEND OF THE ELBOW

AND THE FOREARM, SHOWING THE RELATIVE POSITION

OF THE ARTERIES, VEINS, NERVES, &c.

The farther the surgical region happens to be removed from the centre of

the body, the less likely is it that all accidents or operations which

involve such regions will concern the life immediately. The limbs

undergo all kinds of mutilation, both by accident and intention, and yet

the patient survives; but when the like happens at any region of the

trunk of the body, the life will be directly and seriously threatened.

It seems, therefore, that in the same degree as the living principle

diverges from the body's centre into the outstanding members, in that

degree is the life weakened in intensity; and just as, according to

physical laws, the ray of light becomes less and less intense by the

square of the distance from the central source, so the vital ray, or

vis, loses momentum in the same ratio as it diverges from the common

central line to the periphery.

The relative anatomy of every surgical region becomes a study of more or

less interest to the surgeon, according to the degree of importance

attaching to the organs contained, or according to the frequency of such

accidents as are liable to occur in each. The bend of the elbow is a

region of anatomical importance, owing to the fact of its giving passage

to C, Plate 15, the main artery of the limb, and also because in it are

located the veins D, B, E, F, which are frequently the subject of

operation. The anatomy of this region becomes, therefore, important;

forasmuch as the operation which is intended to concern the veins alone,

may also, by accident, include the main arterial vessel which they

overlie. The nerves, which are seen to accompany the veins

superficially, as well as that which accompanies the more

deeply-situated artery, are, for the same reason, required to be known.

The course of the brachial artery along the inner border of the biceps

muscle is comparatively superficial, from the point where it leaves the

axilla to the bend of the elbow. In the whole of this course it is

covered by the fascia of the arm, which serves to isolate it from the

superficial basilic vein, B, and the internal cutaneous nerve, both of

which nevertheless overlie the artery. The median nerve, d, Plate 15,

accompanies the artery in its proper sheath, which is a duplication of

the common fascia; and in this sheath are also situated the venae

comites, making frequent loops around the artery. The median nerve

itself, D, Plate 16, takes a direct course down the arm; and the

different relative positions which this nerve holds in reference to the

artery, C, at the upper end, the middle, and the lower end of the arm,

occur mainly in consequence of the undulating character of the vessel

itself.

When it is required to ligature the artery in the middle of the arm, the

median nerve will be found, in general, at its outer side, between it

and the biceps; but as the course of the artery is from the inner side

of the biceps to the middle of the bend of the elbow, so we find it

passing under the nerve to gain this locality, C, Plate 16, where the

median nerve, D, then becomes situated at the inner side of the vessel.

The median nerve, thus found to be differently situated in reference to

the brachial artery, at the upper, the middle, and the lower part of the

arm, is (with these facts always held in memory) taken as the guide to

that vessel. An incision made of sufficient length (an inch and a half,

more or less) over the course of the artery, and to the outer side of

the basilic vein, B, Plate 16, will divide the skin, subcutaneous

adipose membrane, which varies much in thickness in several individuals,

and will next expose the common fascial envelope of the arm. When this

fascia is opened, by dividing it on the director, the artery becomes

exposed; the median nerve is then to be separated from the side of the

vessel by the probe or director, and, with the precaution of not

including the venal comites, the ligature may now be passed around the

vessel. In the lower third of the arm it is not likely that the operator

will encounter the ulnar nerve, and mistake it for the median, since the

former, d, Plate 16, is considerably removed from the vessel. If the

incision be made precisely in the usual course of the brachial artery,

the ulnar nerve will not show itself. It will be well, however, to bear

in mind the possible occurrence of some of those anomalies to that

normal relative position of the artery, the median, and the ulnar nerve,

which the accompanying Plates represent.

The median nerve, D, Plate 16, is sometimes found to lie beneath the

artery in the middle and lower third of the arm. At other times it is

found far removed to the inner side of the usual position of the vessel,

and lying in close contact with the ulnar nerve, d. Or the brachial

artery may take this latter position, while the median nerve stands

alone at the position of D, Plate 16. Or both the main artery and the

median nerve may course much to the inner side of the biceps muscle, A,

Plate 16, while in the usual situation of the nerve and vessel there is

only to be found a small arterial branch (the radial), which springs

from the brachial, high up in the arm. Or the nerve and vessel may be

lying concealed beneath a slip of the brachialis anticus muscle, E,

Plate 16, in which case no appearance of them will be at all manifested

through the usual place of incision made for the ligature of the

brachial vessel. Or, lastly, there may be found more arteries than the

single main brachial appearing at this place in the arm, and such

condition of a plurality of vessels occurs in consequence of a high

division of the brachial artery. Each of these variations from the

normal type is more or less frequent; and though it certainly is of

practical import to bear them in mind, still, as we never can foretell

their occurrence by a superficial examination of the limb, or pronounce

them to be present till we actually encounter them in operation, it is

only when we find them that we commence to reason upon the facts; but

even at this crisis the knowledge of their anatomy may prevent a

confusion of ideas.

That generalization of the facts of such anomalies as are liable to

occur to the normal character of the brachial artery, represented in

Plates 15 and 16, which appears to me as being most inclusive of all

their various conditions, is this--viz., that the point of division into

radial, ulnar, and interosseous, which F, Plate 16, usually marks, may

take place at any part of the member between the bend of the elbow and

the coracoid process in the axillary space.

At the bend of the elbow, the brachial artery usually occupies the

middle point between e, the inner condyle of the humerus and the

external margin of the supinator radii longus muscle, G. The structures

which overlie the arterial vessel, C, Plate 16, at this locality,

numbering them from its own depth to the cutaneous surface, are these--

viz., some adipose cellular membrane envelopes the vessel, as it lies on

E, the brachialis anticus muscle, and between the two accompanying

veins; at the inner side of the artery, but separated from it by a small

interval occupied by one of the veins, is situated the median nerve d,

Plate 15. Above all three structures is stretched that dense fibrous

band of the fascia, H, Plate 16, which becomes incorporated with the

common fascial covering of the forearm. Over this fascial process lies

the median basilic vein, F B, Plate 15, accompanying which are seen some

branches of the internal cutaneous nerve. The subcutaneous adipose

tissue and common integument cover these latter. If it be required to

ligature the artery at this locality, an incision two inches and a half

in length, made along the course of the vessel, and avoiding the

superficial veins, will expose the fascia; and this being next divided

on the director, the artery will be exposed resting on the brachialis

anticus, and between the biceps tendon and pronator teres muscle. As

this latter muscle differs in width in several individuals, sometimes

lying in close contact with the artery, and at other times leaving a

considerable interval between the vessel and itself, its outer margin is

not, therefore, to be taken as a sure guide to the artery. The inner

border of the biceps indicates much more generally the situation of the

vessel.

The bend of the elbow being that locality where the operation of

phlebotomy is generally performed, it is therefore required to take

exact account of the structures which occupy this region, and more

especially the relation which the superficial veins hold to the deeper

seated artery. In Plate 15, the artery, C, is shown in its situation

beneath the fascial aponeurosis, which comes off from the tendon of the

biceps, a portion of which has been cut away; and the venous vessel, F

B, which usually occupies the track of the artery, is pushed a little to

the inner side. While opening any part of the vessel, F B, which

overlies the artery, it is necessary to proceed with caution, as well

because of the fact that between the artery, C, and the vein, F B, the

fascia alone intervenes, as also because the ulnar artery is given off

rather frequently from the main vessel at this situation, and passes

superficial to the fascia and flexors of the forearm, to gain its usual

position at K, Plate 15. I have met with a well marked example of this

occurrence in the living subject.

The cephalic vein, D, is accompanied by the external cutaneous nerve,

which branches over the fascia on the outer border of the forearm. The

basilic vein, B, is accompanied by the internal cutaneous nerve, which

branches in a similar way over the fascia of the inner and fore part of

the forearm. The numerous branches of both these nerves interlace with

the superficial veins, and are liable to be cut when these veins are

being punctured. Though the median basilic, F, and the basilic vein, B,

are those generally chosen in the performance of the operation of

bleeding, it will be seen, in Plate 15, that their contiguity to the

artery necessarily demands more care and precision in that operation

executed upon them, than if D, the cephalic vein, far removed as it is

from the course of the artery, were the seat of phlebotomy.

As it is required, in order to distend the superficial veins, D, B, F,

that a band should be passed around the limb at some locality between

them and the heart, so that they may yield a free flow of blood on

puncture, a moderate pressure will be all that is needful for that end.

It is a fact worthy of notice, that the excessive pressure of the

ligaturing band around the limb at A B, Plate 15, will produce the same

effect upon the veins near F, as if the pressure were defective, for in

the former case the ligature will obstruct the flow of blood through the

artery; and the vein, F, will hence be undistended by the recurrent

blood, just as when, in the latter case, the ligature, making too feeble

a pressure on the vein, B, will not obstruct its current in that degree

necessary to distend the vessel, F.

Whichever be the vein chosen for phlebotomy at the bend of the elbow, it

will be seen, from an examination of Plates 15 and 16, that the opening

may be made with most advantage according to the longitudinal axis of

the vessel; for the vessel while being cut open in this direction, is

less likely to swerve from the point of the lancet than if it were to be

incised across, which latter mode is also far more liable to implicate

the artery. Besides, as the nerves course along the veins from above

downwards--making, with each other, and with the vessels, but very acute

angles--all incisions made longitudinally in these vessels, will not be

so likely to divide any of these nerves as when the instrument is

directed to cut crossways.

The brachial artery usually divides, at the bend of the elbow, into the

radial, the ulnar, and the interosseous branches. The point F, Plate 16,

is the common place of division, and this will be seen in the Plate to

be somewhat below the level of the inner condyle, e. From that place,

where the radial and ulnar arteries spring, these vessels traverse the

forearm, in general under cover of the muscles and fascia, but

occasionally superficial to both these structures. The radial artery, F

N, Plate 16, takes a comparatively superficial course along the radial

border of the forearm, and is accompanied, for the upper two-thirds of

its length, by the radial branch of the musculo-spiral nerve, seen in

Plate 16, at the outer side of the vessel. The supinator radii longus

muscle in general overlaps, with its inner border, both the radial

artery and nerve. At the situation of the radial pulse, I, Plate 15, the

artery is not accompanied by the nerve, for this latter will be seen, in

plate 16, to pass outward, under the tendon of the supinator muscle, to

the integuments.

The ulnar artery, whose origin is seen near F, Plate 16, passes deeply

beneath the superficial flexor muscles, L M K, and the pronator teres,

I, and first emerges from under cover of these at the point O, from

which point to S, Plate 16, the artery may be felt, in the living body,

obscurely beating as the ulnar pulse. On the inner border of the ulnar

artery, and in close connexion with it, the ulnar nerve may be seen

looped round by small branches of the vessel.

The radial and ulnar arteries may be exposed and ligatured in any part

of their course; but of the two, the radial vessel can be reached with

greater facility, owing to its comparatively superficial situation. The

inner border of the supinator muscle, G, Plate 16, is the guide to the

radial artery; and the outer margin of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle,

K, Plate 16, indicates the locality of the ulnar artery. Both arteries,

I, K, Plate 15, at the wrist, lie beneath the fascia. If either of these

vessels require a ligature in this region of the arm, the operation may

be performed with little trouble, as a simple incision over the track of

the vessels, through the skin and the fascia, will readily expose each.

Whenever circumstances may call for placing a ligature on the ulnar

artery, as it lies between the superficial and deep flexor muscles, in

the region of I L M, Plate 16, the course of the vessel may be indicated

by a line drawn from a central point of the forearm, an inch or so below

the level of the inner condyle--viz., the point F, and carried to the

pisiform bone, T. The line of incision will divide obliquely the

superficial flexors; and, on a full exposure of the vessel in this

situation, the median nerve will be seen to cross the artery at an acute

angle, in order to gain the mid-place in the wrist at Q. The ulnar

nerve, d, Plate 16, passing behind the inner condyle, e, does not come

into connexion with the ulnar artery until both arrive at the place O.

It will, however, be considered an awkward proceeding to subject to

transverse section so large a mass of muscles as the superficial flexors

of the forearm, when the vessel may be more readily reached elsewhere,

and perhaps with equal advantage as to the locality of the ligature.

When either the radial or ulnar arteries happen to be completely divided

in a wound, both ends of the vessel will bleed alike, in consequence of

the free anastomosis of both arteries in the hand.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 15 & 16.

PLATE 15.

A. Fascia covering the biceps muscle.

B. Basilic vein, with the internal cutaneous nerve.

C. Brachial artery, with the venae comites.

D. Cephalic vein, with the external cutaneous nerve; d, the median nerve.

E. A communicating vein, joining the venae comites.

F. Median basilic vein.

G. Lymphatic gland.

H. Radial artery at its middle.

I. Radial artery of the pulse.

K. Ulnar artery, with ulnar nerve.

L. Palmaris brevis muscle.

Plate 15

PLATE 16.

A. Biceps muscle.

B. Basilic vein, cut.

C. Brachial artery.

D. Median nerve; d, the ulnar nerve.

E. Brachialis anticus muscle; e, the internal condyle.

F. Origin of radial artery.

G. Supinator radii longus muscle.

H. Aponeurosis of the tendon of the biceps muscle.

I. Pronator teres muscle.

K. Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle.

L. Flexor carpi radialis muscle.

M. Palmaris longus muscle.

N. Radial artery, at its middle, with the radial nerve on its outer side.

O. Flexor digitorum sublimis.

P. Flexor pollicis longus.

Q. Median nerve.

R. Lower end of radial artery.

S. Lower end of ulnar artery, in company with the ulnar nerve.

T. Pisiform bone.

U. Extensor metacarpi pollicis.

Plate 16

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 17, 18, & 19

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 17, 18, & 19.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE WRIST AND HAND.

A member of such vast importance as the human hand necessarily claims a

high place in regard to surgery. The hand is typical of the mind. It is

the material symbol of the immaterial spirit, It is the prime agent of

the will; and it is that instrument by which the human intellect

manifests its presence in creation. The human hand has a language of its

own. While the tongue demonstrates the thought through the word, the

hand realizes and renders visible the thought through the work. This

organ, therefore, by whose fitness of form the mind declares its own

entity in nature, by the invention and creation of the thing, which is,

as it were, the mind's autograph, claims a high interest in surgical

anatomy; and accordingly the surgeon lays it down as a rule, strictly to

be observed, that when this beautiful and valuable member happens to be

seriously mutilated, in any of those various accidents to which it is

exposed, the prime consideration should be, not as to the fact of how

much of its quantity or parts it can be deprived in operation, but

rather as to how little of its quantity should it be deprived, since no

mechanical ingenuity can fashion an apparatus, capable of supplying the

loss of a finger, or even of one of its joints.

The main blood vessels and nerves of the arm traverse the front aspect

of the wrist, and are distributed chiefly to supply the palmar surface

of the hand, since in the palm are to be found a greater variety and

number of structures than are met with on the back of the hand. The

radial artery, A, Plate 17, occupies (as its name indicates) the radial

border of the forepart of the wrist, and the ulnar artery, C, Plate 17,

occupies the ulnar border; both vessels in this region of their course

lie parallel to each other; both are comparatively superficial, but of

the two, the radial artery is the more superficial and isolated, and

thereby occasions the radial pulse. The anatomical situation of the

radial artery accounts for the fact, why the pulsation of this vessel is

more easily felt than that of the ulnar artery.

The radial vessel, A, Plate 17, at the wrist, is not accompanied by the

radial nerve; for this nerve, C, Plate 19, passes from the side of the

artery, at a position, C, Plate 19, varying from one to two or more

inches above the wrist, to gain the dorsal aspect of the hand. The ulnar

artery, C, Plate 17, is attended by the ulnar nerve, D, in the wrist,

and both these pass in company to the palm. The ulnar nerve, D E, lies

on the ulnar border of the artery, and both are in general to be found

ranging along the radial side of the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris

muscle, T, and the pisiform bone, G. The situation of the radial artery

is midway between the flexor carpi radialis tendon, I, and the outer

border of the radius. The deep veins, called comites, lie in close

connexion with the radial and ulnar arteries. When it is required to lay

bare the radial or ulnar artery, at the wrist, it will be sufficient for

that object to make a simple longitudinal incision (an inch or two in

length) over the course of the vessel A or C, Plate 17, through the

integument, and this incision will expose the fascia, which forms a

common investment for all the structures at this region. When this

fascia has been cautiously slit open on the director, the vessels will

come into view. The ulnar artery, however, lies somewhat concealed

between the adjacent muscles, and in order to bring this vessel fully

into view, it will be necessary to draw aside the tendon of the flexor

ulnaris muscle, T.

The radial artery, A, Plate 18, passes external to the radial border of

the wrist, beneath the extensor tendons, B, of the thumb; and after

winding round the head of the metacarpal bone of the thumb, as seen at

E, Plate 19, forms the deep palmar arch E, Plate 18. This deep palmar

arch lies close upon the forepart of the carpo-metacarpal joints; it

sends off branches to supply the deeply situated muscles, and other

structures of the palm; and from it are also derived other branches,

which pierce the interosseal spaces, and appear on the back of the hand,

Plate 19. The deep palmar arch, E, Plate 18, inosculates with a branch

of the ulnar artery, I, Plate 18, whilst its dorsal interosseal

branches, Plate 19, communicate freely with the dorsal carpal arch,

which is formed by a branch of the radial artery E, Plate 19, and the

terminal branch of the posterior interosseous vessel.

The ulnar artery, C, Plate 17, holds a direct and superficial course,

from the ulnar border of the forearm through the wrist; and still

remains superficial in the palm, where it forms the superficial palmar

arch, F. From this arch arise three or four branches of considerable

size, which are destined to supply the fingers. A little above the

interdigital clefts, each of these digital arteries divides into two

branches, which pass along the adjacent sides of two fingers--a mode of

distribution which also characterises the digital branches of the

median, b b, and ulnar nerves, e e. The superficial palmar arch of the

ulnar vessel anastomoses with the deep arch of the radial vessel. The

principal points of communication are, first, by the branch, (ramus

profundus,) I, Plate 18, which passes between the muscles of the little

finger to join the deep arch beneath the long flexor tendons. 2nd, by

the branch (superficialis volae) which springs from the radial artery,

A, Plate 17, and crosses the muscles of the ball of the thumb, to join

the terminal branch of the superficial arch, F, Plate 17. 3rd, by

another terminal branch of the superficial arch, which joins the

arteries of the thumb, derived from the radial vessel, as seen at e,

Plate 18.

The frequent anastomosis thus seen to take place between the branches of

the radial, the ulnar, and the interosseous arteries in the hand, should

be carefully borne in mind by the surgeon. The continuity of the three

vessels by anastomosis, renders it very difficult to arrest a

haemorrhage occasioned by a wound of either of them. It will be at once

seen, that when a haemorrhage takes place from any of these larger

vessels of the hand, the bleeding will not be commanded by the

application of a ligature to either the radial, the ulnar, or the

interosseous arteries in the forearm; and for this plain reason, viz.,

that though in the arm these arteries are separate, in the hand their

communication renders them as one.

If a haemorrhage therefore take place from either of the palmar vessels,

it will not be sufficient to place a ligature around the radial or the

ulnar artery singly, for if F, Plate 17, bleeds, and in order to arrest

that bleeding we tie the vessel C, Plate 17, still the vessel F will

continue to bleed, in consequence of its communication with the vessel

E, Plate 18, by the branch 1, Plate 18, and other branches above

mentioned. If E, Plate 18, bleeds, a ligature applied to the vessel A,

Plate 18, will not stop the flow of blood, because of the fact that E

anastomoses with G, by the branch I and other branches, as seen in

Plates 17 and 19.

Any considerable haemorrhage, therefore, which may be caused by a wound

of the superficial or deep palmar arches, or their branches, and which

we are unable to arrest by compression, applied directly to the patent

orifices of the vessel, will in general require that a ligature be

applied to both the radial and ulnar arteries at the wrist; and it

occasionally happens that even this proceeding will not stop the flow of

blood, for the interosseous arteries, which also communicate with the

vessels of the hand, may still maintain the current of circulation

through them. These interosseous arteries being branches of the ulnar

artery, and being given off from the vessel at the bend of the elbow, if

the bleeding be still kept up from the vessel wounded in the hand, after

the ligature of the ulnar and radial arteries is accomplished, are in

all probability the channels of communication, and in this case the

brachial artery must be tied. A consideration of the above mentioned

facts, proper to the normal distribution of the vessels of the upper

extremity, will explain to the practitioner the cause of the difficulty

which occasionally presents itself, as to the arrest of haemorrhage from

the vessels of the hand. In addition to these facts he will do well to

remember some other arrangements of these vessels, which are liable to

occur; and upon these I shall offer a few observations.

While I view the normal disposition of the arteries of the arm as a

whole, (and this view of the whole great fact is no doubt necessary, if

we would take within the span and compass of the reason, all the lesser

facts of which the whole is inclusive,) I find that as one main vessel

(the brachial) divides into three lesser branches, (the ulnar, radial

and interosseous,) so, therefore, when either of these three supplies

the haemorrhage, and any difficulty arises preventing our having access

at once to the open orifices of the wounded vessel, we can command the

flow of blood by applying a ligature to the main trunk--the brachial. If

this measure fail to command the bleeding, then we may conclude that the

wounded vessel (whichever it happen to be, whether the radial, the

ulnar, or the interosseous) arises from the brachial artery, higher up

in the arm than that place whereat we applied the ligature. To this

variety as to the place of origin, the ulnar, radial, and interosseous

arteries are individually liable.

Again, as the single brachial artery divides into the three arteries of

the forearm, and as these latter again unite into what may (practically

speaking) be termed a single vessel in the hand, in consequence of their

anastomosis, so it is obvious that in order to command a bleeding from

any of the palmar arteries, we should apply a ligature upon each of the

vessels of the forearm, or upon the single main vessel in the arm. When

the former proceeding fails, we have recourse to the latter, and when

this latter fails (for fail it will, sometimes,) we then reasonably

arrive at the conclusion that some one of the three vessels of the

forearm, springs higher up than the place of the ligature on the main

brachial vessel.

But however varied as to the normal locality of their origin, at the

bend of the elbow, these vessels of the forearm may at times manifest

themselves, still one point is quite fixed and certain, viz., that they

communicate with each other in the hand. Hence, therefore, it becomes

evident, that in order to command, at once and effectually, a bleeding,

either from the palmar arteries, or those of the forearm, we attain to a

more sure and successful result, the nearer we approach the

fountain-head and place a ligature on it--the brachial artery. It is

true that to stop the circulation through the main vessel of the limb,

is always attended with danger, and that such a proceeding is never to

be adopted but as the lesser one of two great hazards. It is also true

that to tie the main brachial artery for a haemorrhage of anyone of its

terminal branches, may be doing too much, while a milder course may

serve; or else that even our tying the brachial may not suffice, owing

to a high distribution of the vessels of the arm, in the axilla, above

the place of the ligature. Thus doubt as to the safest measure, viz.,

that which is sufficient and no more, enveils the proper place whereat

to apply a ligature on the principal vessel; but whatever be the doubt

as to this particular, there can be none attending the following rule of

conduct, viz., that in all cases of haemorrhage, caused by wounds of the

vessels of the upper limb, we should, if at all practicable, endeavour

to stop the flow of blood from the divided vessels in the wound itself,

by ligature or otherwise; and both ends of the divided vessel require to

be tied. Whenever this may be done, we need not trouble ourselves

concerning the anomaly in vascular distribution.

The superficial palmar arch, F, Plate 17, lies beneath the dense palmar

fascia; and whenever matter happens to be pent up by this fascia, and it

is necessary that an opening be made for its exit, the incision should

be conducted at a distance from the locality of the vessel. When matter

forms beneath the palmar fascia, it is liable, owing to the unyielding

nature of this fibrous structure, to burrow upwards into the forearm,

beneath the annular ligament D, Plates 17 and 18. All deep incisions

made in the median line of the forepart of the wrist are liable to wound

the median nerve B, Plate 17. When the thumb, together with its

metacarpal bone, is being amputated, the radial artery E, Plate 19,

which winds round near the head of that bone, may be wounded. It is

possible, by careful dissection, to perform this operation without

dividing the radial vessel.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 17, 18, & 19.

PLATE 17.

A. Radial artery.

B. Median nerve; b b b b, its branches to the thumb and fingers.

C. Ulnar artery, forming F, the superficial palmar arch.

D. Ulnar nerve; E e e, its continuation branching to the little and ring

fingers, &c.

G. Pisiform bone.

H. Abductor muscle of the little finger.

I. Tendon of flexor carpi radialis muscle.

K. Opponens pollicis muscle.

L. Flexor brevis muscle of the little finger.

M. Flexor brevis pollicis muscle.

N. Abductor pollicis muscle.

OOOO. Lumbricales muscles.

P P P P. Tendons of the flexor digitorum sublimis muscle.

Q. Tendon of the flexor longus pollicis muscle.

R. Tendon of extensor metacarpi pollicis.

S. Tendons of extensor digitorum sublimis; P P P, their digital

prolongations.

T. Tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris.

U. Union of the digital arteries at the tip of the finger.

Plate 17

PLATE 18.

A. Radial artery.

B. Tendons of the extensors of the thumb.

C. Tendon of extensor carpi radialis.

D. Annular ligament.

E. Deep palmar arch, formed by radial artery giving off e, the artery of

the thumb.

F. Pisiform bone.

G. Ulnar artery, giving off the branch I to join the deep palmar arch E

of the radial artery.

H. Ulnar nerve; h, superficial branches given to the fingers. Its deep

palmar branch is seen lying on the interosseous muscles, M M.

K. Abductor minimi digiti.

L. Flexor brevis minimi digiti.

M. Palmar interosseal muscles.

N. Tendons of flexor digitorum sublimis and profundus, and the

lumbricales muscles cut and turned down.

O. Tendon of flexor pollicis longus.

P. Carpal end of the metacarpal bone of the thumb.

Plate 18

PLATE 19.

AAA. Tendons of extensor digitorum communis; A*, tendon overlying that

of the indicator muscle.

B. Dorsal part of the annular ligament.

C. End of the radial nerve distributed over the back of the hand, to two

of the fingers and the thumb.

D. Dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve supplying the back of the hand and

the three outer fingers.

E. Radial artery turning round the carpal end of the metacarpal bone of

the thumb.

F. Tendon of extensor carpi radialis brevis.

G. Tendon of extensor carpi radialis longus.

H. Tendon of third extensor of the thumb.

I. Tendon of second extensor of the thumb.

K. Tendon of extensor minimi digiti joining a tendon of extensor

communis.

Plate 19

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 20 & 21

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY  ON PLATES 20 & 21.

THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE CRANIAL,

NASAL, ORAL, AND PHARYNGEAL CAVITIES, &c.

On making a section (vertically through the median line) of the

cranio-facial and cervico-hyoid apparatus, the relation which these

structures bear to each other in the osseous skeleton reminds me

strongly of the great fact enunciated by the philosophical anatomists,

that the facial apparatus manifests in reference to the cranial

structures the same general relations which the hyoid apparatus bears to

the cervical vertebrae, and that these relations are similar to those

which the thoracic apparatus bears to the dorsal vertebrae. To this

anatomical fact I shall not make any further allusions, except in so far

as the acknowledgment of it shall serve to illustrate some points of

surgical import.

The cranial chamber, A A H, Plate 20, is continuous with the spinal

canal C. The osseous envelope of the brain, called calvarium, Z B, holds

serial order with the cervical spinous processes, E I, and these with

the dorsal spinous processes. The dura-matral lining membrane, A A A*,

of the cranial chamber is continuous with the lining membrane, C, of the

spinal canal. The brain is continuous with the spinal cord. The

intervertebral foramina of the cervical spine are manifesting serial

order with the cranial foramina. The nerves which pass through the

spinal region of this series of foramina above and below C are

continuous with the nerves which pass through the cranial region. The

anterior boundary, D I, of the cervical spine is continuous with the

anterior boundary, Y F, of the cranial cavity. And this common serial

order of osseous parts--viz., the bodies of vertebrae, serves to

isolate the cranio-spinal compartment from the facial and cervical

passages. Thus the anterior boundary, Y F D I, of the cranio-spinal

canal is also the posterior boundary of the facial and cervical

cavities.

Now as the cranio-spinal chamber is lined by the common dura-matral

membrane, and contains the common mass of nervous structure, thus

inviting us to fix attention upon this structure as a whole, so we find

that the frontal cavity, Z, the nasal cavity, X W, the oral cavity, 4,

5, S, the pharyngeal and oesophageal passages 8 Q, are lined by the

common mucous membrane, and communicate so freely with each other that

they may be in fact considered as forming a common cavity divided only

by partially formed septa, such as the one, U V, which separates to some

extent the nasal fossa from the oral fossa.

As owing to this continuity of structure, visible between the head and

spine, we may infer the liability which the affections of the one region

have to pass into and implicate the other, so likewise by that

continuity apparent between all compartments of the face, fauces,

oesophagus, and larynx, we may estimate how the pathological condition

of the one region will concern the others.

The cranium, owing to its comparatively superficial and undefended

condition, is liable to fracture. When the cranium is fractured, in

consequence of force applied to its anterior or posterior surfaces, A or

B, Plate 20, the fracture will, for the most part, be confined to the

place whereat the force has been applied, provided the point opposite

has not been driven against some resisting body at the same time. Thus

when the point B is struck by a force sufficient to fracture the bone,

while the point A is not opposed to any resisting body, then B alone

will yield to the force applied; and fracture thus occurring at the

point B, will have happened at the place where the applied force is met

by the force, or weight, or inertia of the head itself. But when B is

struck by any ponderous body, while A is at the same moment forced

against a resisting body, then A is also liable to suffer fracture. If

fracture in one place be attended with counter-fracture in another

place, as at the opposite points A and B, then the fracture occurs from

the force impelling, while the counter-fracture happens by the force

resisting.

Now in the various motions which the cranium A A B performs upon the top

of the cervical spine C, motions backwards, forwards, and to either

side, it will follow that, taking C as a fixed point, almost all parts

of the cranial periphery will be brought vertical to C in succession,

and therefore whichever point happens at the moment to stand opposite to

C, and has impelling force applied to it, then C becomes the point of

resistance, and thus counter-fractures at the cranial base occur in the

neighbourhood of C. When force is applied to the cranial vertex, whilst

the body is in the erect posture, the top of the cervical spine, E D C,

becomes the point of resistance. Or if the body fall from a height upon

its cranial vertex, then the propelling force will take effect at the

junction of the spine with the cranial base, whilst the resisting force

will be the ground upon which the vertex strikes. In either case the

cranial base, as well as the vertex, will be liable to fracture.

The anatomical form of the cranium is such as to obviate a frequent

liability to fracture. Its rounded shape diffuses, as is the case with

all rotund forms, the force which happens to strike upon it. The mode in

which the cranium is set upon the cervical spine serves also to diffuse

the pressure at the points where the two opposing forces meet--viz., at

the first cervical vertebra E and the cranial basilar process F. This

fact might be proved upon mechanical principle.

The tegumentary envelope of the head, as well as the dura-matral lining,

serves to damp cranial vibration consequent upon concussion; while the

sutural isolation of the several component bones of the cranium also

prevents, in some degree, the extension of fractures and the vibrations

of concussion. The contents of the head, like the contents of all hollow

forms, receive the vibratory influence of force externally applied. The

brain receives the concussion of the force applied to its osseous

envelope; and when this latter happens to be fractured, the danger to

life is not in proportion to the extent of the fracture here, any more

than elsewhere in the skeleton fabric, but is solely in proportion to

the amount of shock or injury sustained by the nervous centre.

When it is required to trephine any part of the cranial envelope, the

points which should be avoided, as being in the neighbourhood of

important bloodvessels, are the following--the occipital protuberance,

B, within which the "torcular Herophili" is situated, and from this

point passing through the median line of the vertex forwards to Z the

frontal sinus, the trephine should not be applied, as this line marks

the locality of the superior longitudinal sinus. The great lateral sinus

is marked by the superior occipital ridge passing from the point B

outwards to the mastoid process. The central point B of the side of the

head, Plate 21, marks the locality of the root of the meningeal artery

within the cranium, and from this point the vessel branches forwards and

backwards over the interior of the cranium.

The nasal fossae are situated on either side of the median partition

formed by the vomer and cartilaginous nasal septum. Both nasal fossae

are open anteriorly and posteriorly; but laterally they do not, in the

normal state of these parts, communicate. The two posterior nares

answering to the two nasal fossae open into the upper part of the bag of

the pharynx at 8, Plate 20, which marks the opening of the Eustachian

tube.

The structures observable in both the nasal fossae absolutely

correspond, and the foramina which open into each correspond likewise.

All structures situated on either side of the median line are similar.

And the structure which occupies the median line is itself double, or

duality fused into symmetrical unity. The osseous nasal septum is

composed of two laminae laid side by side. The spongy bones, X W, are

attached to the outer wall of the nasal fossa, and are situated one

above the other. These bones are three in number, the uppermost is the

smallest. The outer wall of each naris is grooved by three fossae,

called meatuses, and these are situated between the spongy bones. Each

meatus receives one or more openings of various canals and cavities of

the facial apparatus. The sphenoidal sinus near F opens into the upper

meatus. The frontal, Z, and maxillary sinuses open into the middle

meatus, and the nasal duct opens into the inferior sinus beneath the

anterior inferior angle of the lower spongy bone, W.

In the living body the very vascular fleshy and glandular Schneiderian

membrane which lines all parts of the nasal fossa almost completely

fills this cavity. When polypi or other growths occupy the nasal fossae,

they must gain room at the expense of neighbouring parts. The nasal duct

may have a bent probe introduced into it by passing the instrument along

the outer side of the floor of the nasal fossa as far back as the

anterior inferior angle of the lower spongy bone, W, at which locality

the duct opens. An instrument of sufficient length, when introduced into

the nostrils in the same direction, will, if passed backwards through

the posterior nares, reach the opening of the Eustachian tube, 8.

While the jaws are closed, the tongue, R, Plate 20, occupies the oral

cavity almost completely. When the jaws are opened they form a cavity

between them equal in capacity to the degree at which they are sundered

from each other. The back of the pharynx can be seen when the jaws are

widely opened if the tongue be depressed, as R, Plate 20. The hard

palate, U, which forms the roof of the mouth, is extended further

backwards by the soft palate, V, which hangs as the loose velum of the

throat between the nasal fossae above and the fauces below. Between the

velum palati, V, and the root of the tongue, we may readily discern,

when the jaws are open, two ridges of arching form, 5, 6, on either side

of the fauces. These prominent arches and their fellows are named the

pillars of the fauces. The anterior pillar, 5, is formed by the

submucous palato-glossus muscle; the posterior pillar, 6, is formed by

the palato-pharyngeus muscle. Between these pillars, 5 and 6, is

situated the tonsil, S, beneath the mucous membrane. When the tonsils of

opposite sides become inflamed and suppurate, an incision may be made

into either gland without much chance of wounding the internal carotid

artery; for, in fact, this vessel lies somewhat removed from it behind.

In Plate 21, that point of the superior constrictor of the pharynx,

marked D, indicates the situation of the tonsil gland; and a

considerable interval will be seen to exist between D and the internal

carotid vessel F.

If the head be thrown backwards the nasal and oral cavities will look

almost vertically towards the pharyngeal pouch. When the juggler is

about to "swallow the sword," he throws the head back so as to bring the

mouth and fauces in a straight line with the pharynx and oesophagus. And

when the surgeon passes the probang or other instruments into the

oesophagus, he finds it necessary to give the head of the person on whom

he operates the same inclination backwards. When instruments are being

passed into the oesophagus through the nasal fossa, they are not so

likely to encounter the rima glottidis below the epiglottis, 9, as when

they are being passed into the oesophagus by the mouth. The glottis may

be always avoided by keeping the point of the instrument pressing

against the back of the pharynx during its passage downwards.

When in suspended animation we endeavour to inflate the lungs through

the nose or mouth, we should press the larynx, 10, 11,12, backwards

against the vertebral column, so as to close the oesophageal tube.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 20 & 21.

PLATE 20.

A A. The dura-matral falx; A*, its attachment to the tentorium.

B. Torcular Herophili.

C. Dura-mater lining the spinal canal.

D D*. Axis vertebra.

E E*. Atlas vertebra.

F F*. Basilar processes of the sphenoid and occipital bones.

G. Petrous part of the temporal bone.

H. Cerebellar fossa.

I I*. Seventh cervical vertebra.

K K*. First rib surrounding the upper part of the pleural sac.

L L*. Subclavian artery of the right side overlying the pleural sac.

M M*. Right subclavian vein.

N. Right common carotid artery cut at its origin.

O. Trachea.

P. Thyroid body.

Q. Oesophagus.

R. Genio-hyo-glossus muscle.

S. Left tonsil beneath the mucous membrane.

T. Section of the lower maxilla.

U. Section of the upper maxilla.

V. Velum palati in section.

W. Inferior spongy bone.

X. Middle spongy bone.

Y. Crista galli of oethmoid bone.

Z. Frontal sinus.

2. Anterior cartilaginous part of nasal septum.

3. Nasal bone.

4. Last molar tooth of the left side of lower jaw.

5. Anterior pillar of the fauces.

6. Posterior pillar of the fauces.

7. Genio-hyoid muscle.

8. Opening of Eustachian tube.

9. Epiglottis.

10. Hyoid bone.

11. Thyroid bone.

12. Cricoid bone.

13. Thyroid axis.

14. Part of anterior scalenus muscle.

15. Humeral end of the clavicle.

16. Part of posterior scalenus muscle.

Plate 20

PLATE 21.

A. Zygoma.

B. Articular glenoid fossa of temporal bone.

C. External pterygoid process lying on the levator and tensor palati

muscles.

D. Superior constrictor of pharynx.

E. Transverse process of the Atlas.

F. Internal carotid artery. Above the point F, is seen the

glosso-pharyngeal nerve; below F, is seen the hypoglossal nerve.

G. Middle constrictor of pharynx.

H. Internal jugular vein.

I. Common carotid cut across.

K. Rectus capitis major muscle.

L. Inferior constrictor of pharynx.

M. Levator anguli scapulae muscle.

N. Posterior scalenus muscle.

O. Anterior scalenus muscle.

P. Brachial plexus of nerves.

Q. Trachea.

R R*. Subclavian artery.

S. End of internal jugular vein.

T. Bracheo-cephalic artery.

U U*. Roots of common carotid arteries.

V. Thyroid body.

W. Thyroid cartilage.

X. Hyoid bone.

Y. Hyo-glossus muscle.

Z. Upper maxillary bone.

2. Inferior maxillary branch of fifth cerebral nerve.

3. Digastric muscle cut.

4. Styloid process.

5. External carotid artery.

6 6. Lingual artery.

7. Roots of cervical plexus of nerves.

8. Thyroid axis; 8*, thyroid artery, between which and Q, the trachea,

is seen the inferior laryngeal nerve.

9. Omo-hyoid muscle cut.

10. Sternal end of clavicle.

11. Upper rings of trachea, which may with most safety be divided in

tracheotomy.

12. Cricoid cartilage.

13. Crico-thyroid interval where laryngotomy is performed.

14. Genio-hyoid muscle.

15. Section of lower maxilla.

16. Parotid duct.

17. Lingual attachment of styloglossus muscle, with part of the

gustatory nerve seen above it.

Plate 21

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 22

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 22.

THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE SUPERFICIAL ORGANS OF THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN.

In the osseous skeleton, the thorax and abdomen constitute a common

compartment. We cannot, while we contemplate this skeleton, isolate the

one region from the other by fact or fancy. The only difference which I

can discover between the regions called thorax and abdomen, in the

osseous skeleton, (considering this body morphologically,) results,

simply, from the circumstance that the ribs, which enclose thoracic

space, have no osseous counterparts in the abdomen enclosing abdominal

space, and this difference is merely histological. In man and the

mammalia the costal arches hold relation with the pulmonary organs, and

these costae fail at that region where the ventral organs are located.

In birds, and many reptiles, the costal arches enclose the common

thoracico-abdominal region, as if it were a common pulmonary region. In

fishes the costal arches enclose the thoracico-abdominal region, just as

if it were a common abdominal region. I merely mention these general

facts to show that costal enclosure does not actually serve to isolate

the thorax from the abdomen in the lower classes of animals; and on

turning to the human form, I find that this line of separation between

the two compartments is so very indefinite, that, as pathologists, we

are very liable to err in our diagnosis between the diseased and the

healthy organs of either region, as they lie in relation with the

moveable diaphragm or septum in the living body. The contents of the

whole trunk of the body from the top of the sternum to the perineum are

influenced by the respiratory motions; and it is most true that the

diaphragmatic line, H F H*, is alternately occupied by those organs

situated immediately above and below it during the performance of these

motions, even in health.

The organs of the thoracic region hold a certain relation to each other

and to the thoracic walls. The organs of the abdomen hold likewise a

certain relation to each other and to the abdominal parietes. The organs

of both the thorax and the abdomen have a certain relation to each

other, as they lie above and below the diaphragm. In dead nature these

relations are fixed and readily ascertainable, but in living, moving

nature, the organs influence this relative position, not only of each

other, but also of that which they bear to the cavities in which they

are contained. This change of place among the organs occurs in the

normal or healthy state of the living body, and, doubtless, raises some

difficulty in the way of our ascertaining, with mathematical precision,

the actual state of the parts which we question, by the physical signs

of percussion and auscultation. In disease this change of place among

these organs is increased, and the difficulty of making a correct

diagnosis is increased also in the same ratio. For when an emphysematous

lung shall fully occupy the right thoracic side from B to L, then G, the

liver, will protrude considerably into the abdomen beneath the right

asternal ribs, and yet will not be therefore proof positive that the

liver is diseased and abnormally enlarged. Whereas, on the other hand,

when G, the liver, is actually diseased, it may occupy a situation in

the right side as high as the fifth or sixth ribs, pushing the right

lung upwards as high as that level; and, therefore, while percussion

elicits a dull sound over this place thus occupied, such sound will not

be owing to a hepatized lung, but to the absence of the lung caused by

the presence of the liver.

In the healthy adult male body, Plate 22, the two lungs, D D*, whilst in

their ordinary expanded state, may be said to range over all that region

of the trunk of the body which is marked by the sternal and asternal

ribs. The heart, E, occupies the thoracic centre, and part of the left

thoracic side. The heart is almost completely enveloped in the two

lungs. The only portion of the heart and pericardium, which appears

uncovered by the lung on opening the thorax, is the base of the right

ventricle, E, situated immediately behind the lower end of the sternum,

where this bone is joined by the cartilages of the sixth and seventh

ribs. The lungs range perpendicularly from points an inch above B, the

first rib, downwards to L, the tenth rib, and obliquely downwards and

backwards to the vertebral ends of the last ribs. This space varies in

capacity, according to the degree in which the lungs are expanded within

it. The increase in thoracic space is attained, laterally, by the

expansion of the ribs, C I; and vertically, by the descent of the

diaphragm, H, which forces downwards the mass of abdominal viscera. The

contraction of thoracic space is caused by the approximation of all the

ribs on each side to each other; and by the ascent of the diaphragm. The

expansion of the lungs around the heart would compress this organ, were

it not that the costal sides yield laterally while the diaphragm itself

descends. The heart follows the ascent and descent of the diaphragm,

both in ordinary and forced respiration.

But however much the lungs vary in capacity, or the heart as to position

in the respiratory motions, still the lungs are always closely applied

to the thoracic walls. Between the pleura costalis and pulmonalis there

occurs no interval in health. The thoracic parietes expand and contract

to a certain degree; and to that same degree, and no further, do the

lungs within the thorax expand and contract. By no effort of expiration

can the animal expel all the air completely from its lungs, since by no

effort of its own, can it contract thoracic space beyond the natural

limit. On the other hand, the utmost degree of expansion of which the

lungs are capable, exactly equals that degree in which the thoracic

walls are dilatable by the muscular effort; and, therefore, between the

extremes of inspiration and expiration, the lungs still hold closely

applied to the costal parietes. The air within the lungs is separated

from the air external to the thorax, by the thoracic parietes. The air

within and external to the lungs communicate at the open glottis. When

the glottis closes and cuts off the communication, the respiratory act

ceases--the lungs become immovable, and the thoracic walls are (so far

as the motions of respiration are concerned) rendered immovable also.

The muscles of respiration cannot, therefore, produce a vacuum between

the pulmonic and costal pleura, either while the external air has or has

not access to the lungs. Upon this fact the mechanism of respiration

mainly depends; and we may see a still further proof of this in the

circumstance that, when the thoracic parietes are pierced, so as to let

the external air into the cavity of the pleura, the lung collapses and

the thoracic side ceases to exert an expansile influence over the lung.

When in cases of fracture of the rib the lung is wounded, and the air of

the lung enters the pleura, the same effect is produced as when the

external air was admitted through an opening in the side.

When serous or purulent effusion takes place within the cavity of the

pleura, the capacity of the lung becomes lessened according to the

quantity of the effusion. It is more reasonable to expect that the soft

tissue of the lung should yield to the quantity of fluid within the

pleural cavity, than that the rigid costal walls should give way

outwardly; and, therefore, it seldom happens that the practitioner can

discover by the eye any strongly-marked difference between the thoracic

walls externally, even when a considerable quantity of either serum,

pus, or air, occupies the pleural sacs.

In the healthy state of the thoracic organs, a sound characteristic of

the presence of the lung adjacent to the walls of the thorax may be

elicited by percussion, or heard during the respiratory act through the

stethoscope, over all that costal space ranging anteriorly between B,

the first rib, and I K, the eight and ninth ribs. The respiratory murmur

can be heard below the level of these ribs posteriorly, for the lung

descends behind the arching diaphragm as far as the eleventh rib.

When fluid is effused into the pleural cavity, the ribs are not moved by

the intercostal muscles opposite the place occupied by the fluid, for

this has separated the lung from the ribs. The fluid has compressed the

lung; and in the same ratio as the lung is prevented from expanding, the

ribs become less moveable. The presence of fluid in the pleural sac is

discoverable by dulness on percussion, and, as might be expected, by the

absence of the respiratory murmur at that locality which the fluid

occupies. Fluid, when effused into the pleural sac, will of course

gravitate; and its position will vary according to the position of the

patient. The sitting or standing posture will therefore suit best for

the examination of the thorax in reference to the presence of fluid.

Though the lungs are closely applied to the costal sides at all times in

the healthy state of these organs, still they slide freely within the

thorax during the respiratory motions--forwards and backwards--over the

serous pericardium, E, and upwards and downwards along the pleura

costalis. The length of the adhesions which supervene upon pleuritis

gives evidence of the extent of these motions. When the lung becomes in

part solidified and impervious to the inspired air, the motions of the

thoracic parietes opposite to the part are impeded. Between a solidified

lung and one which happens to be compressed by effused fluid it requires

no small experience to distinguish a difference, either by percussion or

the use of the stethoscope. It is great experience alone that can

diagnose hydro-pericardium from hypertrophy of the substance of the

heart by either of these means.

The thoracic viscera gravitate according to the position of the body.

The heart in its pericardial envelope sways to either side of the

sternal median line according as the body lies on this or that side. The

two lungs must, therefore, be alternately affected as to their capacity

according as the heart occupies space on either side of the thorax. In

expiration, the heart, E, is more uncovered by the shelving edges of the

lungs than in inspiration. In pneumothorax of either of the pleural sacs

the air compresses the lung, pushes the heart from its normal position,

and the space which the air occupies in the pleura yields a clear hollow

sound on percussion, whilst, by the ear or stethoscope applied to a

corresponding part of the thoracic walls, we discover the absence of the

respiratory murmur.

The transverse diameter of the thoracic cavity varies at different

levels from above downwards. The diameter which the two first ribs, B

B*, measure, is the least. That which is measured by the two eighth

ribs, I I*, is the greatest. The perpendicular depth of the thorax,

measured anteriorly, ranges from A, the top of the sternum, to F, the

xyphoid cartilage. Posteriorly, the perpendicular range of the thoracic

cavity measures from the spinous process of the seventh cervical

vertebra above, to the last dorsal spinous process below. In full,

deep-drawn inspiration in the healthy adult, the ear applied to the

thoracic walls discovers the respiratory murmur over all the space

included within the above mentioned bounds. After extreme expiration, if

the thoracic walls be percussed, this capacity will be found much

diminished; and the extreme limits of the thoracic space, which during

full inspiration yielded a clear sound, indicative of the presence of

the lung, will now, on percussion, manifest a dull sound, in consequence

of the absence of the lung, which has receded from the place previously

occupied.

Owing to the conical form of the thoracic space, the apex of which is

measured by the first ribs, B B*, and the basis by I I*, it will be seen

that if percussion be made directly from before, backwards, over the

pectoral masses, R R*, the pulmonic resonance will not be elicited. When

we raise the arms from the side and percuss the thorax between the folds

of the axillae, where the serratus magnus muscle alone intervenes

between the ribs and the skin, the pulmonic sound will answer clearly.

At the hypochondriac angles formed between the points F, L, N, on either

side the lungs are absent both in inspiration and expiration.

Percussion, when made over the surface of the angle of the right side,

discovers the presence of the liver, G G*. When made over the median

line, and on either side of it above the umbilicus, N, we ascertain the

presence of the stomach, M M*. In the left hypochondriac angle, the

stomach may also be found to occupy this place wholly.

Beneath the umbilicus, N, and on either side of it as far outwards as

the lower asternal ribs, K L, thus ranging the abdominal parietes

transversely, percussion discovers the transverse colon, O, P, O*. The

small intestines, S S*, covered by the omentum, P*, occupy the

hypogastric and iliac regions.

The organs situated within the thorax give evidence that they are

developed in accordance to the law of symmetry. The lungs form a pair,

one placed on either side of the median line. The heart is a double

organ, formed of the right and left heart. The right lung differs from

the left, inasmuch as we find the former divided into three lobes, while

the latter has only two. That place which the heart now occupies in the

left thoracic side is the place where the third or middle lobe of the

left lung is wanting. In the abdomen we find that most of its organs are

single. The liver, stomach, spleen, colon, and small intestine form a

series of single organs: each of these may be cleft symmetrically. The

kidneys are a pair.

The extent to which the ribs are bared in the figure Plate 22, marks

exactly the form and transverse capacity of the thoracic walls. The

diaphragm, H H*, has had a portion of its forepart cut off, to show how

it separates the thin edges of both lungs above from the liver, G, and

the stomach, M, below. These latter organs, although occupying abdominal

space, rise to a considerable height behind K L, the asternal ribs, a

fact which should be borne in mind when percussing the walls of the

thorax and abdomen at this region.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 22.

A. Upper bone of the sternum.

B B*. Two first ribs.

C C*. Second pair of ribs.

D D*. Right and left lungs.

E. Pericardium, enveloping the heart--the right ventricle.

F. Lower end of the sternum.

G G*. Lobes of the liver.

H H*. Right and left halves of the diaphragm in section. The right half

separating the right lung from the liver; the left half separating

the left lung from the broad cardiac end of the stomach.

I I*. Eighth pair of ribs.

K K*. Ninth pair of ribs.

L L*. Tenth pair of ribs.

M M*. The stomach; M, its cardiac bulge; M*, its pyloric extremity.

N. The umbilicus.

OO*. The transverse colon.

P P*. The omentum, covering the transverse colon and small intestines.

Q. The gall bladder.

R R*. The right and left pectoral prominences.

S S*. Small intestines.

Plate 22

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 23

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 23.

THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE DEEPER ORGANS

OF THE THORAX AND THOSE OF THE ABDOMEN.

The size or capacity of the thorax in relation to that of the abdomen

varies in the individual at different periods of life. At an early age,

the thorax, compared to the abdomen, is less in proportion than it is at

adult age. The digestive organs in early age preponderate considerably

over the respiratory organs; whereas, on the contrary, in the healthy

and well-formed adult, the thoracic cavity and organs of respiration

manifest a greater relative proportion to the ventral cavity and organs.

At the adult age, when sexual peculiarities have become fully marked,

the thoracic organs of the male body predominate over those of the

abdomen, whilst in the female form the ventral organs take precedence as

to development and proportions. This diversity in the relative capacity

of the thorax and abdomen at different stages of development, and also

in persons of different sexes, stamps each individual with

characteristic traits of physical conformation; and it is required that

we should take into our consideration this normal diversity of

character, while conducting our examinations of individuals in reference

to the existence of disease.

The heart varies in some measure, not only as to size and weight, but

also as to position, even in healthy individuals of the same age and

sex. The level at which the heart is in general found to be situated in

the thorax is that represented in PLATE 23, where the apex points to the

sixth intercostal space on the left side above K, while the arch of the

aorta rises to a level with C, the second costal cartilage. In some

instances, the heart may be found to occupy a much lower position in the

thorax than the one above mentioned, or even a much higher level. The

impulse of the right ventricle, F, has been noticed occasionally as

corresponding to a point somewhat above the middle of the sternum and

the intercostal space between the fourth and fifth left costal

cartilages; while in other instances its beating was observable as low

down as an inch or more below the xiphoid cartilage, and these

variations have existed in a state of health.

Percussion over the region of the heart yields a dull flat sound. The

sound is dullest opposite the right ventricle, F; whilst above and to

either side of this point, where the heart is overlapped by the anterior

shelving edges of both lungs, the sound is modified in consequence of

the lung's resonant qualities. The heart-sounds, as heard through the

stethoscope, in valvular disease, will, of course, be more distinctly

ascertained at the locality of F, the right ventricle, which is

immediately substernal. While the body lies supine, the heart recedes

from the forepart of the chest; and the lungs during inspiration

expanding around the heart will render its sounds less distinct. In the

erect posture, the heart inclines forwards and approaches the anterior

wall of the thorax. When the heart is hypertrophied, the lungs do not

overlap it to the same extent as when it is of its ordinary size. In the

latter state, the elastic cushion of the lung muffles the heart's

impulse. In the former state, the lung is pushed aside by the overgrown

heart, the strong muscular walls of which strike forcibly against the

ribs and sternum.

The thorax is separated from the abdomen by the moveable diaphragm. The

heart, F E, lies upon the diaphragm, L L*. The liver, M, lies

immediately beneath the right side of this muscular septum, L*, while

the bulging cardiac end of the stomach, O, is in close contact with it

on the left side, L. As these three organs are attached to the

diaphragm--the heart by its pericardium, the stomach by the tube of the

oesophagus, and the liver by its suspensory ligaments--it must happen

that the diaphragm while descending and ascending in the motions of

inspiration and expiration will communicate the same alternate motions

to the organs which are connected with it.

In ordinary respiration the capacity of the thorax is chiefly affected

by the motions of the diaphragm; and the relative position which this

septum holds with regard to the thoracic and abdominal chambers will

cause its motions of ascent and descent to influence the capacity of

both chambers at the same time. When the lungs expand, they follow the

descent of the diaphragm, which forces the abdominal contents downwards,

and thus what the thorax gains in space the abdomen loses. When the

lungs contract, the diaphragm ascends, and by this act the abdomen gains

that space which the thorax loses. But the organs of the thoracic cavity

perform a different office in the economy from those of the abdomen. The

air which fills the lungs is soon again expired, whilst the ingesta of

the abdominal viscera are for a longer period retained; and as the

space, which by every inspiration the thorax gains from the abdomen,

would cause inconvenient pressure on the distended organs of this latter

cavity, so we find that to obviate this inconvenience, nature has

constructed the anterior parietes of the abdomen of yielding material.

The muscular parietes of the abdomen relax during every inspiration, and

thus this cavity gains that space which it loses by the encroachment of

the dilating lungs.

The mechanical principle upon which the abdominal chamber is

constructed, enables it to adjust its capacity to such exigence or

pressing necessity as its own visceral organs impose on it, from time to

time; and the relation which the abdominal cavity bears to the thoracic

chamber, enables it also to be compensatory to this latter. When the

inspiratory thorax gains space from the abdomen, or when space is

demanded for the increasing bulk of the alimentary canal, or for the

enlarging pregnant uterus; or when, in consequence of disease, such as

dropsical accumulation, more room is wanted, then the abdominal chamber

supplies the demand by the anterior bulge or swell of its expansile

muscular parietes.

The position of the heart itself is affected by the expansion of the

lungs on either side of it. As the expanding lungs force the diaphragm

downwards, the heart follows it, and all the abdominal viscera yield

place to the descending thoracic contents. In strong muscular efforts

the diaphragm plays an important part, for, previously to making forced

efforts, the lungs are distended with air, so as to swell and render

fixed the thoracic walls into which so many powerful muscles of the

shoulders, the neck, back, and abdomen, are inserted; at the same time

the muscular diaphragm L L*, becomes tense and unbent from its arched

form, thereby contracting abdominal space, which now has no compensation

for this loss of space, since the abdominal parietes are also rendered

firm and unyielding. It is at this crisis of muscular effort that the

abdominal viscera become impacted together; and, acting by their own

elasticity against the muscular force, make an exit for themselves

through the weakest parts of the abdominal walls, and thus herniae of

various kinds are produced. The most common situations of abdominal

herniae are at the inguinal regions, towards which the intestines, T T,

naturally gravitate; and at these situations the abdominal parietes are

weak and membranous.

The contents of a hernial protrusion through the abdominal parietes,

correspond in general with those divisions of the intestinal tube, which

naturally lie adjacent to the part where the rupture has taken place. In

the umbilical hernia it is either the transverse colon S*, or some part

of the small intestine occupying the median line, or both together, with

some folds of the omentum, which will be found to form the contents of

this swelling. When the diaphragm itself sustains a rupture in its left

half, the upper portion of the descending colon, S, protrudes through

the opening. A diaphragmatic hernia has not, so far as I am aware, been

seen to occur in the right side; and this exemption from rupture of the

right half of the diaphragm may be accounted for anatomically, by the

fact that the liver, M, defends the diaphragm at this situation. The

liver occupies the whole depth of the right hypochondrium; and

intervenes between the diaphragm L*, and the right extremity of the

transverse colon, S**.

The contents of a right inguinal hernia consist of the small intestine,

T. The contents of the right crural hernia are formed by either the

small intestine, T, or the intestinum caecum, S***. I have seen a few

cases in which the caecum formed the right crural hernia. Examples are

recorded in which the intestine caecum formed the contents of a right

inguinal hernia. The left inguinal and crural herniae contain most

generally the small intestine, T, of the left side.

The right lung, I*, is shorter than the left; for the liver, M, raises

the diaphragm, L, to a higher level within the thorax, on the right

side, than it does on the left. When the liver happens to be diseased

and enlarged, it encroaches still more on thoracic space; but,

doubtless, judging from the anatomical connexions of the liver, we may

conclude that when it becomes increased in volume it will accommodate

itself as much at the expense of abdominal space. The liver, in its

healthy state and normal proportions, protrudes for an inch (more or

less) below the margins of the right asternal ribs. The upper or convex

surface of the liver rises beneath the diaphragm to a level

corresponding with the seventh or sixth rib, but this position will vary

according to the descent and ascent of the diaphragm in the respiratory

movements. The ligaments by which the liver is suspended do not prevent

its full obedience to these motions.

The left lung, I, descends to a lower level than the right; and the left

diaphragm upon which it rests is itself supported by the cardiac end of

the stomach. When the stomach is distended, it does not even then

materially obstruct the expansion of the left lung, or the descent of

the left diaphragm, for the abdominal walls relax and allow of the

increasing volume of the stomach to accommodate itself. The spleen, R,

is occasionally subject to an extraordinary increase of bulk; and this

organ, like the enlarged liver and the distended stomach, will, to some

extent, obstruct the movements of the diaphragm in the act of

respiration, but owing to its free attachments it admits of a change of

place. The abdominal viscera, one and all, admit of a change of place;

the peculiar forms of those mesenteric bonds by which they are

suspended, allow them to glide freely over each other; and this

circumstance, together with the yielding nature of the abdominal

parietes, allows the thoracic organs to have full and easy play in the

respiratory movements performed by agency of the diaphragm.

The muscles of respiration perform with ease so long as the air has

access to the lungs through the normal passage, viz., the trachea. While

the principle of the thoracic pneumatic apparatus remains underanged,

the motor powers perform their functions capably. The physical or

pneumatic power acts in obedience to the vital or muscular power, while

both stand in equilibrium; but the ascendancy of the one over the other

deranges the whole thoracic machine. When the glottis closes by muscular

spasm and excludes the external air, the respiratory muscles cease to

exert a motor power upon the pulmonary cavity; their united efforts

cannot cause a vacuum in thoracic space in opposition to the pressure of

the external air. When, in addition to the natural opening of the

glottis, a false opening is made in the side at the point K, the air

within the lung at I, and external to it in the now open pleural cavity,

will stand in equilibrio; the lung will collapse as having no muscular

power by which to dilate itself, and the thoracic dilator muscles will

cease to affect the capacity of the lung, so long as by their action in

expanding the thoracic walls, the air gains access through the side to

the pleural sac external to the lung.

Whether the air be admitted into the pleural sac, by an opening made in

the side from without, or by an opening in the lung itself, the

mechanical principle of the respiratory apparatus will be equally

deranged. Pneumo-thorax will be the result of either lesion; and by the

accumulation of air in the pleura the lung will suffer pressure. This

pressure will be permanent so long as the air has no egress from the

cavity of the pleura.

The permanent distention of the thoracic cavity, caused by the

accumulation of air in the pleural sac, or by the diffusion of air

through the interlobular cellular tissue consequent on a wound of the

lung itself, will equally obstruct the breathing; and though the

situation of the accumulated air is in fact anatomically different in

both cases, yet the effect produced is similar. Interlobular pressure

and interpleural pressure result in the same thing, viz., the permanent

retention of the air external to the pulmonary cells, which, in the

former case, are collapsed individually; and, in the latter case, in the

mass. Though the emphysematous lung is distended to a size equal to the

healthy lung in deep inspiration, yet we know that emphysematous

distention, being produced by extrabronchial air accumulation, is, in

fact, obstructive to the respiratory act. The emphysematous lung will,

in the same manner as the distended pleural sac, depress the diaphragm

and render the thoracic muscles inoperative. The foregoing observations

have been made in reference to the effect of wounds of the thorax, the

proper treatment of which will be obviously suggested by our knowledge

of the state of the contained organs which have suffered lesion.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 23.

A. Upper end of the sternum.

B B.* First pair of ribs.

C C.* Second pair of ribs.

D. Aorta, with left vagus and phrenic nerves crossing its transverse

arch.

E. Root of pulmonary artery.

F. Right ventricle.

G. Right auricle.

H. Vena cava superior, with right phrenic nerve on its outer border.

I I*. Right and left lungs collapsed, and turned outwards, to show the

heart's outline.

K K*. Seventh pair of ribs.

L L*. The diaphragm in section.

M. The liver in section.

N. The gall bladder with its duct joining the hepatic duct to form the

common bile duct. The hepatic artery is seen superficial to the common

duct; the vena portae is seen beneath it. The patent orifices of the

hepatic veins are seen on the cut surface of the liver.

O. The stomach.

P. The coeliac axis dividing into the coronary, splenic and hepatic

arteries.

Q. Inferior vena cava.

R. The spleen.

S S* S**. The transverse colon, between which and the lower border of

the stomach is seen the gastro-epiploic artery, formed by

the splenic and hepatic arteries.

S***. Ascending colon in the right iliac region.

T. Convolutions of the small intestines distended with air.

Plate 23

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 24

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 24.

THE RELATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOODVESSELS

TO THE VISCERA OF THE THORACICO-ABDOMINAL CAVITY.

The median line of the body is occupied by the centres of the four great

systems of organs which serve in the processes of circulation,

respiration, innervation, and nutrition. These organs being fashioned in

accordance with the law of symmetry, we find them arranged in close

connexion with the vertebrate centre of the osseous fabric, which is

itself symmetrical. In this symmetrical arrangement of the main organs

of the trunk of the body, a mechanical principle is prominently

apparent; for as the centre is the least moveable and most protected

region of the form, so have these vitally important structures the full

benefit of this situation. The aortal trunk, G, of the arterial system

is disposed along the median line, as well for its own safety as for the

fitting distribution of those branches which spring symmetrically from

either side of it to supply the lateral regions of the body.

The visceral system of bloodvessels is moulded upon the organs which

they supply. As the thoracic viscera differ in form and functional

character from those of the abdomen, so we find that the arterial

branches which are supplied by the aorta to each set, differ likewise in

some degree. In the accompanying figure, which represents the thoracic

and abdominal visceral branches of the aorta taken in their entirety,

this difference in their arrangement may be readily recognised. In the

thorax, compared with the abdomen, we find that not only do the aortic

branches differ in form according to the variety of those organs

contained in either region, but that they differ numerically according

to the number of organs situated in each. The main vessel itself,

however, is common to both regions. It is the one thoracico-abdominal

vessel, and this circumstance calls for the comparison, not only of the

several parts of the great vessel itself, but of all the branches which

spring from it, and of the various organs which lie in its vicinity in

the thorax and abdomen, and hence we are invited to the study of these

regions themselves connectedly.

In the thorax, the aorta, G G*, is wholly concealed by the lungs in

their states both of inspiration and expiration. The first part of the

aortic arch, as it springs from the left ventricle of the heart, is the

most superficial, being almost immediately sub-sternal, and on a level

with the sternal junctions of the fourth ribs. By applying the ear at

this locality, the play of the aortic valves may be distinctly heard.

From this point the aorta, G, rises and arches from before, backwards,

to the left side of the spine, G*. The arch of the vessel lies more

deeply between the two lungs than does its ventricular origin. The

descending thoracic aorta lies still more deeply situated at the left

side of the dorsal spine. At this latter situation it is in immediate

contact with the posterior thick part of the left lung; whilst on its

right are placed, L, the thoracic duct; I, the oesophagus; K, the vena

azygos, and the vertebral column. In Plate 26 may be seen the relation

which the superior vena cava, H, bears to the aortic arch, A.

In the span of the aortic arch will be found, H*, the left bronchus,

together with the right branch of the pulmonary artery, and the right

pulmonary veins. The pneumo-gastric and phrenic nerves descend on either

side of the arch. The left pneumo-gastric nerve winds round beneath the

arch at the point where the obliterated ductus arteriosus joins it. See

Plates 12 & 26.

The pulmonary artery, B, Plates 1 & 2, lies close upon the fore part,

and conceals the origin, of the systemic aorta. Whenever, therefore, the

semilunar valves of either the pulmonary artery or the systemic aorta

become diseased, it must be extremely difficult to distinguish by the

sounds alone, during life, in which of the two the derangement exists.

The origins of both vessels being at the fore part of the chest, it is

in this situation, of course, that the state of their valves is to be

examined. The descending part of the thoracic aorta, G*, being at the

posterior part of the chest, and lying on the vertebral ends of the left

thoracic ribs, will therefore require that we should examine its

condition in the living body at the dorsal aspect of the thorax. As the

arch of the aorta is directed from before backwards--that is, from the

sternum to the spine, it follows that when an aneurism implicates this

region of the vessel, the exact situation of the tumour must be

determined by antero-posterior examination; and we should recollect,

that though on the fore part of the chest the cartilages of the second

ribs, where these join the sternum, mark the level of the aortic arch,

on the back of the chest its level is to be taken from the vertebral

ends of the third or fourth ribs. This difference is caused by the

oblique descent of the ribs from the spine to the sternum. The first and

second dorsal vertebrae, with which the first and second ribs

articulate, are considerably above the level of the first and second

pieces of the sternum.

In a practical point of view, the pulmonary artery possesses but small

interest for us; and in truth the trunk of the systemic aorta itself may

be regarded in the same disheartening consideration, forasmuch as when

serious disease attacks either vessel, the "tree of life" may be said to

be lopped at its root.

When an aneurism arises from the aortic arch it implicates those

important organs which are gathered together in contact with itself. The

aneurismal tumour may press upon and obstruct the bronchi, H H*; the

thoracic duct, L; the oesophagus, I; the superior vena cava, H, Plate

26, or wholly obliterate either of the vagi nerves. The aneurism of the

arch of the aorta may cause suffocation in two ways--viz., either by

pressing directly on the tracheal tube, or by compressing and irritating

the vagus nerve, whose recurrent branch will convey the stimulus to the

laryngeal muscles, and cause spasmodic closure of the glottis. This

anatomical fact also fully accounts for the constant cough which attends

some forms of aortic aneurism. The pulmonary arteries and veins are also

liable to obstruction from the tumour. This will occur the more

certainly if the aneurism spring from the right or the inferior side of

the arch, and if the tumour should not break at an early period, slow

absorption, caused by pressure of the tumour, may destroy even the

vertebral column, and endanger the spinal nervous centre. If the tumour

spring from the left side or the fore part of the arch, it may in time

force a passage through the anterior wall of the thorax.

The principal branches of the thoracic aorta spring from the upper part

of its arch. The innominate artery, 2, is the first to arise from it;

the left common carotid, 6, and the left subclavian artery, 5, spring in

succession. These vessels being destined for the head and upper limbs,

we find that the remaining branches of the thoracic aorta are

comparatively diminutive, and of little surgical interest. The

intercostal arteries occasionally, when wounded, call for the aid of the

surgeon; these arteries, like all other branches of the aorta, are

largest at their origin. Where these vessels spring from G, the

descending thoracic aorta, they present considerable caliber; but at

this inaccessible situation, they seldom or never call for surgical

interference. As the intercostal arteries pass outwards, traversing the

intercostal spaces with their accompanying nerves, they diminish in

size. Each vessel divides at a distance of about two inches, more or

less, from the spine; and the upper larger branch lies under cover of

the inferior border of the adjacent rib. When it is required to perform

the operation of paracentesis thoracis, this distribution of the vessel

should be borne in mind; and also, that the farther from the spine this

operation is performed, the less in size will the vessels be found. The

intercostal artery is sometimes wounded by the fractured end of the rib,

in which case, if the pleura be lacerated, an effusion of blood takes

place within the thorax, compresses the lung, and obstructs respiration.

The thoracic aorta descends along the left side of the spine, as far as

the last dorsal vertebra, at which situation the pillars of the

diaphragm overarch the vessel. From this place the aorta passes

obliquely in front of the five lumbar vertebrae, and on arriving

opposite the fourth, it divides into the two common iliac branches. The

aorta, for an extent included between these latter boundaries, is named

the abdominal aorta, and from its fore part arise those branches, which

supply the viscera of the abdomen.

The branches which spring from the abdominal aorta to supply the viscera

of this region, are considerable, both as to their number and size. They

are, however, of comparatively little interest in practice. To the

anatomist they present many peculiarities of distribution and form

worthy of notice, as, for example, their frequent anastomosis, their

looping arrangement, and their large size and number compared with the

actual bulk of the organs which they supply. As to this latter

peculiarity, we interpret it according to the fact that here the vessels

serve other purposes in the economy besides that of the support and

repair of structure. The vessels are large in proportion to the great

quantity of fluid matter secreted from the whole extent of the inner

surface of this glandular apparatus--the gastro-intestinal canal, the

liver, pancreas, and kidneys.

As anatomists, we are enabled, from a knowledge of the relative position

of the various organs and bloodvessels of both the thorax and abdomen,

to account for certain pathological phenomena which, as practitioners,

we possess as yet but little skill to remedy. Thus it would appear most

probable that many cases of anasarca of the lower limbs, and of dropsy

of the belly, are frequently caused by diseased growths of the liver, P,

obstructing the inferior vena cava, R, and vena portae, rather than by

what we are taught to be the "want of balance between secreting and

absorbing surfaces." The like occurrence may obstruct the gall-ducts,

and occasion jaundice. Over-distention of any of those organs situated

beneath the right hypochondrium, will obstruct neighbouring organs and

vessels. Mechanical obstruction is doubtless so frequent a source of

derangement, that we need not on many occasions essay a deeper search

for explaining the mystery of disease.

In the right hypochondriac region there exists a greater variety of

organs than in the left; and disease is also more frequent on the right

side. Affections of the liver will consequently implicate a greater

number of organs than affections of the spleen on the left side, for the

spleen is comparatively isolated from the more important blood vessels

and other organs.

The external surface of the liver, P, lies in contact with the

diaphragm, N, the costal cartilages, M, and the upper and lateral parts

of the abdominal parietes; and when the liver becomes the seat of

abscess, this, according to its situation, will point and burst either

into the thorax above, or through the side between or beneath the false

ribs, M. The hepatic abscess has been known to discharge itself through

the stomach, the duodenum, T, and the transverse colon, facts which are

readily explained on seeing the close relationship which these parts

hold to the under surface of the liver. When the liver is inflamed, we

account for the gastric irritation, either from the inflammation having

extended to the neighbouring stomach, or by this latter organ being

affected by "reflex action." The hepatic cough is caused by the like

phenomena disturbing the diaphragm, N, with which the liver, P, lies in

close contact.

When large biliary concretions form in S, the gallbladder, or in the

hepatic duct, Nature, failing in her efforts to discharge them through

the common bile-duct, into the duodenum, T, sets up inflammation and

ulcerative absorption, by aid of which processes they make a passage for

themselves through some adjacent part of the intestine, either the

duodenum or the transverse colon. In these processes the gall-bladder,

which contains the calculus, becomes soldered by effused lymph to the

neighbouring part of the intestinal tube, into which the stone is to be

discharged, and thus its escape into the peritoneal sac is prevented.

When the hepatic abscess points externally towards M, the like process

isolates the matter from the cavities of the chest and abdomen.

In wounds of any part of the intestine, whether of X, the caecum, W, the

sigmoid flexure of the colon, or Z, the small bowel, if sufficient time

be allowed for Nature to establish the adhesive inflammation, she does

so, and thus fortifies the peritoneal sac against an escape of the

intestinal matter into it by soldering the orifice of the wounded

intestine to the external opening. In this mode is formed the artificial

anus. The surgeon on principle aids Nature in attaining this result.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 24.

A. The thyroid body.

B. The trachea.

C C*. The first ribs.

D D*. The clavicles, cut at their middle.

E. Humeral part of the great pectoral muscle, cut.

F. The coracoid process of the scapula.

G. The arch of the aorta. G*. Descending aorta in the thorax.

H. Right bronchus. H*. Left bronchus.

I. Oesophagus.

K. Vena azygos receiving the intercostal veins.

L. Thoracic duct.

M M*. Seventh ribs.

N N. The diaphragm, in section.

O. The cardiac orifice of the stomach.

P. The liver, in section, showing the patent orifices of the hepatic

veins.

Q. The coeliac axis sending off branches to the liver, stomach, and

spleen. The stomach has been removed, to show the looping anastomosis

of these vessels around the superior and inferior borders of the stomach.

R. The inferior vena cava about to enter its notch in the posterior

thick part of the liver, to receive the hepatic veins.

S. The gall-bladder, communicating by its duct with the hepatic duct,

which is lying upon the vena portae, and by the side of the hepatic

artery.

T. The pyloric end of the stomach, joining T*, the duodenum.

U. The spleen.

V V. The pancreas.

W. The sigmoid flexure of the colon.

X. The caput coli.

Y. The mesentery supporting the numerous looping branches of the

superior mesenteric artery.

Z. Some coils of the small intestine.

2. Innominate artery.

3. Right subclavian artery.

4. Right common carotid artery.

5. Left subclavian artery.

6. Left common carotid artery.

7. Left axillary artery.

8. Coracoid attachment of the smaller pectoral muscle.

9. Subscapular muscle.

10. Coracoid head of the biceps muscle.

11. Tendon of the latissimus dorsi muscle.

12. Superior mesenteric artery, with its accompanying vein.

13. Left kidney.

Plate 24

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 25

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 25.

THE RELATION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOODVESSELS OF THE THORAX AND

ABDOMEN TO THE OSSEOUS SKELETON, ETC.

The arterial system of vessels assumes, in all cases, somewhat of the

character of the forms upon which they are distributed, or of the organs

which they supply. This mode of distribution becomes the more apparent,

according as we rise from particulars to take a view of the whole. With

the same ease that any piece of the osseous fabric, taken separately,

may be known, so may any one artery, taken apart from the rest, be

distinguished as to the place which it occupied, and the organs which it

supplied in the economy. The vascular skeleton, whether taken as a whole

or in parts, exhibits characteristics as apparent as are those of the

osseous skeleton itself. The main bloodvessel, A B C, of the trunk of

the body, possesses character, sui generis, just as the vertebral column

itself manifests. The main arteries of the head or limbs are as readily

distinguishable, the one from the other, as are the osseous fabrics of

the head and limbs. The visceral arteries are likewise moulded upon the

forms which they supply. But evidently the arterial system of vessels

conforms most strictly with the general design of the osseous skeleton.

In Plate 25, viewed as a whole, we find that as the vertebral column

stands central to the osseous skeleton, so does the aorta, A B C, take

the centre of the arterial skeleton. As the ribs jut symmetrically from

either side of the vertebral column, so do the intercostal arteries

follow them from their own points of origin in the aorta. The one side

of the osseous system is not more like the other than is the system of

vessels on one side like that of the other. And in addition to this fact

of a similarity of sides in the vascular as in the osseous skeleton, I

also remark that both extremities of the aorta divide into branches

which are similar to one another above and below, thereby conforming

exactly with the upper and lower limbs, which manifest unmistakable

points of analogy.

The branches which spring from the aortic arch above are destined to

supply the head and upper limbs. They are, H, the innominate artery, and

I K, the left common carotid and subclavian arteries. The branches which

spring from the other extremity of the aorta are disposed for the

support of the pelvis and lower limbs; they are the right and left

common iliac arteries, L M. These vessels exhibit, at both ends of the

main aortic trunk, a remarkable analogy; and as the knowledge of this

fact may serve to lighten the dry and weary detail of descriptive

anatomy, at the same time that it points directly to views of practical

import, I may be allowed briefly to remark upon it as follows:--

The vessels which spring from both ends of the aorta, as seen in Plate

25, are represented in what is called their normal character--that is,

while three vessels, H I K, spring separately from the aortic arch

above, only two vessels, L and M, arise from the aorta below. Let the

anatomist now recall to mind the "peculiarities" which at times appear

amongst the vessels, H I K, above, and he will find that some of them

absolutely correspond to the normal arrangement of the vessels, L M,

below. And if he will consider the "peculiarities" which occur to the

normal order of the vessels, L M, below, he will find that some of these

correspond exactly to the normal order of the vessels above. Thus, when

I K of the left side join into a common trunk, this resembles the

innominate artery, H, of the right side, and then both these vessels

perfectly correspond with the two common iliac arteries below. When, on

the other hand, L and M, the common iliac arteries, divide,

immediately after leaving the aortic trunk, into two pairs of branches,

they correspond to the abnormal condition of the vessels, H I K, above;

where H, immediately after leaving the aortic arch, divides into two

branches, like I K. With this generalization upon the normal and

abnormal facts of arrangement, exhibited among the vessels arising from

both ends of the aorta, I furnish to the reader the idea that the

vessels, H I K, above may present of the same figure as the vessels, L

M, below, and these latter may assume the character of H I K, above.

Whenever, therefore, either set of vessels becomes the subject of

operation, such as having a ligature applied to them, we must be

prepared to meet the "varieties."

The veins assume an arrangement similar to that of the arteries, and the

above remarks will therefore equally apply to the veins. In the same way

as the arteries, H I K, may present in the condition of two common or

brachio-cephalic trunks, and thereby simulate the condition of the

common iliac arteries, so we find that the normal forms of the veins

above and below actually and permanently exhibit this very type. The

brachio-cephalic veins, D B, Plate 26, exactly correspond to each

other, and to the common iliac veins, S T; and as these latter

correspond precisely with the common iliac arteries, so may we infer

that the original or typical condition of the vessels I K, Plate 25, is

a brachia-cephalic or common-trunk union corresponding with its

brachio-cephalic vein. When the vessels, I K, therefore present of the

brachio-cephalic form as the vessel H, we have a perfect correspondence

between the two extremes of the aorta, both as regards the arteries

arising from it, and the veins which accompany these arteries; and this

condition of the vascular skeleton I regard as the typical uniformity.

The separate condition of the vessels I K, notwithstanding the frequency

of the occurrence of such, may be considered as a special variation from

the original type.

The length of the aorta is variable in two or more bodies; and so,

likewise, is the length of the trunk of each of those great branches

which springs from its arch above, and of those into which it divides

below, The modes in which these variations as to length occur, are

numerous. The top of the arch of the aorta is described as being in

general on a level with the cartilages of the second ribs, from which

point it descends on the left side of the spinal column; and after

having wound gradually forwards to the forepart of the lumbar spine at

C, divides opposite to the fourth lumbar vertebra into the right and

left common iliac arteries. The length of that portion of the aorta

which is called thoracic, is determined by the position of the pillars

of the diaphragm F, which span the vessel; and from this point to where

the aorta divides into the two common iliac arteries, the main vessel is

named abdominal. The aorta, from its arch to its point of division on

the lumbar vertebrae, gradually diminishes in caliber, according to the

number and succession of the branches derived from it.

The varieties as to length exhibited by the aorta itself, and by the

principal branches which spring from it, occur under the following

mentioned conditions:--When the arch of the aorta rises above or sinks

below its ordinary position or level,--namely, the cartilages of the

second ribs, as seen in Plate 25,--it varies not only its own length,

but also that of the vessels H I K; for if the arch of the aorta rises

above this level, the vessels H I K become shortened; and as the arch

sinks below this level, these vessels become lengthened. Even when the

aortic arch holds its proper level in the thorax, still the vessels H I

K may vary as to length, according to the height to which they rise in

the neck previously to their division. When the aorta sinks below its

proper level at the same time that the vessels H I K rise considerably

above that point at which they usually arch or divide in the neck, then

of course their length becomes greatly increased. When, on the other

hand, the aortic arch rises above its usual level, whilst the vessels H

I K arch and divide at a low position in the neck, then their length

becomes very much diminished. The length of the artery H may be

increased even though the arch of the aorta holds its proper level, and

though the vessels H I K occupy their usual position in the neck; for it

is true that the vessel H may spring from a point of the aortic arch A

nearer to the origin of this from the ventricle of the heart, whilst the

vessel I may be shortened, owing to the fact of its arising from some

part of H, the innominate vessel. All these circumstances are so

obvious, that they need no comment, were it not for the necessity of

impressing the surgeon with the fact that uncertainty as to a successful

result must always attach to his operation of including in a ligature

either of the vessels H I K, so as to affect an aneurismal tumour.

Now whilst the length of the aorta and that of the principal branches

springing from its arch may be varied according to the above-mentioned

conditions, so may the length of the aorta itself, and of the two common

iliac vessels, vary according to the place whereat the aorta, C,

bifurcates. Or, even when this point of division is opposite the usual

vertebra,--viz., the fourth lumbar,--still the common iliac vessels may

be short or long, according to the place where they divide into external

and internal iliac branches. The aorta may bifurcate almost as high up

as where the pillars of the diaphragm overarch it, or as low down as the

fifth lumbar vertebra. The occasional existence of a sixth lumbar

vertebra also causes a variety in the length, not only of the aorta, but

of the two common iliac vessels and their branches.[Footnote]

[Footnote: Whatever may be the number of variations to which the

branches arising from both extremes of the aorta are liable, all

anatomists admit that the arrangement of these vessels, as exhibited in

Plate 25, is by far the most frequent. The surgical anatomist,

therefore, when planning his operation, takes this arrangement as the

standard type. Haller asserts this order of the vessels to be so

constant, that in four hundred bodies which he examined, he found only

one variety--namely, that in which the left vertebral artery arose from

the aorta. Of other varieties described by authors, he observes--"Rara

vero haec omnia esse si dixero cum quadringenta nunc cadavera humana

dissecuerim, fidem forte inveniam." (Iconum Anatom.) This variety is

also stated by J. F. Meckel (Handbuch der Mensch Anat.), Soemmerring (De

Corp. Hum Fabrica), Boyer (Tr. d'Anat.), and Mr. Harrison (Surg. Anal.

of Art.), to be the most frequent. Tiedemann figures this variety

amongst others (Tabulae Arteriarum). Mr. Quain regards as the most

frequent change which occurs in the number of the branches of the aortic

arch, "that in which the left carotid is derived from the innominate."

(Anatomy of the Arteries, &c.) A case is recorded by Petsche (quoted in

Haller), in which he states the bifurcation of the aorta to have taken

place at the origin of the renal arteries: (query) are we to suppose

that the renal arteries occupied their usual position? Cruveilhier

records a case (Anal. Descript.) in which the right common iliac was

wanting, in consequence of having divided at the aorta into the internal

and external iliac branches. Whether the knowledge of these and numerous

other varieties of the arterial system be of much practical import to

the surgeon, he will determine for himself. To the scientific anatomist,

it must appear that the main object in regard to them is to submit them

to a strict analogical reasoning, so as to demonstrate the operation of

that law which has produced them. To this end I have pointed to that

analogy which exists between the vessels arising from both extremities

of the aorta. "Itaque convertenda plane est opera ad inquirendas et

notandas rerum similitudines et analoga tam integralibus quam partibus;

illae enim sunt, quae naturam uniunt, et constituere scientias

incipiunt." "Natura enim non nisi parendo vincitur; et quod in

contemplatione instar causae est; id in operatione instar regulae est."

(Novum Organum Scientiarum, Aph. xxvii-iii, lib. i.)]

The difference between the perpendicular range of the anterior and

posterior walls of the thoracic cavity may be estimated on a reference

to Plate 25, in which the xyphoid cartilage, E, joined to the seventh

pair of ribs, bounds its anterior wall below, while F, the pillars of

the diaphragm, bound its posterior wall. The thoracic cavity is

therefore considerably deeper in its posterior than in its anterior

wall; and this occasions a difference of an opposite kind in the

anterior and posterior walls of the abdomen; for while the abdomen

ranges perpendicularly from E to W, its posterior range measures only

from F to the ventra of the iliac bones, R. The arching form of the

diaphragm, and the lower level which the pubic symphysis occupies

compared with that of the cristae of the iliac bones, occasion this

difference in the measure of both the thorax and abdomen.

The usual position of the kidneys, G G*, is on either side of the lumbar

spine, between the last ribs and the cristae of the iliac bones. The

kidneys lie on the fore part of the quadratus lumborum and psoae

muscles. They are sometimes found to have descended as low as the iliac

fossae, R, in consequence of pressure, occasioned by an enlarged liver

on the right, or by an enlarged spleen on the left. The length of the

abdominal part of the aorta may be estimated as being a third of the

entire vessel, measured from the top of its arch to its point of

bifurcation. So many and such large vessels arise from the abdominal

part of the aorta, and these are set so closely to each other, that it

must in all cases be very difficult to choose a proper locality whereat

to apply a ligature on this region of the vessel. If other circumstances

could fairly justify such an operation, the anatomist believes that the

circulation might be maintained through the anastomosis of the internal

mammary and intercostal arteries with the epigastric; the branches of

the superior mesenteric with those of the inferior; and the branches of

this latter with the perineal branches of the pubic. The lumbar, the

gluteal, and the circumflex ilii arteries, also communicate around the

hip-bone. The same vessels would serve to carryon the circulation if

either L, the common iliac, V, the external iliac, or the internal iliac

vessel, were the subject of the operation by ligature.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 25.

A. The arch of the aorta.

B B. The descending thoracic part of the aorta, giving off b b, the

intercostal arteries.

C. The abdominal part of the aorta.

D D. First pair of ribs.

E. The xyphoid cartilage.

G G*. The right and left kidneys.

H. The brachio-cephalic artery.

I. Left common carotid artery.

K. Left subclavian artery.

L. Right common iliac artery at its place of division.

M. Left common iliac artery, seen through the meso-rectum.

N. Inferior vena cava.

O O. The sigmoid flexure of the colon.

P. The rectum.

Q. The urinary bladder.

R. The right iliac fossa.

S S. The right and left ureters.

T. The left common iliac vein, joining the right under the right common

iliac artery to form the inferior vena cava.

U. Fifth lumbar vertebra.

V. The external iliac artery of right side.

W. The symphysis pubis.

X. An incision made over the locality of the femoral artery.

b b. The dorsal intercostal arteries.

c. The coeliac axis

d. The superior mesenteric artery.

f f.  The renal arteries.

g. The inferior mesenteric artery.

h. The vas deferens bending over the epigastric artery and the os pubis,

after having passed through the internal abdominal ring.

Plate 25

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 26

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 26.

THE RELATION OF THE INTERNAL PARTS

TO THE EXTERNAL SURFACE OF THE BODY.

An exact acquaintance with the normal character of the external form,

its natural prominences and depressions, produced by the projecting

swell of muscles and points of bone, &c., is of great practical

importance to the surgeon. These several marks described on the

superficies he takes as certain guides to the precise locality and

relations of the more deeply situated organs. And as, by dissection,

Nature reveals to him the fact that she holds constant to these

relations, so, at least, may all that department of practice which he

bases upon this anatomical certainty be accounted as rooted in truth and

governed by fixed principles. The same organ bears the same special and

general relations in all bodies, not only of the human, but of all other

species of vertebrata; and from this evidence we conclude that the same

marks on surface indicate the exact situation of the same organs in all

similar bodies.

The surface of the well-formed human body presents to our observation

certain standard characters with which we compare all its abnormal

conditions. Every region of the body exhibits fixed character proper to

its surface. The neck, the axilla, the thorax, the abdomen, the groin,

have each their special marks, by which we know them; and the eye, well

versed in the characters proper to the healthy state of each, will

soonest discover the nature of all effects of injury--such as

dislocations, fractures, tumours of various kinds, &c. By our

acquaintance with the perfect, we discover the imperfect; by a

comparison with the geometrically true rectangled triangle, or circle,

we estimate the error of these forms when they have become distorted;

and in the same way, by a knowledge of what is the healthy normal

standard of human form, we diagnose correctly its slightest degree of

deformity, produced by any cause whatever, whether by sudden accident,

or slowly-approaching disease.

Now, the abnormal conditions of the surface become at once apparent to

our senses; but those diseased conditions which concern the internal

organs require no ordinary exercise of judgment to discover them. The

outward form masks the internal parts, and conceals from our direct

view, like the covers of a closed volume, the marvellous history

contained within. But still the superficies is so moulded upon the

deeper situated structures, that we are induced to study it as a map,

which discourses of all which it incloses in the healthy or the diseased

state. Thus, the sternum points to A, the aorta; the middle of the

clavicles, to C, the subclavian vessels; the localities 9, 10 of the

coracoid processes indicate the place of the axillary vessels; the

navel, P, points to Q, the bifurcation of the aorta; the pubic

symphysis, Z, directs to the urinary bladder, Y. At the points 7, 8, may

be felt the anterior superior spinous processes of the iliac bones,

between which points and Z, the iliac vessels, V, 6, pass midway to the

thigh, and give off the epigastric vessels, 2, 3, to the abdominal

parietes. Between these points of general relations, which we trace on

the surface of the trunk of the body, the anatomist includes the entire

history of the special relations of the organs within contained. And not

until he is capable of summing together the whole picture of anatomical

analysis, and of viewing this in all its intricate relationary

combination--even through and beneath the closed surface of living

moving nature, is he prepared to estimate the conditions of disease, or

interfere for its removal.

When fluid accumulates on either side of the thoracic compartment to

such an excess that an opening is required to be made for its exit from

the body, the operator, who is best acquainted with the relations of the

parts in a state of health, is enabled to judge with most correctness in

how far these parts, when in a state of disease, have swerved from these

proper relations. In the normal state of the thoracic viscera, the left

thoracic space, G A K N, is occupied by the heart and left lung. The

space indicated within the points A N K, in the anterior region of the

thorax, is occupied by the heart, which, however, is partially

overlapped by the anterior edge of the lung, PLATE 22. If the thorax be

deeply penetrated at any part of this region, the instrument will wound

either the lung or the heart, according to the situation of the wound.

But when fluid becomes effused in any considerable quantity within the

pleural sac, it occupies space between the lung and the thoracic walls;

and the fluid compresses the lung, or displaces the heart from the left

side towards the right. This displacement may take place to such an

extent, that the heart, instead of occupying the left thoracic angle, A

K N, assumes the position of A K* N on the right side. Therefore, as the

fluid, whatever be its quantity, intervenes between the thoracic walls,

K K*, and the compressed lung, the operation of paracentesis thoracis

should be performed at the point K, or between K and the latissimus

dorsi muscle, so as to avoid any possibility of wounding the heart. The

intercostal artery at K is not of any considerable size.

In the normal state of the thoracic organs, the pericardial envelope of

the heart is at all times more or less uncovered by the anterior edge of

the left lung, as seen in PLATE 22. When serous or other fluid

accumulates to an excess in the pericardium, so as considerably to

distend this sac, it must happen that a greater area of pericardial

surface will be exposed and brought into immediate contact with the

thoracic walls on the left side of the sternal median line, to the

exclusion of the left lung, which now no longer interposes between the

heart and the thorax. At this locality, therefore, a puncture may be

made through the thoracic walls, directly into the distended

pericardium, for the escape of its fluid contents, if such proceeding be

in other respects deemed prudent and advisable.

The abdominal cavity being very frequently the seat of dropsical

effusion, when this takes place to any great extent, despite the

continued and free use of the medicinal diuretic and the hydragogue

cathartic, the surgeon is required to make an opening with the

instrumental hydragogue--viz., the trocar and cannula. The proper

locality whereat the puncture is to be made so as to avoid any large

bloodvessel or other important organ, is at the middle third of the

median line, between P the umbilicus, and Z the symphysis pubis. The

anatomist chooses this median line as the safest place in which to

perform paracentesis abdominis, well knowing the situation of 2, 3, the

epigastric vessels, and of Y, the urinary bladder.

All kinds of fluid occupying the cavities of the body gravitate towards

the most depending part; and therefore, as in the sitting or standing

posture, the fluid of ascites falls upon the line P Z, the propriety of

giving the patient this position, and of choosing some point within the

line P Z, for the place whereat to make the opening, becomes obvious. In

the female, the ovary is frequently the seat of dropsical accumulation

to such an extent as to distend the abdomen very considerably. Ovarian

dropsy is distinguished from ascites by the particular form and

situation of the swelling. In ascites, the abdominal swell is

symmetrical, when the body stands or sits erect. In ovarian dropsy, the

tumour is greatest on either side of the median line, according as the

affected ovary happens to be the right or the left one.

The fluid of ascites and that of the ovarian dropsy affect the position

of the abdominal viscera variously In ascites, the fluid gravitates to

whichever side the body inclines, and it displaces the moveable viscera

towards the opposite side. Therefore, to whichever side the abdominal

fluid gravitates, we may expect to find it occupying space between the

abdominal parietes and the small intestines. The ovarian tumour is, on

the contrary, comparatively fixed to either side of the abdominal median

line; and whether it be the right or left ovary that is affected, it

permanently displaces the intestines on its own side; and the sac lies

in contact with the neighbouring abdominal parietes; nor will the

intestines and it change position according to the line of gravitation.

Now, though the above-mentioned circumstances be anatomically true

respecting dropsical effusion within the general peritonaeal sac and

that of the ovary, there are many urgent reasons for preferring to all

other localities the line P Z, as the only proper one for puncturing the

abdomen so as to give exit to the fluid. For though the peritonaeal

ascites does, according to the position of the patient, gravitate to

either side of the abdomen, and displace the moveable viscera on that

side, we should recollect that some of these are bound fixedly to one

place, and cannot be floated aside by the gravitating fluid. The liver

is fixed to the right side, 11, by its suspensory ligaments. The

spleen occupies the left side, 12. The caecum and the sigmoid flexure of

the colon occupy, R R*, the right and left iliac regions. The colon

ranges transversely across the abdomen, at P. The stomach lies

transversely between the points, 11, 12. The kidneys, O, occupy the

lumbar region. All these organs continue to hold their proper places, to

whatever extent the dropsical effusion may take place, and

notwithstanding the various inclinations of the body in this or that

direction. On this account, therefore, we avoid performing the operation

of paracentesis abdominis at any part except the median line, P Z; and

as to this place, we prefer it to all others, for the following cogent

reasons--viz., the absence of any large artery; the absence of any

important viscus; the fact that the contained fluid gravitates in large

quantity, and in immediate contact with the abdominal walls anteriorly,

and interposes itself between these walls and the small intestines,

which float free, and cannot approach the parietes of the abdomen nearer

than the length which the mesenteric bond allows.

If the ovarian dropsy form a considerable tumour in the abdomen, it may

be readily reached by the trocar and cannula penetrating the line P Z.

And thus we avoid the situation of the epigastric vessels. The puncture

through the linea alba should never be made below the point, midway

between P and Z, lest we wound the urinary bladder, which, when

distended, rises considerably above the pubic symphysis.

Amongst the many mechanical obstructions which, by impeding the

circulation, give rise to dropsical effusion, are the following:--An

aneurismal tumour of the aorta, A, or the innominate artery, [Footnote 1]

F, may press upon the veins, H or D, and cause an oedematous swelling

of the corresponding side of the face and the right arm. In the same way

an aneurism of the aorta, Q, by pressing upon the inferior vena cava, T,

may cause oedema of the lower limbs. Serum may accumulate in the

pericardium, owing to an obstruction of the cardiac veins, caused by

hypertrophy of the substance of the heart; and when from this cause the

pericardium becomes much distended with fluid, the pressure of this upon

the flaccid auricles and large venous trunks may give rise to general

anasarca, to hydrothorax or ascites, either separate or co-existing.

Tuberculous deposits in the lungs and scrofulous bronchial glands may

cause obstructive pressure on the pulmonary veins, followed by effusion

of either pus or serum into the pleural sac. [Footnote 2] An abscess or

other tumour of the liver may, by pressing on the vena portae, cause

serous effusion into the peritonaeal sac; or by pressure on the inferior

vena cava, which is connected with the posterior thick border of the

liver, may cause anasarca of the lower limbs. Matter accumulating

habitually in the sigmoid flexure of the colon may cause a hydrocele, or

a varicocele, by pressing on the spermatic veins of the left side. It is

quite true that these two last-named affections appear more frequently

on the left side than on the right; and it seems to me much more

rational to attribute them to the above-mentioned circumstance than to

the fact that the left spermatic veins open, at a disadvantageous right

angle, into the left renal vein.

[Footnote 1: The situation of this vessel, its close relation to the

pleura, the aorta, the large venous trunks, the vagus and phrenic

nerves, and the uncertainty as to its length, or as to whether or not a

thyroid or vertebral branch arises from it, are circumstances which

render the operation of tying the vessel in cases of aneurism very

doubtful as to a successful issue. The operation (so far as I know) has

hitherto failed. Anatomical relations, nearly similar to these, prevent,

in like manner, an easy access to the iliac arteries, and cause the

operator much anxiety as to the issue.]

[Footnote 2: The effusion of fluid into the pleural sac (from whatever

cause it may arise) sometimes takes place to a very remarkable extent. I

have had opportunities of examining patients, in whom the heart appeared

to be completely dislocated, from the left to the right side, owing to

the large collection of serous fluid in the left pleural sac. The

heart's pulsations could be felt distinctly under the right nipple.

Paracentesis thoracis was performed at the point indicated in PLATE 26.

In these cases, and another observed at the Hotel Dieu, the heart and

lung, in consequence of the extensive adhesions which they contracted in

their abnormal position, did not immediately resume their proper

situation when the fluid was withdrawn from the chest. Nor is it to be

expected that they should ever return to their normal character and

position, when the disease which caused their displacement has been of

long standing.]

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 26.

A. The systemic aorta. Owing to the body being inclined forwards, the

root of the aorta appears to approach too near the lower boundary (N)

of the thorax.

B. The left brachio-cephalic vein.

C. Left subclavian vein.

D. Right brachia-cephalic vein.

E. Left common carotid artery.

F. Brachio-cephalic artery.

G G*. The first pair of ribs.

H. Superior vena cava.

I. Left bronchus.

K K*. Fourth pair of ribs.

L. Descending thoracic aorta.

M. Oesophagus.

N. Epigastrium.

O. Left kidney.

P. Umbilicus.

Q. Abdominal aorta, at its bifurcation.

R R*. Right and left iliac fossae.

S. Left common iliac vein.

T. Inferior vena cava.

U. Psoas muscle, supporting the right spermatic vessels.

V. Left external iliac artery crossed by the left ureter.

W. Right external iliac artery crossed by the right ureter.

X. The rectum.

Y. The urinary bladder, which being fully distended, and viewed from

above, gives it the appearance of being higher than usual above the

pubic symphysis.

Z. Pubic symphysis.

2. The left internal abdominal ring complicated with the epigastric

vessels, the vas deferens, and the spermatic vessels.

3. The right internal abdominal ring in connection with the like vessels

and duct as that of left side.

4. Superior mesenteric artery.

5, 6. Right and left external iliac veins.

7, 8. Situations of the anterior superior iliac spinous processes.

9, 10. Situations of the coracoid processes.

11, 12. Right and left hypochondriac regions.

Plate 26

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 27

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 27.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE SUPERFICIAL BLOODVESSELS ETC.

OF THE INGUINO-FEMORAL REGION.

Hernial protrusions are very liable to occur at the inguino-femoral

region; and this fact has led the surgeon to study the anatomical

relations of this part with more than ordinary care and patience. So

minutely has he dissected every structure proper to this locality, and

so closely has he investigated every possible condition of it as being

the seat of hernial, that the only novelty which now remains to be

sought for is that of a simplification of the facts, already known to be

far too much obscured by an unwieldy nomenclature, and a useless detail

of trifling evidence. And it would seem that nothing can more directly

tend to this simplification, than that of viewing the inguinal and

femoral regions, not separately, but as a relationary whole. For as both

regions are blended together by structures which are common to both, so

do the herniae which are described as being proper to either region,

occur in such close connexion as at times to render it very difficult to

distinguish between them.

The human species is, of all others, most subject to hernial in the

groin. The erect attitude of the human form, and the fact that many of

its more powerful muscular efforts are performed in this posture, cause

its more frequent liability to the accidents called abdominal herniae or

ruptures.

The viscera of the abdomen occupy this cavity completely, and indeed

they naturally, at all times, subject the abdominal parietes to a state

of constant pressure, as may be proved by their escape from the abdomen

in cases of large wounds of this region. In the erect posture of the

body this pressure is increased, for the viscera now gravitate and force

downwards and forwards against the abdominal parietes. In addition to

this gravitating force, another power impels the viscera from above

downwards--namely, that of the muscles of the trunk, and the principal

agent amongst these is the diaphragm. The lungs, again, expanding above

the diaphragm, add also to the gravitation of the abdominal contents,

and these, under the pressure thus accumulated, occasionally make an

exit for themselves at the groins, which are the weakest and most

depending parts of the abdomen.

Herniae are variously named in accordance with the following

circumstances--viz., the precise locality at which they occur--the size

and form of the tumour--the time of life at which they happen. Sexual

peculiarities do not serve to distinguish herniae, though it is true

that the inguinal form, at the part D F, occurs more commonly in the

male, whilst the crural form, at the opening E, happens more frequently

in the female.

The most common forms of herniae happen at those localities where the

abdominal walls are traversed by the bloodvessels on their way to the

outstanding organs, and where, in consequence, the walls of the abdomen

have become weakened. It also happens, that at these very situations the

visceral pressure is greatest whilst the body stands erect. These

localities are, A, the umbilicus, a point characterized as having given

passage (in the foetal state) to the umbilical vessels; D, the place

where the spermatic vessels and duct pass from the abdomen to the

testicle; and immediately beneath this, the crural arch, which gives

exit to the crural vessels. Herniae may happen at other localities, such

as at the thyroid aperture, which transmits the thyroid vessels; and at

the greater sacrosciatic notch, through which the gluteal vessels pass;

and all regions of the abdominal walls may give exit to intestinal

protrusion in consequence of malformations, disease, or injury. But as

the more frequent varieties of herniae are those which traverse the

localities, A, D, E, and as these, fortunately, are the most manageable

under the care of the surgical anatomist, we proceed to examine the

structures concerned in their occurrence.

A direct opening from within outwards does not exist in the walls of the

abdomen; and anatomy demonstrates to us the fact, that where the

spermatic cord, D F, and the femoral vessels, pass from the abdomen to

the external parts, they carry with them a covering of the several

layers of structures, both muscular and membranous, which they encounter

in their passage. The inguinal and crural forms of herniae which follow

the passages made by the spermatic cord, and the crural vessels, must

necessarily carry with them the like investments, and these are what

constitute the coverings of the herniae themselves.

The groin in its undissected state is marked by certain elevations and

depressions which indicate the general relations of the subcutaneous

parts. The abdomen is separated from the thigh by an undulating grooved

line, extending from C*, the point of the iliac bone, to B, the

symphysis pubis This line or fold of the groin coincides exactly with

the situation of that fibrous band of the external oblique muscle named

Poupart's ligament. From below the middle of this abdomino-femoral

groove, C B, another curved line, D, b, springs, and courses obliquely,

inwards and downwards, between the upper part of the thigh and the

pubis, to terminate in the scrotum. The external border of this line

indicates the course of the spermatic cord, D F, which can be readily

felt beneath the skin. In all subjects, however gross or emaciated they

may happen to be, these two lines are readily distinguishable, and as

they bear relations to the several kinds of rupture taking place in

these parts, the surgeon should consider them with keen regard. A

comparison of the two sides of the figure, PLATE 27, will show that the

spermatic cord, D F, and Poupart's ligament, C B, determine the shape of

the inguino-femoral region. When the integument with the subcutaneous

adipose tissue is removed from the inguino-femoral region, we expose

that common investing membrane called the superficial fascia. This

fascia, a a a, stretches over the lower part of the abdomen and the

upper part of the thigh. It becomes intimately attached to Poupart's

ligament along the ilio-pubic line, C B; it invests the spermatic cord,

as shown at b, and descends into the scrotum, so as to encase this part.

Where this superficial fascia overlies the saphenous opening, E, of the

fascia lata, it assumes a "cribriform" character, owing to its being

pierced by numerous lymphatic vessels and some veins. As this

superficial fascia invests all parts of the inguino-femoral region, as

it forms an envelope for the spermatic cord, D F, and sheathes over the

saphenous opening, E, it must follow of course that wherever the hernial

protrusion takes place in this region, whether at D, or F, or E, or

adjacent parts, this membrane forms the external subcutaneous covering

of the bowel.

There is another circumstance respecting the form and attachments of the

superficial fascia, which, in a pathological point of view, is worthy of

notice--viz., that owing to the fact of its enveloping the scrotum,

penis, spermatic cord, and abdominal parietes, whilst it becomes firmly

attached to Poupart's ligament along the abdomino-femoral fold, B C, it

isolates these parts, in some degree, from the thigh; and when urine

happens to be from any cause extravasated through this abdominal-scrotal

bag of the superficial fascia, the thighs do not in general participate

in the inflammation superinduced upon such accident.

The spermatic cord, D, emerges from the abdomen and becomes definable

through the fibres of the sheathing tendon of the external oblique

muscle, H, at a point midway between the extremities of the ilio-pubic

line or fold. In some cases, this place, whereat the cord first

manifests itself in the groin, lies nearer the pubic symphysis; but

however much it may vary in this particular, we may safely regard the

femoro-pubic fold, D, b, as containing the cord, and also that the place

where this fold meets the iliopubic line, C B, at the point D, marks the

exit of the cord from the abdomen.

The spermatic cord does not actually pierce the sheathing tendon of the

external oblique muscle at the point D, and there does not, in fact,

exist naturally such an opening as the "external abdominal ring," for

the cord carries with it a production of the tendon of the external

oblique muscle, and this has been named by surgical anatomists the

"intercolumnar fascia," [Footnote] the "spermatic fascia." The fibres of

this spermatic fascia are seen at D F, crossing the cord obliquely, and

encasing it. This covering of the cord lies beneath the spermatic

envelope formed by, a b, the superficial fascia; and when a hernial

protrusion descends through the cord, both these investing membranes

form the two outermost envelopes for the intestine in its new and

abnormal situation.

[Footnote: On referring to the works of Sir Astley Cooper, Hesselbach,

Scarpa, and, others, I find attempts made to establish a distinction

between what is called the "intercolumnar fascia" and the "spermatic

fascia," and just as if these were structures separable from each other

or from the aponeurotic sheath of the external oblique muscle. I find,

in like manner, in these and other works, a tediously-laboured account

of the superficial fascia, as being divisible into two layers of

membrane, and that this has given rise to considerable difference of

opinion as to whether or not we should regard the deeper layer as being

a production of the fascia lata, ascending from the thigh to the

abdomen, or rather of the membrane of the abdomen descending to the

thigh, &c. These and such like considerations I omit to discuss here;

for, with all proper deference to the high authority of the authors

cited, I dare to maintain, that, in a practical point of view, they arc

absolutely of no moment, and in a purely scientific view, they are, so

far as regards the substance of the truth which they would reveal,

wholly beneath the notice of the rational mind. The practitioner who

would arm his judgment with the knowledge of a broad fact or principle,

should not allow his serious attention to be diverted by a pursuit after

any such useless and trifling details, for not only are they unallied to

the stern requirements of surgical skill, but they serve to degrade it

from the rank and roll of the sciences. Whilst operating for the

reduction of inguinal hernia by the "taxis" or the bistoury, who is

there that feels anxiety concerning the origin or the distinctiveness of

the "spermatic fascia?" Or, knowing it to be present, who concerns

himself about the better propriety of naming it "tunica vaginalis

communis," "tunique fibreuse du cordon spermatique," "fascia

cremasterica," or "tunica aponeurotica?"]

The close relations which the cord, D F, bears to the saphenous opening,

E, of the fascia lata, should be closely considered, forasmuch as when

an oblique inguinal hernia descends from D to F, it approaches the

situation of the saphenous opening, E, which is the seat of the femoral

or crural hernia, and both varieties of hernia may hence be confounded.

But with a moderate degree of judgment, based upon the habit of

referring the anatomy to the surface, such error may always be avoided.

This important subject shall be more fully treated of further on.

The superficial bloodvessels of the inguino-femoral region are, e e,

the saphenous vein, which, ascending from the inner side of the leg and

thigh, pierces the saphenous opening, E, to unite with the femoral vein.

The saphenous vein, previously to entering the saphenous opening,

receives the epigastric vein, i, the external circumflex ilii vein, h,

and another venous branch, d, coming from the fore part of the thigh. In

the living body the course of the distended saphenous vein may be traced

beneath the skin, and easily avoided in surgical operations upon the

parts contained in this region. Small branches of the femoral artery

pierce the fascia lata, and accompany these superficial veins. Both

these orders of vessels are generally divided in the operation required

for the reduction of either the inguinal or the femoral strangulated

hernia; but they are, for the most part, unimportant in size. Some

branches of nerves, such as, k, the external cutaneous, which is given

off from the lumbar nerves, and, f, the middle cutaneous, which is

derived from the crural nerve, pierce the fascia lata, and appear upon

the external side and middle of the thigh.

Numerous lymphatic glands occupy the inguino-femoral region; these can

be felt, lying subcutaneous, even in the undissected state of the parts.

These glands form two principal groups, one of which, c, lies along the

middle of the inguinal fold, C B; the other, G g, lies scattered in the

neighbourhood of the saphenous opening. The former group receive the

lymphatic vessels of the generative organs; and the glands of which it

is composed are those which suppurate in, syphilitic or other affections

of these parts.

The general relations which the larger vessels of the inguino-femoral

region bear to each other and to the superficies, may be referred to in

PLATE 27, with practical advantage. The umbilicus, A, indicates pretty

generally the level at which the aorta bifurcates on the forepart of the

lumbar vertebrae. In the erect, and even in the recumbent posture, the

aorta may (especially in emaciated subjects) be felt pulsating under the

pressure of the hand; for the vertebrae bear forward the vessel to a

level nearly equal with, C C, the anterior superior spinous processes of

the iliac bones. If a gunshot were to pass through the abdomen,

transversely, from these points, and through B, it would penetrate the

aorta at its bifurcation. The line A B coincides with the linea alba.

The oblique lines, A D, A D,* indicate the course of the iliac vessels.

The point D marks the situation where the spermatic vessels enter the

abdomen; and also where the epigastric artery is given off from the

external iliac. The most convenient line of incision that can be made

for reaching the situation of either of the iliac arteries, is that

which ranges from C, the iliac spine, to D, the point where the

spermatic cord enters the abdomen. The direct line drawn between D and G

marks the course of the femoral artery, and this ranges along the outer

border, E, of the saphenous opening.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 27.

A. The umbilicus.

B. The upper margin of the pubic symphysis.

C. The anterior superior spine of the left iliac bone. C*, the situation

of the corresponding part on the right side.

D. The point where, in this subject, the cord manifested itself beneath

the fibres of the external oblique muscle. D*, a corresponding part on

the opposite side.

E. The saphenous opening in the fascia lata, receiving e, the saphenous

vein.

F. The lax and pendulous cord, which in this case, overlies the upper

part of the saphenous opening.

G. Lymphatic glands lying on the fascia lata in the neighbourhood of the

saphenous opening.

H. The fleshy part of the external oblique muscle.

a a a. The superficial fascia of the abdomen.

b. The same fascia forming an envelope for the spermatic cord and

scrotum.

c. Inguinal glands lying near Poupart's ligament.

d. A common venous trunk, formed by branches from the thigh and abdomen,

and joining--

e e. The saphenous vein.

f.  The middle cutaneous nerve, derived from the anterior crural nerve.

g. Femoral lymphatic glands.

h. Superficial external iliac vein.

i. Superficial epigastric vein.

k. External cutaneous branches of nerves from the lumbar plexus.

PLATE 27

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 28 & 29

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 28 & 29.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE FIRST, SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH

LAYERS OF THE INGUINAL REGION IN CONNEXION WITH THOSE OF THE

THIGH.

The common integument or first layer of the inguino-femoral region being

removed, we expose the superficial fascia constituting the second layer.

The connexion of this fascia with Poupart's ligament along the line C D,

together with the facts, that corresponding with this line the fascia is

devoid of adipous substance, and the integument thin and delicate,

whilst above over the abdomen, and below over the upper part of the

thigh, the meshes of the fascia are generally loaded with a considerable

quantity of adipous tissue, will account for the permanency and

distinctness of the fold of the groin. As this fold corresponds with

Poupart's ligament, it is taken as a guide to distinguish between the

inguinal and femoral forms of herniae.

The general relations of the superficial fascia are well described by

Camper in the following sentence: "Musculus obliquus igitur externus

abdominis, qua parte carneus est, membrana quadam propria, quali omnes

musculi, tegitur, quae sensim in aponeurosin mutata, ac cum tendineis

hujus musculi partibus unita, externe ac anteriore parte abdomen tegit;

finem vero nullibi habere perspicuum est, ad pubem enim miscet cellulosa

membrana, cum ligamento penis in viris ac clitoridis in feminis,

involucrum dat musculo cremasteri, ac aponeuroseos speciem musculis

anterioribus femoris, qua glandulae inguinales, ac cruris vasa majora

obteguntur." (Icones Herniarum.)

Owing to the varied thickness of the adipous tissue contained in the

superficial fascia at several regions of the same body, and at some

corresponding regions of different individuals, it will be evident that

the depth of the incision required to divide it, so as to expose

subjacent structures, must vary accordingly. Where the superficial

fascia, after encasing the cord, descends into the scrotum, it is also

devoid of the fatty tissu.

By the removal of the superficial fascia and glands we expose the

aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle, A a, Pl. 28, (constituting

the third layer of the groin,) and also the fascia of the thigh, H L.

These strong fibrous structures will be observed to hold still in situ

the other parts, and to be the chief agents in determining the normal

form of this region.

The inguino-femoral region, as being the seat of hernial protrusions,

may in this stage of the dissection be conveniently described as a space

formed of two triangles--the one inguinal, the other femoral, placed

base to base. The inguinal triangle may be drawn between the points, B

C D, Pl. 28, while the femoral triangle may be marked by the points, C D

N. The conjoined bases of these triangles correspond to Poupart's

ligament along the line, C D. The inguinal varieties of herniae occur

immediately above the line, C D, while the femoral varieties of herniae

take place below this line. The herniae of the inguinal triangle are,

therefore, distinguishable from those of the femoral triangle by a

reference to the line, C D, or Poupart's ligament.

The aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle occupies the whole of

that space which I have marked as the inguinal triangle, B C D, Pl. 28.

The fleshy fibres of the muscle, A, after forming the lateral wall of

the abdomen, descend to the level of C, the iliac spinous process, and

here give off the inguinal part of their broad tendon, a. The fibres of

this part of the tendon descend obliquely downwards and forwards to

become inserted at the median line of the abdomen into the linea alba, B

D, as also into the symphysis and crista of the os pubis. The lower band

of the fibres of this tendinous sheath--viz., that which is stretched

between C, the iliac spine, and D, the crista pubis, is named Poupart's

ligament; and this is strongly connected with H, the iliac portion of

the fascia lata of the thigh.

Poupart's ligament is not stretched tensely in a right line, like the

string of a bow, between the points, C and D. With regard to these

points it is lax, and curves down towards the thigh like the arc of a

circle. The degree of tension which it manifests when the thigh is in

the extended position is chiefly owing to its connexion with the fascia

lata. If in this position of the limb we sever the connexion between the

ligament and fascia, the former becomes relaxed in the same degree as it

does when we flex the thigh upon the abdomen. The utmost degree of

relaxation which can be given to Poupart's ligament is effected by

flexing the thigh towards the abdomen, at the same time that we support

the body forwards. This fact has its practical application in connexion

with the reduction of herniae.

Immediately above the middle of Poupart's ligament, at the point E, Pl.

28, we observe the commencement of a separation taking place among the

fibres of the aponeurosis. These divide into two bands, which, gradually

widening from each other as they proceed inwards, become inserted, the

upper one into the symphysis pubis, the lower into the spine and

pectineal ridge of this bone. The lower band identifies itself with

Poupart's ligament. The interval which is thus formed by the separation

of these fibres assumes the appearance of an acute triangle, the apex of

which is at E, and the base at D. But the outer end of this interval is

rounded off by certain fibres which cross those of the bands at varying

angles. At this place, the aponeurosis, thus constituted of fibres

disposed crossways, is elongated into a canal, forming an envelope for

the cord, K. This elongation is named the "external spermatic fascia,"

and is continued over the cord as far as the testicle. In the female, a

similar canal encloses the round ligament of the uterus. From the

above-mentioned facts, it will appear that the so-called "external

abdominal ring" does not exist as an aperture with defined margins

formed in the tendon of the external oblique muscle. It is only when we

divide the spermatic fascia upon the cord at K, that we form the

external ring, and then it must be regarded as an artificial opening, as

at D, Pl. 29.

The part of the groin where the spermatic fascia is first derived from

the aponeurosis, so as to envelope the cord, varies in several

individuals; and thereupon depends, in great measure, the strength or

weakness of the groin. In some cases, the cord becomes pendulous as far

outwards as the point E, Pl. 28, which corresponds to the internal ring,

thereby offering a direct passage for the hernial protrusion. In other

instances, the two bands of the aponeurosis, known as the "pillars of

the ring," together with the transverse fibres, or "intercolumnar

fascia," firmly embrace and support the cord as far inwards as the point

K, and by the oblique direction thus given to the cord in traversing the

inguinal parietes, these parts are fortified against the occurrence of

hernia. In Pl. 28, the cord, K, will be observed to drop over the lower

band of fibres, ("external pillar of the ring,") and to have D, the

crista pubis, on its inner side. In Pl. 29, the upper band of fibres

("internal pillar of the ring") may be seen proceeding to its insertion

into the symphysis pubis. When a hernial tumour protrudes at the

situation K, it is invested, in the same manner as the cord, by the

spermatic fascia, and holds in respect to the fibrous bands or pillars

the same relations also as this part.

After removing the tendon of the external oblique muscle, A a,  Pl. 28,

together with its spermatic elongation, E, we expose the internal

oblique, F E, Pl. 29, and the cremaster, constituting the fourth

inguinal layer. The fleshy part of this muscle, F E, occupies a much

greater extent of the inguinal region than does that of the external

oblique. Whilst the fleshy fibres of the latter terminate on a level

with C, the iliac spine, those of the internal oblique are continued

down as far as the external abdominal ring, E D h, and even protrude

through this place in the form of a cremaster. The muscular fibres of

the internal oblique terminate internally at the linea semilunaris, g;

while Poupart's ligament, the spinous process and crest of the ilium,

give origin to them externally. At the linea semilunaris, the tendon of

the internal oblique is described as dividing into two layers, which

passing, one before and the other behind the rectus abdominis, thus

enclose this muscle in a sheath, after which they are inserted into the

linea alba, G. The direction of the fibres of the inguinal portion of

the muscle, F E, is obliquely downwards and forwards, and here they are

firmly overlaid by the aponeurosis of the external oblique.

The cremaster muscle manifests itself as being a part of the internal

oblique, viewing this in its totality. Cloquet (Recherches anatomiques

sur les Hernies de l'Abdomen) first demonstrated the correctness of this

idea.

The oblique and serial arrangement of the muscular fibres of the

internal oblique, F, Pl. 29, is seen to be continued upon the spermatic

cord by the fibres of the cremaster, E e. These fibres, like those of

the lower border of the internal oblique, arise from the middle of

Poupart's ligament, and after descending over the cord as far as the

testicle in the form of a series of inverted loops, e, again ascend to

join the tendon of the internal oblique, by which they become inserted

into the crest and pectineal ridge of the os pubis. The peculiar looping

arrangement exhibited by the cremasteric fibres indicates the fact that

the testicle, during its descent from the loins to the scrotum, carried

with it a muscular covering, at the expense of the internal oblique

muscle. The cremaster, therefore, is to be interpreted as a production

of the internal oblique, just as the spermatic fascia is an elongation

of the external oblique. The hernia, which follows the course of the

spermatic vessels, must therefore necessarily become invested by

cremasteric fibres.

The fascia lata, H, Pl. 28, being strongly connected and continuous with

Poupart's ligament along its inferior border, the boundary line, which

Poupart's ligament is described as drawing between the abdomen and

thigh, must be considered as merely an artificial one.

In the upper region of the thigh the fascia lata is divided into two

parts--viz., H, the iliac part, and L, the pubic. The iliac part, H,

which is external, and occupying a higher plane than the pubic part, is

attached to Poupart's ligament along its whole extent, from C to D, Pl.

28; that is, from the anterior iliac spinous process to the crista

pubis. From this latter point over the upper and inner part of the

thigh, the iliac division of the fascia appears to terminate in an edge

of crescentic shape, h; but this appearance is only given to it by our

separating the superficial fascia with which it is, in the natural state

of the parts, blended. The pubic part of the fascia, L, Pl. 28, which is

much thinner than the iliac part, covers the pectineus muscle, and is

attached to the crest and pectineal ridge of the os pubis, occupying a

plane, therefore, below the iliac part, and in this way passes outwards

beneath the sheath of the femoral vessels, K I, Pl. 29. These two

divisions of the fascia lata, although separated above, are united and

continuous on the same plane below. An interval is thus formed between

them for the space of about two inches below the inner third of

Poupart's ligament; and this interval is known as the "saphenous

opening," L h, Pl. 28. Through this opening, the saphena vein, O, Pl.

29, enters the femoral vein, I.

From the foregoing remarks it will appear that no such aperture as that

which is named "saphenous," and described as being shaped in the manner

of L h, Pl. 28, with its "upper and lower cornua," and its "falciform

process," or edge, h, exists naturally. Nor need we be surprised,

therefore, that so accurate an observer as Soemmering (de Corporis

Humani Fabrica) appears to have taken no notice of it.

Whilst the pubic part of the fascia lata passes beneath the sheath of

the femoral vessels, K I, Pl. 29, the iliac part, H h, blends by its

falciform margin with the superficial fascia, and also with N n, the

sheath of the femoral vessels. The so-called saphenous opening,

therefore, is naturally masked by the superficial fascia; and this

membrane being here perforated for the passage of the saphena vein, and

its tributary branches, as also the efferent vessels of the lymphatic

glands, is termed "cribriform."

The femoral vessels, K I, contained in their proper sheath, lie

immediately beneath the iliac part of the fascia lata, in that angle

which is expressed by Poupart's ligament, along the line C D above; by

the sartorius muscle in the line C M externally; and by a line drawn

from D to N, corresponding to the pectineus muscle internally. The

femoral vein, I, lies close to the outer margin of the saphenous

opening. The artery, K, lies close to the outer side of the vein; and

external to the artery is seen, L, the anterior crural nerve, sending

off its superficial and deep branches.

When a femoral hernia protrudes at the saphenous space L h, Pl. 28, the

dense falciform process, h, embraces its outer side, while the pubic

portion of the fascia, L, lies beneath it. The cord, K, is placed on the

inner side of the hernia; the cribriform fascia covers it; and the upper

end of the saphena vein, M, passes beneath its lower border. The upper

cornu, h, Pl. 29, of the falciform process would seem, by its situation,

to be one of the parts which constrict a crural hernia. An inguinal

hernia, which descends the cord, K, Pl. 28, provided it passes no

further than the point indicated at K, and a crural hernia turning

upwards from the saphenous interval over the cord at K, are very likely

to present some difficulty in distinctive diagnosis.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES OF PLATES 28 & 29.

PLATE 28.

A. The fleshy part of the external oblique muscle; a, its tendon

covering the rectus muscle.

B. The umbilicus.

C. The anterior superior spinous process of the ilium.

D. The spinous process of the os pubis.

E. The point where in this instance the fibres of the aponeurotic tendon

of the external oblique muscle begin to separate and form the pillars

of the external ring.

F G. See Plate 29.

H. The fascia lata--its iliac portion. The letter indicates the

situation of the common femoral artery; h, the falciform edge of the

saphenous opening.

I. The sartorius muscle covered by a process of the fascia lata.

K. The spermatic fascia derived from the external oblique tendon.

L. The pubic part of the fascia lata forming the inner and posterior

boundary of the saphenous opening.

M. The saphenous vein.

N. A tributary vein coming from the fore part of the thigh.

Plate 28

PLATE 29.

A. The muscular part of the external oblique; a, its tendon.

B. The umbilicus.

C. The anterior superior iliac spine.

D. The spine of the os pubis.

E. The cremasteric fibres, within the external ring, surrounding the

cord; e, the cremasteric fibres looping over the cord outside the ring.

F. The muscular part of the internal oblique giving off, E, the

cremaster; its tendon sheathing the rectus muscle.

G. The linea alba; f, g, the linea semilunaris.

H. The iliac part of the fascia lata; h, the upper cornu of its

falciform process.

I. The femoral vein.

K. The femoral artery.

L. The anterior crural nerve.

M. The sartorius muscle.

N. The sheath of the femoral vessels; n, its upper part.

O. The saphena vein.

P. The pubic part of the fascia lata.

Plate 29

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 30 & 31

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 30 & 31.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE FIFTH, SIXTH, SEVENTH, AND EIGHTH

LAYERS OF THE INGUINAL REGION, AND THEIR CONNEXION WITH THOSE

OF THE THIGH.

When we remove the internal oblique and cremaster muscles, we expose the

transverse muscle, which may be regarded as the fifth inguinal layer, F,

Pl. 30. This muscle is similar in shape and dimensions to the internal

oblique. The connexions of both are also similar, inasmuch as they arise

from the inner edge of the crista ilii, and from the outer half of, V,

Poupart's ligament. The fleshy fibres of these two muscles vary but

little in direction, and terminate at the same place--viz., the linea

semilunaris, which marks the outer border of the rectus muscle. But

whilst the fleshy parts of these three abdominal muscles, D E F, form

successive strata in the groin, their aponeurotic tendons present the

following peculiarities of arrangement in respect to the rectus muscle.

The tendon of the external oblique, d, passes altogether in front of the

rectus; that of the internal oblique is split opposite the linea

semilunaris into two layers, which enclose the rectus between them as

they pass to be inserted into the linea alba. But midway between the

navel and pubes, at the point marked G, both layers of the tendon are

found to pass in front of the rectus. The tendon of the transverse

muscle passes behind the rectus; but opposite the point G, it joins both

layers of the internal oblique tendon, and with this passes in front of

the rectus. The fibrous structure thus constituted by the union of the

tendons of the internal oblique and transverse muscles, e f, is named

the "conjoined tendon."

The conjoined tendon, f, Plates 30 and 31, appears as a continuation of

the linea semilunaris, for this latter is in itself a result of the

union of the tendons of the abdominal muscles at the external border of

the rectus. As the conjoined tendon curves so far outwards to its

insertion into the pectineal ridge of the pubic bone, as to occupy a

situation immediately behind the external ring, it thereby fortifies

this part against the occurrence of a direct protrusion of the bowel.

But the breadth, as well as the density, of this tendon varies in

several individuals, and these will accordingly be more or less liable

to the occurrence of hernia.

The arched inferior border of the transverse muscle, F, Plate 30,

expresses by its abrupt termination that some part is wanting to it; and

this appearance, together with the fact that the fibres of this part of

the muscle blend with those of the internal oblique and cremaster, and

cannot be separated except by severing the connexion, at once suggests

the idea that the cremaster is a derivation from both these muscles.

Assuming this to be the case, therefore, it follows that when the

dissector removes the cremaster from the space L h, he himself causes

this vacancy in the muscular parietes of the groin to occur, and at the

same time gives unnatural definition to the lower border of the

transverse and oblique muscles. In a dissection so conducted, the cord

is made to assume the variable positions which anatomists report it to

have in respect to the neighbouring muscles. But when we view nature as

she is, and not as fashioned by the scalpel, we never fail to find an

easy explanation of her form.

In the foetus, prior to the descent of the testicle, the cremaster

muscle does not exist. (Cloquet, op cit.) From this we infer, that those

parts of the muscles, E F, Plate 30, which at a subsequent period are

converted into a cremaster, entirely occupy the space L h. In the adult

body, where one of the testicles has been arrested in the inguinal

canal, the muscles, E F, do not present a defined arched margin, above

the vacant space L h, but are continued (as in the foetus) as low down

as the external abdominal ring. In the adult, where the testicle has

descended to the scrotum, the cremaster exists, and is serially

continuous with the muscles, E F, covering the space L h; the meaning of

which is, that the cremasteric parts of the muscles, E F, cover this

space. The name cremaster therefore must not cancel the fact that the

fibres so named are parts of the muscles, E F. Again, in the female

devoid of a cremaster, the muscles, E F, present of their full

quantities, having sustained no diminution of their bulk by the

formation of a cremaster. But when an external inguinal hernia occurs in

the female body, the bowel during its descent carries before it a

cremasteric covering at the expense of the muscles E F, just in the same

way as the testicle does in the foetus. (Cloquet.)

From the above-mentioned facts, viewed comparatively, it seems that the

following inferences may be legitimately drawn:--1st, that the space L h

does not naturally exist devoid of a muscular covering; for, in fact,

the cremaster overlies this situation; 2nd, that the name cremaster is

one given to the lower fibres of the internal oblique and transverse

muscles which cover this space; and 3rd, that to separate the

cremasteric elongation of these muscles, and then describe them as

presenting a defined arched margin, an inch or two above Poupart's

ligament, is an act as arbitrary on the part of the dissector as if he

were to subdivide these muscles still more, and, while regarding the

subdivisions as different structures, to give them names of different

signification. When once we consent to regard the cremaster as

constituted of the fibres originally proper to the muscles, E F, we then

are led to the discovery of the true relations of the cord in respect to

these muscles.

On removing the transverse muscle, we expose the inguinal part of the

transversalis fascia--the sixth inguinal layer, L h, Plate 30--K k,

Plate 31. This fascia or membrane affords a general lining to the

abdominal walls, in some parts of which it presents of a denser and

stronger texture than in others. It is stretched over the abdomen

between the muscles and the peritonaeum. The fascia iliaca, the fascia

pelvica, and the fascia transversalis, are only regional divisions of

the one general membrane. On viewing this fascia in its totality, I find

it to exhibit many features in common with those other fibrous

structures which envelope serous cavities. The transversalis fascia

supports externally the peritonaeum, in the same way as the dura mater

supports the arachnoid membrane, or as the pleural fascia supports the

serous pleura. While the serous membranes form completely shut sacs, the

fibrous membranes which lie external to those sacs are pierced by the

vessels which course between them and the serous membranes, and afford

sheaths or envelopes for these vessels in their passage from the

interior to the external parts. The sheath, H h, Plates 30 and 31, which

surrounds the spermatic vessels, and the sheath, R, Plate 31, which

envelopes the crural vessels, are elongations of the fascia

transversalis.

In the groin, the transversalis fascia, K k, Plate 31, presents, in

general, so dense a texture as to offer considerable resistance to

visceral pressure. Here it is stretched between the transverse muscle,

F, Plate 31, and the peritonaeum, I. It adheres to the external surface

of the peritonaeum, and to the internal surface of the transverse

muscle, by means of an intervening cellular tissue. It is connected

below to Poupart's ligament, along the line of which it joins the fascia

iliaca. It lines the lower posterior aspect of the rectus muscle, where

this is devoid of its sheath; and it is incorporated with f, the

conjoined tendon, thereby fencing the external abdominal ring.

Immediately above the middle of Poupart's ligament, this membrane, at

the point marked h, Plate 30, is pouched into a canal-shaped elongation,

which invests the spermatic vessels as far as the testicle in the

scrotum; and to this elongation is given the names "fascia spermatica

interna" (Cooper), "fascia infundibuliform" (Cloquet). The same part,

when it encloses an external oblique hernia, is named "fascia propria."

The neck or inlet of this funnel-shaped canal is oval, and named the

"internal abdominal ring." As this ring looks towards the interior of

the abdomen, and forms the entrance of the funnel-shaped canal, it

cannot of course be seen from before until we slit open this canal.

Compare the parts marked H h in Plates 30 and 31.

The inguinal and iliac portions of the fascia transversalis join along

the line of Poupart's ligament, A C. The iliac vessels, in their passage

to the thigh, encounter the fascia at the middle third of the crural

arch formed by the ligament, and take an investment (the sheath, R) from

the fascia. The fore part of this sheath is mentioned as formed by the

fascia transversalis--the back part by the fascia iliaca; but these

distinctions are merely nominal, and it is therefore unnecessary to

dwell upon them. The sheath of the femoral vessels is also

funnel-shaped, and surrounds them on all sides. Its broad entrance lies

beneath the middle of Poupart's ligament. Several septa are met with in

its interior. These serve to separate the femoral vessels from each

other. The femoral vein, O, Plate 30, is separated from the falciform

margin, S s, of the saphenous opening by one of these septa. Between

this septum and the falx an interval occurs, and through it the crural

hernia usually descends. These parts will be more particularly noticed

when considering the anatomy of crural hernia.

Beneath the fascia transversalis is found the subserous cellular

membrane, which serves as a connecting medium between the fascia and the

peritonaeum. This cellular membrane may be considered as the seventh

inguinal layer. It is described by Scarpa (sull' Ernie) as forming an

investment for the spermatic vessels inside the sheath, where it is

copious, especially in old inguinal hernia. It is also sometimes mixed

with fatty tissue. In it is found embedded the infantile cord--the

remains of the upper part of the peritoneal tunica vaginalis--a

structure which will be considered in connexion with congenital herniae.

By removing the subserous cellular tissue, we lay bare the peritonaeum,

which forms the eighth layer of the inguinal region. Upon it the

epigastric and spermatic vessels are seen to rest. These vessels course

between the fascia transversalis and the peritonaeum. The internal ring

which is formed in the fascia, K h, may be now seen to be closed by the

peritonaeum, I. The inguinal canal, therefore, does not, in the normal

state of these parts, communicate with the general serous cavity; and

here it must be evident that before the bowel, which is situated

immediately behind the peritonaeum, I, can be received into the canal, H

h, it must either rupture that membrane, or elongate it in the form of a

sac.

The exact position which the epigastric, L, Plate 31, and spermatic

vessels, M, bear in respect to the internal ring, is a point of chief

importance in the surgical anatomy of the groin; for the various forms

of herniae which protrude through this part have an intimate relation to

these vessels. The epigastric artery, in general, arises from the

external iliac, close above the middle of Poupart's ligament, and

ascends the inguinal wall in an oblique course towards the navel. It

applies itself to the inner border of the internal ring, and here it is

crossed on its outer side by the spermatic vessels, as these are about

to enter the inguinal canal.

The inguinal canal is the natural channel through which the spermatic

vessels traverse the groin on their way to the testicle in the scrotum.

In the remarks which have been already made respecting the several

layers of structures found in the groin, I endeavoured to realize the

idea of an inguinal canal as consisting of elongations of these layers

invaginated the one within the other, the outermost layer being the

integument of the groin elongated into the scrotal skin, whilst the

innermost layer consisted of the transversalis fascia elongated into the

fascia spermatica interna, or sheath. The peritonaeum, which forms the

eighth layer of the groin, was seen to be drawn across the internal ring

of this canal above in such a way as to close it completely, whilst all

the other layers, seven in number, were described as being continued

over the spermatic vessels in the form of funnel-shaped investments, as

far down as the testicle.

With the ideas of an inguinal canal thus naturally constituted, I need

not hesitate to assert that the form, the extent, and the boundaries of

the inguinal canal, as given by the descriptive anatomist, are purely

conventional, and do not exist until after dissection; for which reason,

and also because the form and condition of these parts so described and

dissected do not appear absolutely to correspond in any two individuals,

I omit to mention the scale of measurements drawn up by some eminent

surgeons, with the object of determining the precise relative position

of the several parts of the inguinal region.

The existence of an inguinal canal consisting, as I have described it,

of funnel-shaped elongations from the several inguinal layers continued

over the cord as far as the testicle, renders the adult male especially

liable to hernial protrusions at this part. The oblique direction of the

canal is, in some measure, a safeguard against these accidents; but this

obliquity is not of the same degree in all bodies, and hence some are

naturally more prone to herniae than others.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES OF PLATES 30 & 31.

PLATE 30.

A. The anterior superior iliac spine.

B. The umbilicus.

C. The spine of the pubis.

D. The external oblique muscle; d, its tendon. .

E. The internal oblique muscle; e, its tendon.

F. The transverse muscle; f, its tendon, forming, with e, the conjoined

tendon.

G. The rectus muscle enclosed in its sheath.

H. The fascia spermatica interna covering the cord; h, its funnel-shaped

extremity.

I, K, L, M. See Plate 31.

N. The femoral artery; n, its profunda branch.

O. The femoral vein.

P. The saphena vein.

Q. The sartorius muscle.

R. The sheath of the femoral vessels.

S. The falciform margin of the saphenous opening.

T. The anterior crural nerve.

U. The pubic portion of the fascia lata.

V. The iliac portion attached to Poupart's ligament.

W. The lower part of the iliacus muscle.

PLATE 30

PLATE 31.

A. The anterior superior iliac spine.

B. The umbilicus.

C. The spine of the pubis.

D. The external oblique muscle; d, its tendon; d*, the external ring.

E. The internal oblique muscle.

F. The transverse muscle; f, its tendon; forming, with e, the conjoined

tendon.

G. The rectus muscle laid bare.

H h. The fascia spermatica interna laid open above and below d*, the

external ring.

I. The peritonaeum closing the internal ring.

K. The fascia transversalis; k, its pubic part.

L. The epigastric artery and veins.

M. The spermatic artery, veins, and vas deferens bending round the

epigastric artery at the internal ring; m, the same vessels below

the external ring.

N. The femoral artery; n, its profunda branch.

O. The femoral vein, joined by--

P. The saphena vein.

Q. The sartorius muscle.

R. The sheath of the femoral vessels.

S S. The falciform margin of the saphenous opening,

T. The anterior crural nerve.

U. The pubic part of the fascia lata.

V. The iliac part of the fascia lata.

W. The lower part of the iliacus muscle.

Plate 31

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 32, 33, & 34

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 32, 33, & 34.

THE DISSECTION OF THE OBLIQUE OR EXTERNAL AND

THE DIRECT OR INTERNAL INGUINAL HERNIAE.

The order in which the herniary bowel takes its investments from the

eight layers of the inguinal region, is precisely the reverse of that

order in which these layers present in the dissection from before

backwards. The innermost layer of the inguinal region is the

peritonaeum, and from this membrane the intestine, when about to

protrude, derives its first covering. This covering constitutes the

hernial sac. Almost all varieties of inguinal herniae are said to be

enveloped in a sac, or elongation of the peritonaeum. This is accounted

as the general rule. The exceptions to the rule are mentioned as

occurring in the following modes: 1st, the caecum and sigmoid flexure of

the colon, which are devoid of mesenteries, and only partially covered

by the peritonaeum, may slip down behind this membrane, and become

hernial; 2nd, the inguinal part of the peritonaeum may suffer rupture,

and allow the intestine to protrude through the opening. When a hernia

occurs under either of these circumstances, it will be found deprived of

a sac.

All the blood vessels and nerves of the abdomen lie external to the

peritonaeum. Those vessels which traverse the abdomen on their way to

the external organs course outside the peritonaeum; and at the places

where they enter the abdominal parietes, the membrane is reflected from

them. This disposition of the peritonaeum in respect to the spermatic

and iliac vessels is exhibited in Plate 32.

The part of the peritonaeum which lines the inguinal parietes does not

(in the normal state of the adult body) exhibit any aperture

corresponding to that named the internal ring. The membrane is in this

place, as elsewhere, continuous throughout, being extended over the

ring, as also over other localities, where subjacent structures may be

in part wanting. It is in these places, where the membrane happens to be

unsupported, that herniae are most liable to occur. And it must be

added, that the natural form of the internal surface of the groin is

such as to guide the viscera under pressure directly against those parts

which are the weakest.

The inner surface of the groin is divided into two pouches or fossae, by

an intervening crescentic fold of the peritonaeum, which corresponds

with the situation of the epigastric vessels. This fold is formed by the

epigastric vessels and the umbilical ligament, which, being tenser and

shorter than the peritonaeum, thereby cause this membrane to project.

The outer fossa represents a triangular space, the apex of which is

below, at P; the base being formed by the fibres of the transverse

muscle above; the inner side by the epigastric artery; and the outer

side by Poupart's ligament. The apex of this inverted triangle is

opposite the internal ring. The inner fossa is bounded by the epigastric

artery externally; by the margin of the rectus muscle internally; and by

the os pubis and inner end of Poupart's ligament inferiorly. The inner

fossa is opposite the external abdominal ring, and is known as the

triangle of Hesselbach.

The two peritonaeal fossae being named external and internal, in

reference to the situation of the epigastric vessels, we find that the

two varieties of inguinal herniae which occur in these fossae are named

external and internal also, in reference to the same part.

The external inguinal hernia, so called from its commencing in the outer

peritonaeal fossa, on the outer side of the epigastric artery, takes a

covering from the peritonaeum of this place, and pushes forward into the

internal abdominal ring at the point marked P, Plate 32. In this place,

the incipient hernia or bubonocele, covered by its sac, lies on the

forepart of the spermatic vessels, and becomes invested by those same

coverings which constitute the inguinal canal, through which these

vessels pass. In this stage of the hernia, its situation in respect to

the epigastric artery is truly external, and in respect to the spermatic

vessels, anterior, while the protruded intestine itself is separated

from actual contact with either of these vessels by its proper sac. The

bubonocele, projecting through the internal ring at the situation marked

F, (Plate 33,) midway between A, the anterior iliac spine, and I, the

pubic spine, continues to increase in size; but as its further progress

from behind directly forwards becomes arrested by the tense resisting

aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle, h, it changes its course

obliquely inwards along the canal, traversing this canal with the

spermatic vessels, which still lie behind it, and, lastly, makes its

exit at the external ring, H. The obliquity of this course, pursued by

the hernia, from the internal to the external ring, has gained for it

the name of oblique hernia. In this stage of the hernial protrusion, the

only part of it which may be truly named external is the neck of its

sac, F, for the elongated body, G, of the hernia lies now actually in

front of the epigastric artery, P, and this vessel is separated from the

anterior wall of the canal, H h, by an interval equal to the bulk of the

hernia. While the hernia occupies the canal, F H, without projecting

through the external ring, H, it is named "incomplete." When it has

passed the external ring, H, so as to form a tumour of the size and in

the situation of f g, it is named "complete." When, lastly, the hernia

has extended itself so far as to occupy the whole length of the cord,

and reach the scrotum, it is termed "scrotal hernia." These names, it

will be seen, are given only to characterise the several stages of the

one kind of hernia--viz., that which commences to form at a situation

external to the epigastric artery, and, after following the course of

the spermatic vessels through the inguinal canal, at length terminates

in the scrotum.

The external inguinal hernia having entered the canal, P, (Plate 32,) at

a situation immediately in front of the spermatic vessels, continues, in

the several stages of its descent, to hold the same relation to these

vessels through the whole length of the canal, even as far as the

testicle in the scrotum. This hernia, however, when of long standing and

large size, is known to separate the spermatic vessels from each other

in such a way, that some are found to lie on its fore part--others to

its outer side. However great may be the size of this hernia, even when

it becomes scrotal, still the testicle is invariably found below it.

This fact is accounted for by the circumstance, that the lower end of

the spermatic envelopes is attached so firmly to the coats of the

testicle as to prevent the hernia from either distending and elongating

them to a level below this organ, or from entering the cavity of the

tunica vaginalis.

The external form of inguinal hernia is, comparatively speaking, but

rarely seen in the female. When it does occur in this sex, its position,

investments, and course through the inguinal canal, where it accompanies

the round ligament of the uterus, are the same as in the male. When the

hernia escapes through the external abdominal ring of the female groin,

it is found to lodge in the labium pudendi. In the male body, the

testicle and spermatic cord, which have carried before them investments

derived from all the layers of the inguinal region, have, as it were,

already marked out the track to be followed by the hernia, and prepared

for it its several coverings. The muscular parietes of the male inguinal

region, from which the loose cremaster muscle has been derived, have by

this circumstance become weakened, and hence the more frequent

occurrence of external inguinal hernia in the male. But in the female,

where no such process has taken place, and where a cremaster does not

exist at the expense of the internal oblique and transverse muscles, the

inguinal parietes remain more compact, and are less liable to suffer

distention in the course of the uterine ligament.

The internal inguinal hernia takes its peritonaeal covering (the sac)

from the inner fossa, Q R, Plate 32, internal to the epigastric artery,

and forces directly forwards through the external abdominal ring,

carrying investments from each of such structures as it meets with in

this locality of the groin. As the external ring, H, Plate 34, is

opposite the inner peritonaeal fossa, Q R, Plate 32, this hernia, which

protrudes thus immediately from behind forwards, is also named direct.

In this way these two varieties of hernia, (the external, Plate 33, and

the internal, Plate 34,) though commencing in different situations, P

and R, Plate 32, within the abdomen, arrive at the same place--viz., the

external ring, H, Plates 33 and 34. The coverings of the internal

hernia, Plate 34, though not derived exactly from the same locality as

those which invest the cord and the external variety, are, nevertheless,

but different parts of the same structures; these are, 1st, the

peritonaeum, G, which forms its sac; 2nd, the pubic part of the fascia

transversalis; 3rd, the conjoined tendon itself, or (according as the

hernia may occur further from the mesial line) the cremaster, which, in

common with the internal oblique and transverse muscles, terminates in

this tendon; 4th, the external spermatic fascia, derived from the

margins of the external ring; 5th, the superficial fascia and

integuments.

The coverings of the internal inguinal hernia are (as to number)

variously described by authors. Thus with respect to the conjoined

tendon, the hernia is said, in some instances, to take an investment of

this structure; in others, to pass through a cleft in its fibres; in

others, to escape by its outer margin. Again, the cremaster muscle is

stated by some to cover this hernia; by others, to be rarely met with,

as forming one of its coverings; and by others, never. Lastly, it is

doubted by some whether this hernia is even covered by a protrusion of

the fascia transversalis in all instances. [Footnote]

[Footnote: Mr. Lawrence (Treatise on Ruptures) remarks, "How often it

may be invested by a protrusion of the fascia transversalis, I cannot

hitherto determine." Mr. Stanley has presented to St. Bartholomew's

Hospital several specimens of this hernia invested by the fascia.

Hesselbach speaks of the fascia as being always present. Cloquet

mentions it as being present always, except in such cases as where, by

being ruptured, the sac protrudes through it. Langenbeck states that the

fascia is constantly protruded as a covering to this hernia: "Quia

hernia inguinalis interna non in canalis abdominalis aperturam internam

transit, tunicam vaginalem communem intrare nequit; parietem autem

canalis abdominalis internum aponeuroticum, in quo fovea inguinalis

interna, et qui ex adverso annulo abdominali est, ante se per annulum

trudit." (Comment, ad illust. Herniarum, &c.) Perhaps the readiest and

surest explanation which can be given to these differences of opinion

may be had from the following remark:--"Culter enim semper has partes

extricat, quae involucro adeo inhaerent, ut pro lubitu musculum

(membranam) efformare queas unde magnam illam inter anatomicos

discrepantiam ortam conjicio." (Camper. Icones Herniarum.)]

The variety in the number of investments of the internal inguinal hernia

(especially as regards the presence or absence of the conjoined tendon

and cremaster) appears to me to be dependent, 1st, upon the position

whereat this hernia occurs; 2nd, upon the state of the parts through

which it passes; and 3rd, upon the manner in which the dissection

happens to be conducted.

The precise relations which the internal hernia holds in respect to the

epigastric and spermatic vessels are also mainly dependent (as in the

external variety) upon the situation where it traverses the groin. The

epigastric artery courses outside the neck of its sac, sometimes in

close connexion with this part--at other times, at some distance from

it, according as the neck may happen to be wide and near the vessel, or

narrow, and removed from it nearer to the median line. At the external

ring, H, (Plate 34,) the sac of this hernia, g, protrudes on the inner

side of the spermatic vessels, f; and the size of the hernia distending

the ring, removes these vessels at a considerable interval from, I, the

crista pubis. At the ring, H, (Plate 34,) the investments, g f, of the

direct hernia are not always distinct from those of the oblique hernia,

g f, (Plate 33); for whilst in both varieties the intestine and the

spermatic vessels are separated from actual contact by the sac, yet it

is true that the direct hernia, as well as the oblique, may occupy the

inguinal canal. It is in relation to the epigastric artery alone that

the direct hernia differs essentially from the oblique variety; for I

find that both may be enclosed in the same structures as invest the

spermatic vessels.

The external ring of the male groin is larger than that of the female;

and this circumstance, with others of a like nature, may account for the

fact, that the female is very rarely the subject of the direct hernia.

In the male, the direct hernia is found to occur much less frequently

than the oblique, and this we might, a priori, expect, from the

anatomical disposition of the parts. But it is true, nevertheless, that

the part where the direct hernia occurs is not defended so completely in

some male bodies as it is in others. The conjoined tendon, which is

described as shielding the external ring, is in some cases very weak,

and in others so narrow, as to offer but little support to this part of

the groin.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES OF PLATES 32, 33, & 34.

PLATE 32.

A. That part of the ilium which abuts against the sacrum.

B. The spine of the ischium.

C. The tuberosity of the ischium.

D. The symphysis pubis.

E. Situation of the anterior superior iliac spine.

F. Crest of the ilium.

G. Iliacus muscle.

H. Psoas magnus muscle supporting the spermatic vessels.

I. Transversalis muscle.

K. Termination of the sheath of the rectus muscle.

L1 L2 L3. The iliac, transverse and pelvic portions of the transversalis

fascia.

M M. The peritonaeum lining the groin.

N. The epigastric vessels lying between the peritonaeum, M, and the

transversalis fascia, L2. O. The umbilical ligament.

P. The neck of the sac of an external inguinal hernia formed before the

spermatic vessels.

Q. An interval which occasionally occurs between the umbilical ligament

and the epigastric artery.

R and Q. Situations where the direct inguinal hernia occurs when, as in

this case, the umbilical ligament crosses the space named the

internal fossa--the triangle of Hesselbach.

S. Lower part of the right spermatic cord.

T. The bulb of the urethra.

U. External iliac vein covered by the peritonaeum.

V. External iliac artery covered by the peritonaeum.

W. Internal iliac artery.

X. Common iliac artery.

Plate 32

PLATE 33.--The External Inguinal Hernia.

A. Anterior iliac spinous process.

B. The umbilicus.

C. Fleshy part of the external oblique muscle; c, its tendon.

D. Fleshy part of the internal oblique muscle; d, its tendon.

E. Transversalis muscle; e, the conjoined tendon.

F f. The funnel-shaped sheath of the spermatic vessels covering the

external hernia; upon it are seen the cremasteric fibres.

G g. The peritonaeal covering or sac of the external hernia within the

sheath.

H. The external abdominal ring.

I. The crista pubis.

K k. The saphenous opening.

L. The saphena vein.

M. The femoral vein.

N. The femoral artery; n, its profunda branch.

O. The anterior crural nerve.

P. The epigastric vessels overlaid by the neck of the hernia.

Q Q. The sheath of the femoral vessels.

R. The sartorius muscle.

S. The iliacus muscle.

Plate 33

PLATE 34.--The Internal Inguinal Hernia.

The letters indicate the same parts as in Plate 33

Plate 34

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 35, 36, 37, & 38

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 35, 36, 37, & 38.

THE DISTINCTIVE DIAGNOSIS BETWEEN EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL

INGUINAL HERNIAE, THE TAXIS, THE SEAT OF STRICTURE, AND THE OPERATION.

A comparison of the relative position of these two varieties of herniae

is in ordinary cases the chief means by which we can determine their

distinctive diagnosis; but oftentimes they are found to exhibit such an

interchange of characters, that the name direct or oblique can no longer

serve to distinguish between them. The nearer the one approaches the

usual place of the other, the more likely are they to be mistaken the

one for the other. An internal hernia may enter the inguinal canal, and

become oblique; while an external hernia, though occupying the canal,

may become direct. It is only when these herniae occur at the situations

commonly described, and where they manifest their broadest contrast,

that the following diagnostic signs can be observed.

The external bubonocele, H, Plate 37, G, Plate 38, when recently formed,

may be detected at a situation midway between the iliac and pubic

spinous processes, where it has entered the internal ring. When the

hernia extends itself from this part, its course will be obliquely

inwards, corresponding with the direction of the inguinal canal. While

it still occupies the canal without passing through the external ring,

it is rendered obscure by the restraint of the external oblique tendon;

but yet a degree of fulness may be felt in this situation. When the

hernia has passed the external ring, T, Plate 36, it dilates

considerably, and assumes the form of an oblong swelling, H, Plate 36,

behind which the spermatic vessels are situated. When it has become

scrotal, the cord will be found still on its posterior aspect, while the

testicle itself occupies a situation directly below the swelling.

The internal hernia, H, Plate 38, also traverses the external ring, T,

where it assumes a globular shape, and sometimes projects so far

inwards, over the pubes, C, as to conceal the crista of this bone. As

the direction of this hernia is immediately from behind forwards, the

inguinal canal near the internal ring is found empty, unswollen. The

cord, Q, lies external to and somewhat over the fore part of this

hernia; and the testicle does not occupy a situation exactly beneath the

fundus of the sac, (as it does in the external hernia,) but is found to

be placed either at its fore part or its outer side. This difference as

to the relative position of the cord and testicle in both these forms of

herniae, is accounted for under the supposition that whilst the external

variety descends inside the sheaths of the inguinal canal, the internal

variety does not. But this statement cannot apply to all cases of

internal hernia, for this also occasionally enters the canal. Both forms

of inguinal herniae may exist at the same time on the same side: the

external, G, Plate 38, being a bubonocele, still occupying the inguinal

canal; while the internal, H, protrudes through the external ring, T, in

the usual way. In this form of hernia--a compound of the oblique and

direct--while the parts remain still covered by the integuments, it must

be difficult to tell its nature, or to distinguish any mark by which to

diagnose the case from one of the external variety, H, Plate 36, which,

on entering the canal at the internal ring, protrudes at the external

ring. In both cases, the swelling produced in the groin must be exactly

of the same size and shape. The epigastric artery in the case where the

two herniae co-exist lies between them, holding in its usual position

with respect to each when occurring separately--that is, on the outer

side of the internal hernia, H, and on the inner side of the external

one, G; and the external hernia, G, not having descended the canal as

far as the external ring, T, allows the internal hernia, H, to assume

its usual position with respect to the cord, Q. [Footnote]

[Footnote: Cases of this double hernia (external and internal) have been

met with by Wilmer, Arnaud, Sandifort, Richter, and others. A plurality

of the same variety of hernia may also occur on the same side. A

complete and incomplete external inguinal hernia existing in the one

groin, is recorded by Mr. Aston Key in his edition of Sir Astley

Cooper's work on Hernia. Sir Astley Cooper states his having met with

three internal inguinal herniae in each inguinal region. (Ing. et

Congenit. Hernire.) ]

Returning, however, to the more frequent conditions of inguinal

hernia--viz., those in which either the direct or the oblique variety

occurs alone--it should be remembered that a hernia originally oblique,

H, Plates 35 and 37, may, when of long standing, and having attained a

large size, destroy, by its gravitation, the obliquity of the inguinal

canal to such a degree as to bring the internal, H, Plate 35, opposite

to the external ring, as at I, and thereby exhibit all the appearance of

a hernia originally direct, I, Plate 37. In such a case, the epigastric

artery, F, which lies on the outer side of the neck of a truly direct

hernia, I, Plate 37, will be found to course on the inner side, G, of

the neck of this false-seeming direct hernia, I, Plate 35.

In the trial made for replacing the protruded bowel by the taxis, two

circumstances should be remembered in order to facilitate this object:

1st, the abdominal parietes should be relaxed by supporting the trunk

forward, and at the same time flexing the thigh on the trunk; 2nd, as

every complete hernial protrusion becomes distended more or less beyond

the seat of stricture--wherever this may happen to be--its reduction by

the taxis should be attempted, with gradual, gentle, equable pressure,

so that the sac may be first emptied of its fluid. That part of the

hernia which protruded last should be replaced first. The direction in

which the hernia protrudes must always determine the direction in which

it is to be reduced. If it be the external or oblique variety, the

viscus is to be pushed upwards, outwards, and backwards; if it be the

internal or direct variety, it is to be reduced by pressure, made

upwards and backwards. Pressure made in this latter direction will serve

for the reduction of that hernia which, from being originally external

and oblique, has assumed the usual position of the internal or direct

variety.

The seat of the stricture in an external inguinal hernia is found to be

situated either at the internal ring, corresponding to the neck of the

sac, or at the external ring. Between these two points, which "bound the

canal," and which are to be regarded merely as passive agents in causing

stricture of the protruding bowel, the lower parts of the transversalis

and internal oblique muscles embrace the herniary sac, and are known at

times to be the cause of its active strangulation or spasm.

The seat of stricture in an internal hernia may be either at the neck of

its sac, I, Plate 37, or at the external ring, T, Plate 38; and

according to the locality where this hernia enters the inguinal wall,

the nature of its stricture will vary. If the hernia pass through a

cleft in the conjoined tendon, f, Plate 38, this structure will

constrict its neck all around. If it pass on the outer margin of this

tendon, then the neck of the sac, bending inwards in order to gain the

external ring, will be constricted against the sharp resisting edge of

the tendon. Again, if the hernia enter the inguinal wall close to the

epigastric artery, it will find its way into the inguinal canal, become

invested by the structures forming this part, and here it may suffer

active constriction from the muscular fibres of the transverse and

internal oblique or their cremasteric parts. The external ring may be

considered as always causing some degree of pressure on the hernia which

passes through it.

In both kinds of inguinal herniae, the neck of the sac is described as

being occasionally the seat of stricture, and it certainly is so; but

never from a cause originating in itself per se, or independently of

adjacent structures. The form of the sac of a hernia is influenced by

the parts through which it passes, or which it pushes and elongates

before itself. Its neck, H, Plate 37, is narrow at the internal ring of

the fascia transversalis, because this ring is itself narrowed; it is

again narrowed at the external ring, T, Plate 36, from the same cause.

The neck of the sac of a direct hernia, I, Plate 37, being formed in the

space of the separated fibres of the conjoined tendon, or the pubic part

of the transversalis fascia, while the sac itself passes through the

resisting tendinous external ring, is equal to the capacities of these

outlets. But if these constricting outlets did not exist, the neck of

the sac would be also wanting. When, however, the neck of the sac has

existed in the embrace of these constricting parts for a considerable

period--when it suffers inflammation and undergoes chronic

thickening--then, even though we liberate the stricture of the internal

ring or the external, the neck of the sac will be found to maintain its

narrow diameter, and to have become itself a real seat of stricture. It

is in cases of this latter kind of stricture that experience has

demonstrated the necessity of opening the sac (a proceeding otherwise

not only needless, but objectionable) and dividing its constricted neck.

The fact that the stricture may be seated in the neck of the sac

independent of the internal ring, and also that the duplicature of the

contained bowel may be adherent to the neck or other part of the

interior, or that firm bands of false membrane may exist so as to

constrict the bowel within the sac, are circumstances which require that

this should be opened, and the state of its contained parts examined,

prior to the replacement of the bowel in the abdomen. If the bowel were

adherent to the neck of the sac, we might, when trying to reduce it by

the taxis, produce visceral invagination; or while the stricture is in

the neck of the sac, if we were to return this and its contents en masse

(the "reduction en bloc") into the abdomen, it is obvious that the bowel

would be still in a state of strangulation, though free of the internal

ring or other opening in the inguinal wall.

The operation for the division of the stricture by the knife is

conducted in the following way: an incision is to be made through the

integuments, adipous membrane, and superficial fascia, of a length and

depth sufficient to expose the tendon of the external oblique muscle for

an inch or so above the external ring; and the hernia for the same

extent below the ring. The length of the incision will require to be

varied according to circumstances, but its direction should be oblique

with that of the hernia itself, and also over the centre of its

longitudinal axis, so as to avoid injuring the spermatic vessels. If the

constriction of the hernia be caused by the external ring, a director is

to be inserted beneath this part, and a few of its fibres divided. But

when the stricture is produced by either of the muscles which lie

beneath the aponeurosis of the external oblique, it will be necessary to

divide this part in order to expose and incise them.

When the thickened and indurated neck of the sac is felt to be the cause

of the strangulation, or when the bowel cannot be replaced, in

consequence of adhesions which it may have contracted with some part of

the sac, it then becomes necessary to open this envelope. And now the

position of the epigastric artery is to be remembered, so as to avoid

wounding it in the incision about to be made through the constricted

neck of the sac. The artery being situated on the inner side of the neck

of the sac of an oblique hernia, requires the incision to be made

outwards from the external side of the neck; whereas in the direct

hernia, the artery being on its outer side, the incision should be

conducted inwards from the inner side of the neck. But as the external

or oblique hernia may by its weight, in process of time, gravitate so

far inwards as to assume the position and appearance of a hernia

originally direct and internal, and as by this change of place the

oblique hernia, becoming direct as to position, does not at the same

time become internal in respect to the epigastric artery,--for this

vessel, F, Plate 35, has been borne inwards to the place, G, where it

still lies, internal to the neck of the sac, and since, moreover, it is

very difficult to diagnose a case of this kind with positive certainty,

it is therefore recommended to incise the stricture at the neck of the

sac in a line carried directly upwards. (Sir Astley Cooper.) It will be

seen, however, on referring to Plates 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, & 38, that

an incision carried obliquely upwards towards the umbilicus would be

much more likely to avoid the epigastric artery through all its varying

relations.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES OF PLATES 35, 36, 37, & 38.

PLATE 35.

A. Anterior superior spine of the ilium; a, indicates the situation of

the middle of Poupart's ligament.

B. Symphysis pubis.

C. Rectus abdominis muscle covered by the fascia transversalis.

D. The peritonaeum lining the groin.

E. The situation of the conjoined tendon resisting the further progress

of the external hernia gravitating inwards.

F. A dotted line indicating the original situation of the epigastric

artery in the external hernia.

G. The new position assumed by the epigastric artery borne inwards by

the weight of the old external hernia.

H. The original situation of the neck of the sac of the external hernia.

I. The new situation assumed by the neck of the sac of an old external

hernia which has gravitated inwards from its original place at H.

K. The external iliac vein covered by the peritonaeum.

L. The external iliac artery covered by the peritonaeum and crossed by

the spermatic vessels.

M. The psoas muscle supporting the spermatic vessels and the

genito-crural nerve.

N. The iliacus muscle.

O. The transversalis fascia lining the transverse muscle.

Plate 35

PLATE 36.--AN ANTERIOR VIEW OF PLATE 35.

A. Anterior superior iliac spinous process.

B. The navel.

C. The situation of the crista pubis.

D. The external oblique muscle; d, its tendon.

E. Internal oblique muscle; e, its tendon, covering the rectus muscle.

F. Lower part of the transverse muscle; f, the conjoined tendon.

G. The transversalis fascia investing the upper part of the hernial sac;

g, the original situation of the epigastric artery internal to this

hernia; g*, the new situation of the artery pushed inwards.

H. The hernial sac, invested by h, the elongation of the fascia

transversalis, or funnel-shaped sheath.

I. The femoral artery.

K. The femoral vein.

L. The sartorius muscle.

M. Iliac part of the fascia lata joining Poupart's ligament.

N. Pubic part of the fascia lata.

O. Saphena vein.

P P. Falciform margin of the saphenous opening.

Q. See Plate 38.

R. Sheath of the femoral vessels.

S. Anterior crural nerve.

T. The external ring.

Plate 36

PLATE 37.

All the letters except the following indicate the same parts as in Plate

35.

F. The epigastric artery passing between the two hernial sacs

G. The umbilical ligament.

H. The neck of the sac of the external hernia.

I. The neck of the sac of the internal hernia.

Plate 37

PLATE 38.--AN ANTERIOR VIEW OF PLATE 37.

All the letters, with the exception of the following, refer to the same

parts as in Plate 36.

G. The funnel-shaped elongation of the fascia transversalis receiving g,

the sac of the external bubonocele.

H. The sac of the internal inguinal hernia invested by h, the

transversalis fascia.

Q. The spermatic vessels lying on the outer side of H, the direct

inguinal hernia.

Plate 38

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 39 & 40

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 39 & 40.

DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE NATURE OF CONGENITAL AND

INFANTILE INGUINAL HERNIAE, AND OF HYDROCELE.

PLATE 39. Fig. 1--The descent of the testicle from the loins to the

scrotum.--The foetal abdomen and scrotum form one general cavity, and

are composed of parts which are structurally identical. The cutaneous,

fascial, muscular, and membranous layers of the abdominal parietes are

continued into those of the scrotum. At the fifth month of foetal life,

the testicle, 3, is situated in the loins beneath the kidney, 2. The

testicle is then numbered amongst the abdominal viscera, and, like

these, it is developed external to the peritonaeal membrane, which forms

an envelope for it. At the back and sides of the testicle, where the

peritonaeum is reflected from it, a small membranous fold or mesentery

(mesorchium, Seiler) is formed, and between the layers of this the

nerves and vessels enter the organ, the nerves being derived from the

neighbouring sympathetic ganglia (aortic plexus), while the arteries and

veins spring directly from the main abdominal bloodvessels. It being

predetermined that the testicle, 3, should migrate from the loins to the

scrotum, 6 a, 7, at a period included between the sixth and ninth month,

certain structural changes are at this time already effected for its

sure and easy passage. By the time that the testis, 5, is about to enter

the internal inguinal ring, 6 a, (seventh or eighth month,) a process or

pouch of the peritonaeal membrane (processus vaginalis) has already

descended through this aperture into the scrotum, and the testicle

follows it.

The descent of the testis is effected by a very slow and gradual process

of change. (Tout va par degres dans la nature, et rien par

sauts.--Bonnet.) But how, or by what distinct and active structural

agent, this descent is effected, or whether there does exist, in fact,

any such agent as that which anatomists name "gubernaculum testis," are

questions which appear to me by no means settled.[Footnote]

[Footnote:  Dr. Carpenter (Principles of Human Physiology) remarks, that

"the cause of this descent is not very clear. It can scarcely be due

merely, as some have supposed, to the contraction of the gubernaculum,

since that does not contain any fibrous structure until after the

lowering of the testis has commenced." Dr. Sharpey (Quain's Anatomy, 5th

edition) observes, that "the office of the gubernaculum is yet

imperfectly understood." The opinions of these two distinguished

physiologists will doubtless be regarded as an impartial estimate of the

results of the researches prosecuted in reference to these questions by

Haller, Camper, Hunter, Arnaud, Lobstein, Meckel, Paletta, Wrisberg,

Vicq d'Azyr, Brugnone, Tumiati, Seiler, Girardi, Cooper, Bell, Weber,

Carus, Cloquet, Curling, and others. From my own observations, I am led

to believe that no such muscular structure as a gubernaculum exists, and

therefore that the descent of the testis is the effect of another cause.

Leaving these matters, however, to the consideration of the

physiologist, it is sufficient for the surgeon to know that the testis

in its transition derives certain coverings from the parietes of the

groin, and that a communication is thereby established between the

scrotal and abdominal cavities. ]

The general lining membrane of the foetal abdomen is composed of two

layers--an outer one of fibrous, and an inner one of serous structure.

Of these two layers, the abdominal viscera form for themselves a double

envelope. [Footnote]  The testis in the loins has a covering from both

membranes, and is still found to be enclosed by both, even when it has

descended to the scrotum. The two coverings of fibro-serous structure

which surrounded the testis in the loins become respectively the tunica

albuginea and tunica vaginalis when the gland occupies the scrotal

cavity.

[Footnote: Langenbeck describes the peritonaeum as consisting of two

layers; one external and fibrous, another internal and serous. By the

first, he means, I presume, that membrane of which the transversalis and

iliac fasciae are parts. (See Comment. de Periton. Structura, &c.) ]

Plate 39--Figure 1

PLATE 39, Fig. 2.--The testicle in the scrotum.--When the testicle, 5,

descends into the scrotum, 7, which happens in general at the time of

birth, the abdomino-scrotal fibro-serous membrane, 6 a, 6 d, is still

continuous at the internal ring, 6 b. From this point downwards, to a

level with the upper border of the testicle, the canal of communication

between the scrotal cavity and the abdomen becomes elongated and

somewhat constricted. At this part, the canal itself consists, like the

abdominal membrane above and the scrotal membrane below, of a fibrous

and serous layer, the latter enclosed within the former. The serous

lining of this canal is destined to be obliterated, while the outer

fibrous membrane is designed to remain in its primitive condition. When

the serous canal contracts and degenerates to the form of a simple cord,

it leaves the fibrous canal still continuous above with the fibrous

membrane (transversalis fascia) of the abdomen, and below with the

fibrous envelope (tunica albuginea) of the testis; and at the adult

period, this fibrous canal is known as the internal spermatic sheath, or

infundibuliform fascia enclosing the remains of the serous canal,

together with the spermatic vessels, &c.

Plate 39--Figure 2

PLATE 39, Fig. 3.--The serous tunica vaginalis is separated from the

peritonaeum.--When the testicle, 7, has descended to the scrotum, the

serous tube or lining of the inguinal canal and cord, 6 b, 6 c, closes

and degenerates into a simple cord, (infantile spermatic cord,) and

thereby the peritonaeal sac, 6 a, becomes distinct from the serous

tunica vaginalis, 6 d. But the fibrous tube, or outer envelope of the

inguinal canal, remains still pervious, and continues in this condition

throughout life. In the adult, we recognise this fibrous tube as the

infundibuliform fascia of the cord, or as forming the fascia propria of

an external inguinal hernia. The anterior part of the fibrous spermatic

tube descends from the fascia transversalis; the posterior part is

continuous with the fascia iliaca. In relation to the testicle, the

posterior part will be seen to be reflected over the body of the gland

as the tunica albuginea, while the anterior part blends with the

cellular tissue of the front wall of the scrotum. The tunica vaginalis,

6 d, is now traceable as a distinct sac,[Footnote] closed on all sides,

and reflected from the fore part of the testicle, above and below, to

the posterior aspect of the front wall of the scrotum.

[Footnote: Mr. Owen states that the Chimpanzee alone, amongst brute

animals, has the tunica vaginalis as a distinct sac.]

Plate 39--Figure 3

PLATE 40, Fig. 1.--The abdomino-scrotal serous lining remains continuous

at the internal ring, and a congenital hydrocele is formed.--When the

serous spermatic tube, 6 b, 6 c, remains pervious and continuous above

with the peritonaeum, 6 a, and below with the serous tunica vaginalis, 6

d, the serous fluid of the abdomen will naturally gravitate to the most

depending part--viz., the tunica vaginalis; and thus a hydrocele is

formed. This kind of hydrocele is named congenital, owing to the

circumstance that the natural process of obliteration, by which the

peritonaeum becomes separated from the tunica vaginalis, has been, from

some cause, arrested. [Footnote 1]  As long as the canal of

communication, 6 b, 6 c, between the tunica vaginalis, 6 d, and the

peritonaeum 6 a, remains pervious, which it may be throughout life, this

form of hydrocele is, of course, liable to occur. It may be diagnosed

from diseased enlargements of the testicle, by its transparency, its

fluctuation, and its smooth, uniform fulness and shape, besides its

being of less weight than a diseased testis of the same size would be.

It may be distinguished from the common form of hydrocele of the

isolated tunica vaginalis by the fact, that pressure made on the scrotum

will cause the fluid to pass freely into the general cavity of the

peritonaeum. As the fluid distends the tunica vaginalis, 6 c, 6 d, in

front of the testis, this organ will of course lie towards the back of

the scrotum, and therefore, if it be found necessary to evacuate the

fluid, the puncture may be made with most safety in front of the

scrotum. If ascites should form in an adult in whom the tunica vaginalis

still communicates with the peritonaeal sac, the fluid which accumulates

in the latter membrane will also distend the former, and all the

collected fluid may be evacuated by tapping the scrotum. When a

hydrocele is found to be congenital, it must be at once obvious that to

inject irritating fluids into the tunica vaginalis (the radical cure) is

inadmissible. In an adult, free from all structural disease, and in whom

a congenital hydrocele is occasioned by the gravitation of the ordinary

serous secretion of the peritonaeum, a cure may be effected by causing

the obliteration of the serous spermatic canal by the pressure of a

truss. When a congenital hydrocele happens in an infant in whom the

testicle, 5, Fig. 1, Plate 39, is arrested in the inguinal canal,

[Footnote 2] if pressure be made on this passage with a view of causing

its closure, the testicle will be prevented from descending.

[Footnote 1: The serous spermatic tube remains open in all quadrupeds;

but their natural prone position renders them secure against hydrocele

or hernial protrusion. It is interesting to notice how in man, and the

most anthropo-morphous animals, where the erect position would subject

these to the frequent accident of hydrocele or hernia, nature causes the

serous spermatic tube to close.]

[Footnote 2: In many quadrupeds (the Rodentia and Monotremes) the testes

remain within the abdomen. In the Elephant, the testes always occupy

their original position beneath the kidneys, in the loins. Human adults

are occasionally found to be "testi-conde;" the testes being situated

below the kidneys, or at some part between this position and the

internal inguinal ring. Sometimes only one of the testes descends to the

scrotum.]

Plate 40--Figure 1.

PLATE 40, Fig. 2.--The serous spermatic canal closes imperfectly, so as

to become sacculated, and thus a hydrocele of the cord is formed.--After

the testicle, 7, has descended to the scrotum, the sides of the serous

tube, or lining of the inguinal canal and cord, 6 b, 6 c, may become

adherent at intervals; and the intervening sacs of serous membrane

continuing to secrete their proper fluid, will occasion a hydrocele of

the cord. This form of hydrocele will differ according to the varieties

in the manner of closure; and these may take place in the following

modes:--1st, if the serous tube close only at the internal ring, 6 a,

while the lower part of it, 6 b, 6 c, remains pervious, and

communicating with the tunica vaginalis, 6 d, a hydrocele will be formed

of a corresponding shape; 2nd, if the tube close at the upper part of

the testicle, 6 c, thus isolating the tunica vaginalis, 6 d, while the

upper part, 6 b, remains pervious, and the internal ring, 6 a, open, and

communicating with the peritonaeal sac, a hydrocele of the cord will

happen distinct from the tunica vaginalis; or this latter may be, at the

same time, distended with fluid, if the disposition of the subject be

favourable to the formation of dropsy; 3rd, the serous tube may close at

the internal ring, form sacculi along the cord, and close again at the

top of the testicle, thus separating the tunica vaginalis from the

abdomen, and thereby several isolated hydroceles may be formed. If in

this condition of the parts we puncture one of the sacs for the

evacuation of its contents, the others, owing to their separation, will

remain distended.

Plate 40--Figure 2.

PLATE 40, Fig. 3.--Hydrocele of the isolated tunica vaginalis.--When the

serous spermatic tube, 6 b, 6 c, becomes obliterated, according to the

normal rule, after the descent of the testicle, 7, the tunica vaginalis,

6 d, is then a distinct serous sac. If a hydrocele form in this sac, it

may be distinguished from the congenital variety by its remaining

undiminished in bulk when the subject assumes the horizontal position,

or when pressure is made on the tumour, for its contents cannot now be

forced into the abdomen. The testicle, 7, holds the same position in

this as it does in the congenital hydrocele. [Footnote] The radical cure

may be performed here without endangering the peritonaeal sac.

Congenital hydrocele is of a cylindrical shape; and this is mentioned as

distinguishing it from isolated hydrocele of the tunica vaginalis, which

is pyriform; but this mark will fail when the cord is at the same time

distended, as it may be, in the latter form of the complaint.

[Footnote: When a hydrocele is interposed between the eye and a strong

light, the testis appears as an opaque body at the back of the tunica

vaginalis. But this position of the organ is, from several causes,

liable to vary. The testis may have become morbidly adherent to the

front wall of the serous sac, in which case the hydrocele will distend

the sac laterally. Or the testis may be so transposed in the scrotum,

that, whilst the gland occupies its front part, the distended tunica

vaginalis is turned behind. The tunica vaginalis, like the serous

spermatic tube, may, in consequence of inflammatory fibrinous effusion,

become sacculated-multilocular, in which case, if a hydrocele form, the

position of the testis will vary accordingly.--See Sir Astley Cooper's

work, ("Anatomy and Diseases of the Testis;") Morton's "Surgical

Anatomy;" Mr. Curling's "Treatise on Diseases of the Testis;" and also

his article "Testicle," in the Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology.]

Plate 40--Figure 3.

PLATE 40, Fig. 4.--The serous spermatic tube remaining pervious, a

congenital hernia is formed.--When the testicle, 7, has descended to the

scrotum, if the communication between the peritonaeum, 6 a, and the

tunica vaginalis, 6 c, be not obliterated, a fold of the intestine, 13,

will follow the testicle, and occupy the cavity of the tunica vaginalis,

6 d. In this form of hernia (hernia tunicae vaginalis, Cooper), the

intestine is in front of, and in immediate contact with, the testicle.

The intestine may descend lower than the testicle, and envelope this

organ so completely as to render its position very obscure to the touch.

This form of hernia is named congenital, since it occurs in the same

condition of the parts as is found in congenital hydrocele--viz., the

inguinal ring remaining unclosed. It may occur at any period of life, so

long as the original congenital defect remains. It may be distinguished

from hydrocele by its want of transparency and fluctuation. The impulse

which is communicated to the hand applied to the scrotum of a person

affected with scrotal hernia, when he is made to cough, is also felt in

the case of congenital hydrocele. But in hydrocele of the separate

tunica vaginalis, such impulse is not perceived. Congenital hernia and

hydrocele may co-exist; and, in this case, the diagnostic signs which

are proper to each, when occurring separately, will be so mingled as to

render the precise nature of the case obscure.

Plate 40--Figure 4.

PLATE 40, Fig. 5.--Infantile hernia.--When the serous spermatic tube

becomes merely closed, or obliterated at the inguinal ring, 6 b, the

lower part of it, 6 c, is pervious, and communicating with the tunica

vaginalis, 6 d. In consequence of the closure of the tube at the

inguinal ring, if a hernia now occur, it cannot enter the tunica

vaginalis, and come into actual contact with the testicle. The hernia,

13, therefore, when about to force the peritonaeum, 6 a, near the closed

ring, 6 b, takes a distinct sac or investment from this membrane. This

hernial sac, 6 e, will vary as to its position in regard to the tunica

vaginalis, 6 d, according to the place whereat it dilates the

peritonaeum at the ring. The peculiarity of this hernia, as

distinguished from the congenital form, is owing to the scrotum

containing two sacs,--the tunica vaginalis and the proper sac of the

hernia; whereas, in the congenital variety, the tunica vaginalis itself

becomes the hernial sac by a direct reception of the naked intestine. If

in infantile hernia a hydrocele should form in the tunica vaginalis, the

fluid will also distend the pervious serous spermatic tube, 6 c, as far

up as the closed internal ring, 6 b, and will thus invest and obscure

the descending herniary sac, 13. This form of hernia is named infantile

(Hey), owing to the congenital defect in that process, whereby the

serous tube lining the cord is normally obliterated. Such a form of

hernia may occur at the adult age for the first time, but it is still

the consequence of original default.

Plate 40--Figure 5.

PLATE 40, Fig. 6.--Oblique inguinal hernia in the adult.--This variety

of hernia occurs not in consequence of any congenital defect, except

inasmuch as the natural weakness of the inguinal wall opposite the

internal ring may be attributed to this cause. The serous spermatic tube

has been normally obliterated for its whole length between the internal

ring and the tunica vaginalis; but the fibrous tube, or spermatic

fascia, is open at the internal ring where it joins the transversalis

fascia, and remains pervious as far down as the testicle. The intestine,

13, forces and distends the upper end of the closed serous tube; and as

this is now wholly obliterated, the herniary sac, 6 c, derived anew from

the inguinal peritonaeum, enters the fibrous tube, or sheath of the

cord, and descends it as far as the tunica vaginalis, 6 d, but does not

enter this sac, as it is already closed. When we compare this hernia,

Fig. 6, Plate 40, with the infantile variety, Fig. 5, Plate 40, we find

that they agree in so far as the intestinal sac is distinct from the

tunica vaginalis; whereas the difference between them is caused by the

fact of the serous cord remaining in part pervious in the infantile

hernia; and on comparing Fig. 6, Plate 40, with the congenital variety,

Fig. 4, Plate 40, we see that the intestine has acquired a new sac in

the former, whereas, in the latter, the intestine has entered the tunica

vaginalis. The variable position of the testicle in Figs. 4, 5, & 6,

Plate 40, is owing to the variety in the anatomical circumstances under

which these herniae have happened.

Plate 40--Figure 6.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 41 & 42

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 41 & 42.

DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF INGUINAL HERNIAE IN GENERAL.

PLATE 41, Fig. 1.--When the serous spermatic tube is obliterated for its

whole length between the internal ring, 1, and the top of the testicle,

13, a hernia, in order to enter the inguinal canal, 1, 4, must either

rupture the peritonaeum at the point 1, or dilate this membrane before

it in the form of a sac. [Footnote] If the peritonaeum at the point 1 be

ruptured by the intestine, this latter will enter the fibrous spermatic

tube, 2, 3, and will pass along this tube devoid of the serous sac. If,

on the other hand, the intestine dilates the serous membrane at the

point, 1, where it stretches across the internal ring, it will, on

entering the fibrous tube, (infundibuliform fascia,) be found invested

by a sac of the peritonaeum, which it dilates and pouches before itself.

As the epigastric artery, 9, bends in general along the internal border

of the ring of the fibrous tube, 2, 2, the neck of the hernial sac which

enters the ring at a point external to the artery must be external to

it, and remain so despite all further changes in the form, position, and

dimensions of the hernia. And as this hernia enters the ring at a point

anterior to the spermatic vessels, its neck must be anterior to them.

Again, if the bowel be invested by a serous sac, formed of the

peritonaeum at the point 1, the neck of such sac must intervene between

the protruding bowel and the epigastric and spermatic vessels. But if

the intestine enter the ring of the fibrous tube, 2, 2, by having

ruptured the peritonaeum at the point 1, then the naked intestine will

lie in immediate contact with these vessels.

[Footnote: Mr. Lawrence (op. cit.) remarks, "When we consider the

texture of the peritonaeum, and the mode of its connexion to the

abdominal parietes, we cannot fancy the possibility of tearing the

membrane by any attitude or motion." Cloquet and Scarpa have also

expressed themselves to the effect, that the peritonaeum suffers a

gradual distention before the protruding bowel.]

Plate 41--Figure 1

PLATE 41, Fig. 2--When the serous spermatic tube, 11, remains pervious

between the internal ring, 1, (where it communicates with the general

peritonaeal membrane,) and the top of the testicle, (where it opens into

the tunica vaginalis,) the bowel enters this tube directly, without a

rupture of the peritonaeum at the point 1. This tube, therefore, becomes

one of the investments of the bowel. It is the serous sac, not formed by

the protruding bowel, but one already open to receive the bowel. This is

the condition necessary to the formation of congenital hernia. This

hernia must be one of the external oblique variety, because it enters

the open abdominal end of the infantile serous spermatic tube, which is

always external to the epigastric artery. Its position in regard to the

spermatic vessels is the same as that noticed in Fig, 1, Plate 41. But,

as the serous tube through which the congenital hernia descends, still

communicates with the tunica vaginalis, so will this form of hernia

enter this tunic, and thereby become different to all other herniae,

forasmuch as it will lie in immediate contact with the testicle.

[Footnote]

[Footnote: A hernia may be truly congenital, and yet the intestine may

not enter the tunica vaginalis. Thus, if the serous spermatic tube close

only at the top of the testicle, the bowel which traverses the open

internal inguinal ring and pervious tube will not enter the tunica

vaginalis.]

Plate 41--Figure 2

PLATE 41, Fig. 3.--The infantile serous spermatic tube, 11, sometimes

remains pervious in the neighbourhood of the internal ring, 1, and a

narrow tapering process of the tube (the canal of Nuck) descends within

the fibrous tube, 2, 3, and lies in front of the spermatic vessels and

epigastric artery. Before this tube reaches the testicle, it degenerates

into a mere filament, and thus the tunica vaginalis has become separated

from it as a distinct sac. When the bowel enters the open abdominal end

of the serous tube, this latter becomes the hernial sac. It is not

possible to distinguish by any special character a hernia of this

nature, when already formed, from one which occurs in the condition of

parts proper to Fig. 1, Plate 41, or that which is described in the note

to Fig. 2, Plate 41; for when the intestine dilates the tube, 11, into

the form of a sac, this latter assumes the exact shape of the sac, as

noticed in Fig. 1, Plate 41. The hernia in question cannot enter the

tunica vaginalis. Its position in regard to the epigastric and spermatic

vessels is the same as that mentioned above.

Plate 41--Figure 3

PLATE 41, Fig. 4.--If the serous spermatic tube, 11, be obliterated or

closed at the internal ring, 1, thus cutting off communication with the

general peritonaeal membrane; and if, at the same time, it remain

pervious from this point above to the tunica vaginalis below, then the

herniary bowel, when about to protrude at the point 1, must force and

dilate the peritonaeum, in order to form its sac anew, as stated of Fig.

1, Plate 41. Such a hernia does not enter either the serous tube or the

tunica vaginalis; but progresses from the point 1, in a distinct sac. In

this case, there will be found two sacs--one enclosing the bowel; and

another, consisting of the serous spermatic tube, still continuous with

the tunica vaginalis. This original state of the parts may, however,

suffer modification in two modes: 1st, if the bowel rupture the

peritonaeum at the point 1, it will enter the serous tube 11, and

descend through this into the cavity of the tunica vaginalis, as in the

congenital variety. 2nd, if the bowel rupture the peritonaeum near the

point 1, and does not enter the serous tube 11, nor the tunica

vaginalis, then the bowel will be found devoid of a proper serous sac,

while the serous tube and tunica vaginalis still exist in communication.

In either case, the hernia will hold the same relative position in

regard to the epigastric artery and spermatic vessels, as stated of Fig.

1, Plate 41.

Plate 41--Figure 4

PLATE 41, Fig. 5.--Sudden rupture of the peritonaeum at the closed

internal serous ring, 1, though certainly not impossible, may yet be

stated as the exception to the rule in the formation of an external

inguinal hernia. The aphorism, "natura non facit saltus," is here

applicable. When the peritonaeum suffers dilatation at the internal

ring, 1, it advances gradatim and pari passu with the progress of the

protruding bowel, and assumes the form, character, position, and

dimensions of the inverted curved phases, marked 11, 11, till, from

having at first been a very shallow pouch, lying external to the

epigastric artery, 9, it advances through the inguinal canal to the

external ring, 4, and ultimately traverses this aperture, taking the

course of the fibrous tube, 3, down to the testicle in the scrotum.

Plate 41--Figure 5

PLATE 41, Fig. 6.--When the bowel dilates the peritonaeum opposite the

internal ring, and carries a production of this membrane before it as

its sac, then the hernia will occupy the inguinal canal, and become

invested by all those structures which form the canal. These structures

are severally infundibuliform processes, so fashioned by the original

descent of the testicle; and, therefore, as the bowel follows the track

of the testicle, it becomes, of course, invested by the selfsame parts

in the selfsame manner. Thus, as the infundibuliform fascia, 2, 3,

contains the hernia and spermatic vessels, so does the cremaster muscle,

extending from the lower margins of the internal oblique and

transversalis, invest them also in an infundibuliform manner. [Footnote]

[Footnote: Much difference of opinion prevails as to the true relation

which the cord (and consequently the oblique hernia) bears to the lower

margins of the oblique and transverse muscles, and their cremasteric

prolongation. Mr. Guthrie (Inguinal and Femoral Hernia) has shown that

the fibres of the transversalis, as well as those of the internal

oblique, are penetrated by the cord. Albinus, Haller, Cloquet, Camper,

and Scarpa, record opinions from which it may be gathered that this

disposition of the parts is (with some exceptions) general. Sir Astley

Cooper describes the lower edge of the transversalis as curved all round

the internal ring and cord. From my own observations, coupled with

these, I am inclined to the belief that, instead of viewing these facts

as isolated and meaningless particulars, we should now fuse them into

the one idea expressed by the philosophic Carus, and adopted by Cloquet,

that the cremaster is a production of the abdominal muscles, formed

mechanically by the testicle, which in its descent dilates, penetrates,

and elongates their fibres.]

Plate 41--Figure 6

PLATE 41. Fig. 7.--When an external inguinal hernia, 11, dilates and

protrudes the peritonaeum from the closed internal ring, 1, and descends

the inguinal canal and fibrous tube, 3, 3, it imitates, in most

respects, the original descent of the testicle. The difference between

both descents attaches alone to the mode in which they become covered by

the serous membrane; for the testicle passes through the internal ring

behind the inguinal peritonaeum, at the same time that it takes a

duplicature of this membrane; whereas the bowel encounters this part of

the peritonaeum from within, and in this mode becomes invested by it on

all sides. This figure also represents the form and relative position of

a hernia, as occurring in Figs. 1 and 3, 5, and 6, Plate 41.

Plate 41--Figure 7

PLATE 41, Fig. 8.--When the serous spermatic tube only closes at the

internal ring, as seen at 1, Fig. 4, Plate 41, if a hernia afterwards

pouch the peritonaeum at this part, and enter the inguinal canal, we

shall then have the form of hernia, Fig. 8, Plate 41, termed infantile.

Two serous sacs will be here found, one within the cord, 13, and

communicating with the tunica vaginalis, the other, 11, containing the

bowel, and being received by inversion into the upper extremity of the

first. Thus the infantile serous canal, 13, receives the hernial sac,

11. The inguinal canal and cord may become multicapsular, as in Fig. 8,

from various causes, each capsule being a distinct serous membrane.

First, independent of hernial formation, the original serous tube may

become interruptedly obliterated, as in Plate 40, Fig. 2. Secondly,

these sacs may persist to adult age, and have a hernial sac added to

their number, whatever this may be. Thirdly, the original serous tube,

13, Fig. 8, may persist, and after having received the hernial sac, 11,

the bowel may have been reduced, leaving its sac behind it in the

inguinal canal; the neck of this sac may have been obliterated by the

pressure of a truss, a second hernia may protrude at the point 1, and

this may be received into the first hernial sac in the same manner as

the first was received into the original serous infantile tube. The

possibility of these occurrences is self-evident, even if they were

never as yet experienced. [Footnote]

[Footnote: According to Mr. Lawrence and M. Cloquet, most of the serous

cysts found around hernial tumours are ancient sacs obliterated at the

neck, and adhering to the new swelling (opera cit.)]

Plate 41--Figure 8

PLATE 42, Fig. 1.--The epigastric artery, 9, being covered by the fascia

transversalis, can lend no support to the internal ring, 2, 2, nor to

the tube prolonged from it. The herniary bowel may, therefore, dilate

the peritonaeum immediately on the inner side of the artery, and enter

the inguinal canal. In this way the hernia, 11, although situated

internal to the epigastric artery, assumes an oblique course through the

canal, and thus closely simulates the external variety of inguinal

hernia, Fig. 7, Plate 41. If the hernia enter the canal, as represented

in Fig. 1, Plate 42, it becomes invested by the same structures, and

assumes the same position in respect to the spermatic vessels, as the

external hernia.

Plate 42--Figure 1

PLATE 42, Fig. 2.--The hernial sac, 11, which entered the ring of the

fibrous tube, 2, 2, at a point immediately internal to the epigastric

artery, 9, may, from having been at first oblique, as in Fig. 1, Plate

42, assume a direct position. In this case, the ring of the fibrous

tube, 2, 2, will be much widened; but the artery and spermatic vessels

will remain in their normal position, being in no wise affected by the

gravitating hernia. If the conjoined tendon, 6, be so weak as not to

resist the gravitating force of the hernia, the tendon will become bent

upon itself. If the umbilical cord, 10, be side by side with the

epigastric artery at the time that the hernia enters the mouth of the

fibrous tube, then, of course, the cord will be found external. If the

cord lie towards the pubes, apart from the vessel, the hernia may enter

the fibrous tube between the cord, 10, and artery, 9. [Footnote:] It is

impossible for any internal hernia to assume the congenital form,

because the neck of the original serous spermatic tube, 11, Fig. 2,

Plate 41, being external to the epigastric artery, 9, cannot be entered

by the hernia, which originates internally to this vessel.

[Footnote: M. Cloquet states that the umbilical cord is always found on

the inner side of the external hernia. Its position varies in respect to

the internal hernia, (op. cit. prop. 52.)]

Plate 42--Figure 2

PLATE 42, Fig. 3.--Every internal hernia, which does not rupture the

peritonaeum, carries forward a sac produced anew from this membrane,

whether the hernia enter the inguinal canal or not. But this is not the

case with respect to the fibrous membrane which forms the fascia

propria. If the hernia enter the inguinal wall immediately on the inner

side of the epigastric artery, Fig. 1, Plate 42, it passes direct into

the ring of the fibrous tube, 2, 2, already prepared to receive it. But

when the hernia, 11, Fig. 3, Plate 42, cleaves the conjoined tendon, 6,

6, then the artery, 9, and the tube, 2, 2, remain in their usual

position, while the bowel carries forward a new investment from the

transversalis fascia, 5, 5. That part of the conjoined tendon which

stands external to the hernia keeps the tube, 2, 2, in its proper place,

and separates it from the fold of the fascia which invests the hernial

sac. This is the only form in which an internal hernia can be said to be

absolutely distinct from the inguinal canal and spermatic vessels. This

hernia, when passing the external ring, 4, has the spermatic cord on its

outer side.

Plate 42--Figure 3

PLATE 42, Fig. 4.--The external hernia, from having been originally

oblique, may assume the position of a hernia originally internal and

direct. The change of place exhibited by this form of hernia does not

imply a change either in its original investments or in its position

with respect to the epigastric artery and spermatic vessels. The change

is merely caused by the weight and gravitation of the hernial mass,

which bends the epigastric artery, 9*, from its first position on the

inner margin of the internal ring, 1, till it assumes the place 9. In

consequence of this, the internal ring of the fascia transversalis, 2,

2, is considerably widened, as it is also in Fig. 2, Plate 42. It is the

inner margin of the fibrous ring which has suffered the pressure; and

thus the hernia now projects directly from behind forwards, through, 4,

the external ring. The conjoined tendon, 6, when weak, becomes bent upon

itself. The change of place performed by the gravitating hernia may

disturb the order and relative position of the spermatic vessels; but

these, as well as the hernia, still occupy the inguinal canal, and are

invested by the spermatic fascia, 3, 3. When an internal hernia, Fig. 1,

Plate 42, enters the inguinal canal, it also may descend the cord as far

as the testicle, and assume in respect to this gland the same position

as the external hernia. [Footnote]

[Footnote: As the external hernia, Fig. 4, Plate 42, may displace the

epigastric artery inwards, so may the internal hernia, Fig. 1, Plate 42,

displace the artery outwards. Mr. Lawrence, Sir Astley Cooper, Scarpa,

Hesselbach, and Langenbeck, state, however, that the internal hernia

does not disturb the artery from its usual position three-fourths of an

inch from the external ring.]

Plate 42--Figure 4

PLATE 42, Figs. 5, 6, 7.--The form and position of the inguinal canal

varies according to the sex and age of the individual. In early life,

Fig. 6, the internal ring is situated nearly opposite to the external

ring, 4. As the pelvis widens gradually in the advance to adult age,

Fig. 5, the canal becomes oblique as to position. This obliquity is

caused by a change of place, performed rather by the internal than the

external ring. [Footnote] The greater width of the female pelvis than of

the male, renders the canal more oblique in the former; and this,

combined with the circumstance that the female inguinal canal, Fig. 7,

merely transmits the round ligament, 14, accounts anatomically for the

fact, that this sex is less liable to the occurrence of rupture in this

situation.

[Footnote: M. Velpeau (Nouveaux Elemens de med. Operat.) states the

length of the inguinal canal in a well-formed adult, measured from the

internal to the external ring, to be 1-1/2 or 2 inches, and 3 inches

including the rings; but that in some individuals the rings are placed

nearly opposite; whilst in young subjects the two rings nearly always

correspond. When, in company with these facts, we recollect how much the

parts are liable to be disturbed in ruptures, it must be evident that

their relative position cannot be exactly ascertained by measurement,

from any given point whatever. The judgment alone must fix the general

average.]

Plate 42--Figure 5

Plate 42--Figure 6

Plate 42--Figure 7

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 43 & 44

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 43 & 44.

THE DISSECTION OF FEMORAL HERNIA, AND THE SEAT OF STRICTURE.

Whilst all forms of inguinal herniae escape from the abdomen at places

situated immediately above Poupart's ligament, the femoral hernia, G,

Fig. 1, Plate 43, is found to pass from the abdomen immediately below

this structure, A I, and between it and the horizontal branch of the

pubic bone. The inguinal canal and external abdominal ring are parts

concerned in the passage of inguinal herniae, whether oblique or direct,

external or internal; whilst the femoral canal and saphenous opening are

the parts through which the femoral hernia passes. Both these orders of

parts, and of the herniae connected with them respectively, are,

however, in reality situated so closely to each other in the

inguino-femoral region, that, in order to understand either, we should,

examine both at the same time comparatively.

The structure which is named Poupart's ligament in connexion with

inguinal herniae, is named the femoral or crural arch (Gimbernat) in

relation to femoral hernia. The simple line, therefore, described by

this ligament explains the narrow interval which separates both

varieties of the complaint. So small is the line of separation described

between these herniae by the ligament, that this (so to express the

idea) stands in the character of an arch, which, at the same time,

supports an aqueduct (the inguinal canal) and spans a road (the femoral

sheath.) The femoral arch, A I, Fig. 1, Plate 43, extends between the

anterior superior iliac spinous process and the pubic spine. It connects

the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle, D d, Fig. 2, Plate 44,

with F, the fascia lata. Immediately above and below its pubic extremity

appear the external ring and the saphenous opening. On cutting through

the falciform process, F, Fig. 1, Plate 44, we find Gimbernat's

ligament, R, a structure well known in connexion with femoral hernia.

Gimbernat's ligament consists of tendinous fibres which connect the

inner end of the femoral arch with the pectineal ridge of the os pubis.

The shape of the ligament is acutely triangular, corresponding to the

form of the space which it occupies. Its apex is internal, and close to

the pubic spine; its base is external, sharp and concave, and in

apposition with the sheath of the femoral vessels. It measures an inch,

more or less, in width, and it is broader in the male than in the

female--a fact which is said to account for the greater frequency of

femoral hernia in the latter sex than in the former, (Monro.) Its

strength and density also vary in different individuals. It is covered

anteriorly by, P, Fig. 1, Plate 44, the upper cornu of the falciform

process; and behind, it is in connexion with, k, the conjoined tendon.

This tendon is inserted with the ligament into the pectineal ridge. The

falciform process also blends with the ligament; and thus it is that the

femoral hernia, when constricted by either of these three structures,

may well be supposed to suffer pressure from the three together.

A second or deep femoral arch is occasionally met with. This structure

consists of tendinous fibres, lying deeper than, but parallel with,

those of the superficial arch. The deep arch spans the femoral sheath

more closely than the superficial arch, and occupies the interval left

between the latter and the sheath of the vessels. When the deep arch

exists, its inner end blends with the conjoined tendon and Gimbernat's

ligament, and with these may also constrict the femoral hernia.

The sheath, e f, of the femoral vessels, E F, Fig. 1, Plate 43, passes

from beneath the middle of the femoral arch. In this situation, the

iliac part of the fascia lata, F G, Fig. 2, Plate 44, covers the sheath.

Its inner side is bounded by Gimbernat's ligament, R, Fig. 1, Plate 44,

and F, the falciform edge of the saphenous opening. On its outer side

are situated the anterior crural nerve, and the femoral parts of the

psoas and iliacus muscles. Of the three compartments into which the

sheath is divided by two septa in its interior, the external one, E,

Fig. 1, Plate 43, is occupied by the femoral artery; the middle one, F,

by the femoral vein; whilst the inner one, G, gives passage to the

femoral lymphatic vessels; and occasionally, also, a lymphatic body is

found in it. The inner compartment, G, is the femoral canal, and through

it the femoral hernia descends from the abdomen to the upper and

forepart of the thigh. As the canal is the innermost of the three spaces

inclosed by the sheath, it is that which lies in the immediate

neighbourhood of the saphenous opening, Gimbernat's ligament, and the

conjoined tendon, and between these structures and the femoral vein.

The sheath of the femoral vessels, like that of the spermatic cord, is

infundibuliform. Both are broader at their abdominal ends than

elsewhere. The femoral sheath being broader above than below, whilst the

vessels are of a uniform diameter, presents, as it were, a surplus space

to receive a hernia into its upper end. This space is the femoral or

crural canal. Its abdominal entrance is the femoral or crural ring.

The femoral ring, H, Fig. 2, Plate 43, is, in the natural state of the

parts, closed over by the peritonaeum, in the same manner as this

membrane shuts the internal inguinal ring. There is, however,

corresponding to each ring, a depression in the peritonaeal covering;

and here it is that the bowel first forces the membrane and forms of

this part its sac.

On removing the peritonaeum from the inguinal wall on the inner side of

the iliac vessels, K L, we find the horizontal branch of the os pubis,

and the parts connected with it above and below, to be still covered by

what is called the subserous tissue. The femoral ring is not as yet

discernible on the inner side of the iliac vein, K; for the subserous

tissue being stretched across this aperture masks it. The portion of the

tissue which closes the ring is named the crural septum, (Cloquet.) When

we remove this part, we open the femoral ring leading to the

corresponding canal. The ring is the point of union between the fibrous

membrane of the canal and the general fibrous membrane which lines the

abdominal walls external to the peritonaeum. This account of the

continuity between the canal and abdominal fibrous membrane equally

applies to the connexion existing between the general sheath of the

vessels and the abdominal membrane. The difference exists in the fact,

that the two outer compartments of the sheath are occupied by the

vessels, whilst the inner one is vacant. The neck or inlet of the

hernial sac, H, Fig. 2, Plate 43, exactly represents the natural form of

the crural ring, as formed in the fibrous membrane external to, or (as

seen in this view) beneath the peritonaeum.

The femoral ring, H, is girt round on all sides by a dense fibrous

circle, the upper arc being formed by the two femoral arches; the outer

arc is represented by the septum of the femoral sheath, which separates

the femoral vein from the canal; the inner arc is formed by the united

dense fibrous bands of the conjoined tendon and Gimbernat's ligament;

and the inferior arc is formed by the pelvic fascia where this passes

over the pubic bone to unite with the under part of the femoral canal

and sheath. The ring thus bound by dense resisting fibrous structure, is

rendered sharp on its pubic and upper sides by the salient edges of the

conjoined tendon and Gimbernat's ligament, &c. From the femoral ring the

canal extends down the thigh for an inch and a-half or two inches in a

tapering form, supported by the pectineus muscle, and covered by the

iliac part of the fascia lata. It lies side by side with the saphenous

opening, but does not communicate with this place. On a level with the

lower cornu of the saphenous opening, the walls of the canal become

closely applied to the femoral vessels, and here it may be said to

terminate.

The bloodvessels which pass in the neighbourhood of the femoral canal

are, 1st. the femoral vein, F, Fig. 1, Plate 43, which enclosed in its

proper sheath lies parallel with and close to the outer side of the

passage. 2nd, Within the inguinal canal above are the spermatic vessels,

resting on the upper surface of the femoral arch, which alone separates

them from the upper part or entrance of the femoral canal. 3rd, The

epigastric artery, F, Fig. 2, Plate 43, which passes close to the outer

and upper border of, H, the femoral ring. This vessel occasionally gives

off the obturator artery, which, when thus derived, will be found to

pass towards the obturator foramen, in close connexion with the ring;

that is, either descending by its outer border, G*, between this point

and the iliac vein, K; or arching the ring, G, so as to pass down close

to its inner or pubic border. In some instances, the vessel crosses the

ring; a vein generally accompanies the artery. These peculiarities in

the origin and course of the obturator artery, especially that of

passing on the pubic side of the ring, behind Gimbernat's ligament and

the conjoined tendon, E H, are fortunately very rare.

As the course to be taken by the bowel, when a femoral hernia is being

formed, is through the crural ring and canal, the structures which have

just now been enumerated as bounding this passage, will, of course, hold

the like relation to the hernia. The manner in which a femoral hernia is

formed, and the way in which it becomes invested in its descent, may be

briefly stated thus: The bowel first dilates the peritonaeum opposite

the femoral ring, H, Fig. 2, Plate 43, and pushes this membrane before

it into the canal. This covering is the hernial sac. The crural septum

has, at the same time, entered the canal as a second investment of the

bowel. The hernia is now enclosed by the sheath, G, Fig. 1, Plate 43, of

the canal itself. [Footnote 1] Its further progress through the

saphenous opening, B F, Fig. 1, Plate 44, must be made either by

rupturing the weak inner wall of the canal, or by dilating this part; in

one or other of these modes, the herniary sac emerges from the canal

through the saphenous opening. In general, it dilates the side of the

canal, and this becomes the fascia propria, B G. If it have ruptured the

canal, the hernial sac appears devoid of this covering. In either case,

the hernia, increasing in size, turns up over the margin of F, the

falciform process, [Footnote 2] and ultimately rests upon the iliac

fascia lata, below the pubic third of Poupart's ligament. Sometimes the

hernia rests upon this ligament, and simulates, to all outward

appearance, an oblique inguinal hernia. In this course, the femoral

hernia will have its three parts--neck, body, and fundus--forming nearly

right angles with each other: its neck [Footnote 3] descends the crural

canal, its body is directed to the pubis through the saphenous opening,

and its fundus is turned upwards to the femoral arch.

[Footnote 1: The sheath of the canal, together with the crural septum,

constitutes the "fascia propria" of the hernia (Sir Astley Cooper). Mr.

Lawrence denies the existence of the crural septum.]

[Footnote 2:  The "upper cornu of the saphenous opening," the "falciform

process" (Burns), and the "femoral ligament" (Hey), are names applied to

the same part. With what difficulty and perplexity does this

impenetrable fog of surgical nomenclature beset the progress of the

learner!]

[Footnote 3: The neck of the sac at the femoral ring lies very deep, in

the undissected state of the parts (Lawrence).]

The crural hernia is much more liable to suffer constriction than the

inguinal hernia. The peculiar sinuous course which the former takes from

its point of origin, at the crural ring, to its place on Poupart's

ligament, and the unyielding fibrous structures which form the canal

through which it passes, fully account for the more frequent occurrence

of this casualty. The neck of the sac may, indeed, be supposed always to

suffer more or less constriction at the crural ring. The part which

occupies the canal is also very much compressed; and again, where the

hernia turns over the falciform process, this structure likewise must

cause considerable compression on the bowel in the sac. [Footnote] This

hernia suffers stricture of the passive kind always; for the dense

fibrous bands in its neighbourhood compress it rather by withstanding

the force of the herniary mass than by reacting upon it. There are no

muscular fibres crossing the course of this hernia; neither are the

parts which constrict it likely to change their original position,

however long it may exist. In the inguinal hernia, the weight of the

mass may in process of time widen the canal by gravitating; but the

crural hernia, resting on the pubic bone, cannot be supposed to dilate

the crural ring, however greatly the protrusion may increase in size and

weight.

[Footnote: Sir A. Cooper (Crural Hernia) is of opinion that the

stricture is generally in the neck of the sheath. Mr. Lawrence remarks,

"My own observations of the subject have led me to refer the cause of

stricture to the thin posterior border (Gimbernat's ligament) of the

crural arch, at the part where it is connected to the falciform

process." (Op. cit.) This statement agrees also with the experience of

Hey, (Practical Obs.)]

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES OF PLATES 43 & 44.

PLATE 43.

FIGURE 1.

A. Anterior superior iliac spine.

B. Iliacus muscle, cut.

C. Anterior crural nerve, cut.

D. Psoas muscle, cut.

E. Femoral artery enclosed in e, its compartment of the femoral sheath.

F. Femoral vein in its compartment, f, of the femoral sheath.

G. The fascia propria of the hernia; g, the contained sac.

H. Gimbernat's ligament.

I. Round ligament of the uterus.

PLATE 43.--FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 2.

A. Anterior superior iliac spine.

B. Symphysis pubis.

C. Rectus abdominis muscle.

D. Peritonaeum.

E. Conjoined tendon.

F. Epigastric artery.

G* G. Positions of the obturator artery when given off from the

epigastric.

H. Neck of the sac of the crural hernia.

I. Round ligament of the uterus.

K. External iliac vein.

L. External iliac artery.

M. Tendon of the psoas parvus muscle, resting on the psoas magnus.

N. Iliacus muscle.

O. Transversalis fascia.

PLATE 43.--FIGURE 2.

PLATE 44.

FIGURE 1.

A. Anterior superior iliac spine.

B. The crural hernia.

C. Round ligament of the uterus.

D. External oblique muscle; d, Fig. 2, its aponeurosis.

E. Saphaena vein.

F. Falciform process of the saphenous opening.

G. Femoral artery in its sheath.

H. Femoral vein in its sheath.

I. Sartorius muscle.

K. Internal oblique muscle; k, conjoined tendon.

L L. Transversalis fascia.

M. Epigastric artery.

N. Peritonaeum.

O. Anterior crural nerve.

P. The hernia within the crural canal.

Q Q. Femoral sheath.

R. Gimbernat's ligament.

FIGURE 2.

The other letters refer to the same parts as seen in Fig. 1.

G. Glands in the neighbourhood of Poupart's ligament.

H. Glands in the neighbourhood of the saphenous opening.

I. The sartorius muscle seen through its fascia.

PLATE 44.--FIGURE 1, 2.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 45 & 46

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 45 & 46.

DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF FEMORAL HERNIA--

ITS DIAGNOSIS, THE TAXIS, AND THE OPERATION.

PLATE 45, Fig. 1.--The point, 3, from which an external inguinal hernia

first progresses, and the part, 5, within which the femoral hernia

begins to be formed, are very close to each other. The inguinal hernia,

3, arising above, 5, the crural arch, descends the canal, 3, 3, under

cover of the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle, obliquely

downwards and inwards till it gains the external abdominal ring formed

in the aponeurosis, and thence descends to the scrotum. The femoral

hernia, commencing on a level with, 5, the femoral arch, descends the

femoral canal, under cover of the fascia lata, and appears on the upper

and forepart of the thigh at the saphenous opening, 6, 7, formed in the

fascia lata; and thence, instead of descending to the scrotum, like the

inguinal hernia, turns, on the contrary, up over the falciform process,

6, till its fundus rests near, 5, the very place beneath which it

originated. Such are the peculiarities in the courses of these two

hernial; and they are readily accounted for by the anatomical relations

of the parts concerned.

PLATE 45.--FIGURE 1

PLATE 45, Fig. 2.--There exists a very evident analogy between the

canals through which both herniae pass. The infundibuliform fascia, 3,

3, of the spermatic vessels is like the infundibuliform sheath, 9, 9, of

the femoral vessels. Both sheaths are productions of the general fibrous

membrane of the abdomen. They originate from nearly the same locality.

The ring of the femoral canal, 12, is situated immediately below, but to

the inner side of the internal inguinal ring, 3. The epigastric artery,

1, marks the width of the interval which separates the two rings.

Poupart's ligament, 5, being the line of union between the oblique

aponeurosis of the abdominal muscle and the fascia lata, merely

overarches the femoral sheath, and does not separate it absolutely from

the spermatic sheath.

PLATE 45.--FIGURE 2

PLATE 45, Fig. 3.--The peritonaeum, 2, 3, closes the femoral canal, 12,

at the femoral ring, in the same way as this membrane closes the

inguinal canal at the internal inguinal ring, 3, Fig. 2, Plate 45. The

epigastric artery always holds an intermediate position between both

rings. The spermatic vessels in the inguinal tube, 3, 3, Fig. 2, Plate

45, are represented by the round ligament in the female inguinal canal,

Fig. 3, Plate 45. When the bowel is about to protrude at either of the

rings, it first dilates the peritonaeum, which covers these openings.

PLATE 45.--FIGURE 3

PLATE 45, Fig. 4.--The place of election for the formation of any hernia

is that which is structurally the weakest. As the space which the

femoral arch spans external to the vessels is fully occupied by the

psoas and iliacus muscles, and, moreover, as the abdominal fibrous

membrane and its prolongation, the femoral sheath, closely embrace the

vessels on their outer anterior and posterior sides, whilst on their

inner side the membrane and sheath are removed at a considerable

interval from the vessels, it is through this interval (the canal) that

the hernia may more readily pass. The peritonaeum, 2, and crural septum,

13, form at this place the only barrier against the protrusion of the

bowel into the canal.

PLATE 45.--FIGURE 4

PLATE 45, Fig. 5.--The hernia cannot freely enter the compartment, 10,

occupied by the artery, neither can it enter the place 11, occupied as

it is by the vein. It cannot readily pass through the inguinal wall at a

point internal to, 9, the crural sheath, for here it is opposed by, 4,

the conjoined tendon, and by, 8, Gimbernat's ligament. Neither will the

hernia force a way at a point external to the femoral vessels in

preference to that of the crural canal, which is already prepared to

admit it. [Footnote] The bowel, therefore, enters the femoral canal, 9,

and herein it lies covered by its peritonaeal sac, derived from that

part of the membrane which once masked the crural ring. The septum

crurale itself, having been dilated before the sac, of course invests it

also. The femoral canal forms now the third covering of the bowel. If in

this stage of the hernia it should suffer constriction, Gimbernat's

ligament, 8, is the cause of it. An incipient femoral hernia of the size

of 2, 12, cannot, in the undissected state of the parts, be detected by

manual operation; for, being bound down by the dense fibrous structures

which gird the canal, it forms no apparent tumour in the groin.

[Footnote: The mode in which the femoral sheath, continued from the

abdominal membrane, becomes simply applied to the sides of the vessels,

renders it of course not impossible for a hernia to protrude into the

sheath at any point of its abdominal entrance. Mr. Stanley and M.

Cloquet have observed a femoral hernia external to the vessels.

Hesselbach has also met with this variety. A hernia of this nature has

come under my own observation. Cloquet has seen the hernia descend the

sheath once in front of the vessels, and once behind them. These

varieties, however, must be very rare. The external form has never been

met with by Hey, Cooper, or Scarpa; whilst no less than six instances of

it have come under the notice of Mr. Macilwain, (on Hernia, p. 293.)]

PLATE 45.--FIGURE 5

PLATE 45, Fig. 6.--The hernia, 2, 12, increasing gradually in size,

becomes tightly impacted in the crural canal, and being unable to dilate

this tube uniformly to a size corresponding with its own volume, it at

length bends towards the saphenous opening, 6, 7, this being the more

easy point of egress. Still, the neck of the sac, 2, remains constricted

at the ring, whilst the part which occupies the canal is also very much

narrowed. The fundus of the sac, 9*, 12, alone expands, as being free of

the canal; and covering this part of the hernia may be seen the fascia

propria, 9*. This fascia is a production of the inner wall of the canal;

and if we trace its sides, we shall find its lower part to be continuous

with the femoral sheath, whilst its upper part is still continuous with

the fascia transversalis. When the hernia ruptures the saphenous side of

the canal, the fascia propria is, of course, absent.

PLATE 45.--FIGURE 6

PLATE 46, Fig. 1.--The anatomical circumstances which serve for the

diagnosis of a femoral from an inguinal hernia may be best explained by

viewing in contrast the respective positions assumed by both complaints.

The direct hernia, 13, traverses the inguinal wall from behind, at a

situation corresponding with the external ring; and from this latter

point it descends the scrotum. An oblique external inguinal hernia

enters the internal ring, 3, which exists further apart from the general

median line, and, in order to gain the external ring, has to take an

oblique course from without inwards through the inguinal canal. A

femoral hernia enters the crural ring, 2, immediately below, but on the

inner side of, the internal inguinal ring, and descends the femoral

canal, 12, vertically to where it emerges through, 6, 7, the saphenous

opening. The direct inguinal hernia, 13, owing to its form and position,

can scarcely ever be mistaken for a femoral hernia. But in consequence

of the close relationship between the internal inguinal ring, 3, and the

femoral ring, 2, through which their respective herniae pass, some

difficulty in distinguishing between these complaints may occur. An

incipient femoral hernia, occupying the crural canal between the points,

2, 12, presents no apparent tumour in the undissected state of the

parts; and a bubonocele, or incipient inguinal hernia, occupying the

inguinal canal, 3, 3, where it is braced down by the external oblique

aponeurosis, will thereby be also obscured in some degree. But, in most

instances, the bubonocele distends the inguinal canal somewhat; and the

impulse which on coughing is felt at a place above the femoral arch,

will serve to indicate, by negative evidence, that it is not a femoral

hernia.

PLATE 46.--FIGURE 1

PLATE 46, Fig. 2.--When the inguinal and femoral herniae are fully

produced, they best explain their distinctive nature. The inguinal

hernia, 13, descends the scrotum, whilst the femoral hernia, 9*, turns

over the falciform process, 6, and rests upon the fascia lata and

femoral arch. Though in this position the fundus of a femoral hernia

lies in the neighbourhood of the inguinal canal, 3, yet the swelling can

scarcely be mistaken for an inguinal rupture, since, in addition to its

being superficial to the aponeurosis which covers the inguinal canal,

and also to the femoral arch, it may be withdrawn readily from this

place, and its body, 12, traced to where it sinks into the saphenous

opening, 6, 7, on the upper part of the thigh. An inguinal hernia

manifests its proper character more and more plainly as it advances from

its point of origin to its termination in the scrotum. A femoral hernia,

on the contrary, masks its proper nature, as well at its point of origin

as at its termination. But when a femoral hernia stands midway between

these two, points--viz. in the saphenous opening, 6, 7, it best exhibits

its special character; for here it exists below the femoral arch, and

considerably apart from the external abdominal ring.

PLATE 46.--FIGURE 2

PLATE 46, Fig. 3.--The neck of the sac of a femoral hernia, 2, lies

always close to, 3, the epigastric artery. When the obturator artery is

derived from the epigastric, if the former pass internal to the neck

behind, 8, Gimbernat's ligament, it can scarcely escape being wounded

when this structure is being severed by the operator's knife. If, on the

other hand, the obturator artery descend external to the neck of the

sac, the vessel will be comparatively remote from danger while the

ligament is being divided. In addition to the fact that the cause of

stricture is always on the pubic side, 8, of the neck of the sac, 12,

thereby requiring the incision to correspond with this situation only,

other circumstances, such as the constant presence of the femoral vein,

11, and the epigastric artery, 1, determine the avoidance of ever

incising the canal on its outer or upper side. And if the obturator

artery, [Footnote] by rare occurrence, happen to loop round the inner

side of the neck of the sac, supposing this to be the seat of stricture,

what amount of anatomical knowledge, at the call of the most dexterous

operator, can render the vessel safe from danger?

[Footnote: M. Velpeau (Medecine Operatoire), in reference to the

relative frequency of cases in which the obturator artery is derived

from the epigastric, remarks, "L'examen que j'ai pu en faire sur

plusieurs milliers de cadavres, ne me permet pas de dire qu'elle se

rencontre un fois sur trois, ni sur cinq, ni meme sur dix, mais bien

seulement sur quinze a vingt." Monro (Obs. on Crural Hernia) states this

condition of the obturator artery to be as 1 in 20-30. Mr. Quain

(Anatomy of the Arteries) gives, as the result of his observations, the

proportion to be as 1 in 3-1/2, and in this estimate he agrees to a

great extent with the observations of Cloquet and Hesselbach. Numerical

tables have also been drawn up to show the relative frequency in which

the obturator descends on the outer and inner borders of the crural ring

and neck of the sac. Sir A. Cooper never met with an example where the

vessel passed on the inner side of the sac, and from this alone it may

be inferred that such a position of the vessel is very rare. It is

generally admitted that the obturator artery, when derived from the

epigastric, passes down much more frequently between the iliac vein and

outer border of the ring. The researches of anatomists (Monro and

others) in reference to this point have given rise to the question,

"What determines the position of the obturator artery with respect to

the femoral ring?" It appears to me to be one of those questions which

do not admit of a precise answer by any mode of mathematical

computation; and even if it did, where then is the practical inference?]

The taxis, in a case of crural hernia, should be conducted in accordance

with anatomical principles. The fascia lata, Poupart's ligament, and the

abdominal aponeurosis, are to be relaxed by bending the thigh inwards to

the hypogastrium. By this measure, the falciform process, 6, is also

relaxed; but I doubt whether the situation occupied by Gimbernat's

ligament allows this part to be influenced by any position of the limb

or abdomen. The hernia is then to be drawn from its place above

Poupart's ligament, (if it have advanced so far,) and when brought

opposite the saphenous opening, gentle pressure made outwards, upwards,

and backwards, so as to slip it beneath the margin of the falciform

process, will best serve for its reduction. When this cannot be effected

by the taxis, and the stricture still remains, the cutting operation is

required.

The precise seat of the stricture cannot be known except during the

operation. But it is to be presumed that the sac and contained intestine

suffer constriction throughout the whole length of the canal. [Footnote]

Previously to the commencement of the operation, the urinary bladder

should be emptied; for this organ, in its distended state, rises above

the level of the pubic bone, and may thus be endangered by the incision

through the stricture--especially if Gimbernat's ligament be the

structure which causes it.

[Footnote: "The seat of the stricture is not the same in all cases,

though, in by far the greater number of instances, the constriction is

relieved by the division upwards and inwards of the falciform process of

the fascia lata, and the lunated edge of Gimbernat's ligament, where

they join with each other. In some instances, it will be the fibres of

the deep crescentic (femoral) arch; in others, again, the neck of the

sac itself, and produced by a thickening and contraction of the

subserous and peritonaeal membranes where they lie within the

circumference of the crural ring."--Morton (Surgical Anatomy of the

Groin p. 148).]

An incision commencing a little way above Poupart's ligament, is to be

carried vertically over the hernia, parallel with, but to the inner side

of its median line. This incision divides the skin and subcutaneous

adipose membrane, which latter varies considerably in quantity in

several individuals. One or two small arteries (superficial pubic, &c.)

may be divided, and some lymphatic bodies exposed. On cautiously turning

aside the incised adipose membrane contained between the two layers of

the superficial fascia, the fascia propria, 9, Figs. 4, 5, Plate 46, of

the hernia is exposed. This envelope, besides varying in thickness in

two or more cases, may be absent altogether. The fascia closely invests

the sac, 12; but sometimes a layer of fatty substance interposes between

the two coverings, and resembles the omentum so much, that the operator

may be led to doubt whether or not the sac has been already opened. The

fascia is to be cautiously slit open on a director; and now the sac

comes in view. The hernia having been drawn outwards, so as to separate

it from the inner wall of the crural canal, a director [Footnote] is

next to be passed along the interval thus left, the groove of the

instrument being turned to the pubic side. The position of the director

is now between the neck of the sac and the inner wall of the canal. The

extent to which the director passes up in the canal will vary according

to the suspected level of the stricture. A probe-pointed bistoury is now

to be slid along the director, and with its edge turned upwards and

inwards, according to the seat of stricture, the following mentioned

parts are to be divided--viz., the falciform process, 6; the inner wall

of the canal, which is continuous with the fascia propria, 9;

Gimbernat's ligament, 8; and the conjoined tendon, 4; where this is

inserted with the ligament into the pectineal ridge. By this mode of

incision, which seems to be all-sufficient for the liberation of the

stricture external to the neck of the sac, we avoid Poupart's ligament;

and thereby the spermatic cord, 3, and epigastric artery, 1, are not

endangered. The crural canal being thus laid open on its inner side, and

the constricting fibrous bands being severed, the sac may now be gently

manipulated, so as to restore it and its contents to the cavity of the

abdomen; but if any impediment to the reduction still remain, the cause,

in all probability, arises either from the neck of the sac having become

strongly adherent to the crural ring, or from the bowel being bound by

bands of false membrane to the sac. In either case, it will be necessary

to open the sac, and examine its contents. The neck of the sac is then

to be exposed by an incision carried through the integument across the

upper end of the first incision, and parallel with Poupart's ligament.

The neck is then to be divided on its inner side, and the exposed

intestine may now be restored to the abdomen.

[Footnote: The finger is the safest director; for at the same time that

it guides the knife it feels the stricture and protects the bowel. As

all the structures which are liable to become the seat of

stricture--viz., the falciform process, Gimbernat's ligament, and the

conjoined tendon, lie in very close apposition, a very short incision

made upwards and inwards is all that is required.]

Plate 46--Figure 3

Plate 46--Figure 4

Plate 46--Figure 5

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 47

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 47.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOODVESSELS AND

NERVES OF THE ILIAC AND FEMORAL REGIONS.

Through the groin, as through the axilla, the principal blood vessels

and nerves are transmitted to, the corresponding limb. The main artery

of the lower limb frequently becomes the subject of a surgical

operation. The vessel is usually described as divisible into parts,

according to the regions which it traverses. But, as in examining any

one of those parts irrespective of the others, many facts of chief

surgical importance are thereby obscured and overlooked, I propose to

consider the vessel as a whole, continuous from the aorta to where it

enters the popliteal space. The general course and position of the main

artery may be described as follows:--The abdominal aorta, A, bifurcates

on the body of the fourth lumbar vertebra. The level of the aortic

bifurcation corresponds with the situation of the navel in front, and

the crista ilii laterally. The aorta is in this situation borne so far

forwards by the lumbar spine as to occupy an almost central position in

the cavity of the abdomen. If the abdomen were pierced by two lines, one

extending from a little to the left side of the navel, horizontally

backwards to the fourth lumbar vertebra, and the other from immediately

over the middle of one crista ilii, transversely to a corresponding

point in the opposite side, these lines would intersect at the aortic

bifurcation. The two arteries, G G,* into which the aorta divides

symmetrically at the median line, diverge from one another in their

descent towards the two groins. As both vessels correspond in form and

relative position, the description of one will serve for the other.

While the thigh is abducted and rotated outwards, if a line be drawn

from the navel to a point, D, of the inguinal fold, midway between B,

the anterior iliac spine, and C, the symphysis pubis, and continued

thence to the inner condyle of the femur, it would indicate the general

course of the artery, G I W. In this course, the vessel may be regarded

as a main trunk, giving off at intervals large branches for the supply

of the pelvic organs, the abdominal parietes, and the thigh. From the

point where the vessel leaves the aorta, A, down to the inguinal fold,

D, it lies within the abdomen, and here, therefore, all operations

affecting the vessel are attended with more difficulty and danger than

elsewhere, in its course.

The artery of the lower limb, arising at the bifurcation of the aorta on

the fourth lumbar vertebra, descends obliquely outwards to the

sacra-iliac junction, and here it gives off its first branch, G,

(internal iliac,) to the pelvic organs. The main vessel is named common

iliac, at the interval between its origin from the aorta and the point

where it gives off the internal iliac branch. This interval is very

variable as to its length, but it is stated to be usually two inches.

The artery, I, continuing to diverge in its first direction from its

fellow of the opposite side, descends along the margin of the true

pelvis as far as Poupart's ligament, D, where it gives off its next

principal branches,--viz., the epigastric and circumflex iliac. At the

interval between the internal iliac and epigastric branches, the main

artery, I, is named external iliac; and the surgical length of this part

is also liable to vary, in consequence of the epigastric or circumflex

iliac branches arising higher up or lower down than usual. The main

vessel, after passing beneath the middle of Poupart's ligament, D, next

gives off the profundus branch, N, to supply the thigh. This branch

generally arises at a point an inch and half or two inches below the

fold of the groin; and between it and the epigastric above, the main

artery is named common femoral. From the point where the profundus

branch arises, down to the popliteal space, the vessel remains as an

undivided trunk, being destined to supply the leg and foot. In this

course, the artery is accompanied by the vein, H K O, which, according

to the region in which it lies, assumes different names, corresponding

to those applied to the artery. Both vessels may now be viewed in

relation to each other, and to the several structures which lie in

connexion with them.

The two vessels above Poupart's ligament lie behind the intestines, and

are closely invested by the serous membrane. The origin of the vena

cava, F, lies close to the right side of the bifurcation of the aorta,

A; and here both vessels are supported by the lumbar spine. Each of the

two arteries, G G,* into which the aorta divides, has its accompanying

vein, H, on its inner side, but the common iliac part of the right

artery is seen to lie upon the upper portions of both the veins, as

these joining beneath it form the commencement of the vena cava. The

external iliac part, I, of each artery has its vein, K, on its inner

side. At the point, G, where the artery gives off its internal iliac

branch, the ureter, g, crosses it, and thence descends to the bladder.

The internal iliac branch subdivides in general so soon after its

origin, that it may be regarded as for the most part an unsafe

proceeding to place a ligature upon it.

The iliac vessels, A G I, in approaching Poupart's ligament along the

border of the true pelvis, are supported by the psoas muscle, and

invested and bound to their place by the peritonaeum, and a thin process

of the iliac fascia. Some lymphatic glands are here found to lie over

the course of the vessels. The spermatic artery and vein, together with

the genito-crural nerve, descend along the outer border of the iliac

artery. When arrived at Poupart's ligament, the iliac vessels, I K,

become complicated by their own branches, and also by the spermatic

vessels, as these are about to pass from the abdomen through the

internal inguinal ring. While passing beneath the middle of Poupart's

ligament, D, the iliac artery, I, having its vein, K, close to its inner

side, rests upon the inner border of the psoas muscle, and in this place

it may be effectually compressed against the os pubis. The anterior

crural nerve, P, which in the iliac region lies concealed by the psoas

muscle, and separated by this from the vessels, now comes into view,

lying on the outer side of the artery. When the vessels have passed from

beneath Poupart's ligament, the serous membrane no longer covers them,

but the fibrous membrane is seen to invest them in the form of a sheath,

divided into two compartments, one of which (internal) receives the

vein, the other the artery. The iliac vessels, in passing to the thigh,

assume the name of femoral.

The femoral vessels, O N W, in the upper third of the thigh traverse a

triangular space, the base of which is formed by Poupart's ligament, D,

whilst the sides and apex are formed by the sartorius, Q, and adductor

longus muscles, T, approaching each other. In the undissected state of

the part, the structures which bound this space can in general be easily

recognised. A central depression extends from the middle of its base, D,

to its apex, V, and marks the course of the vessels. Near the middle of

Poupart's ligament, the vessels are comparatively superficial, and here

the artery may be felt pulsating; but lower down, as they approach the

apex of the triangle, the vessels become gradually deeper, till the

sartorius muscle inclining from its origin obliquely inwards to the

centre of the thigh, w, at length overlaps them. The inner border of the

sartorius muscle at the lower part of the upper third of the thigh, W,

guides to the position of the artery. Whilst traversing the femoral

triangle, the vessels enclosed in their proper sheath are covered by the

fascia lata, adipose membrane, and integument. In this place they lie

imbedded in loose cellular and adipose tissue. The femoral vein, O, is

on the same plane with the artery near Poupart's ligament; but from this

place downwards through the thigh, the vein gradually winds from the

inner to the back part of the artery; and when both vessels pass under

cover of the sartorius, they enter a strong fibrous sheath, V, derived

from the tendons of the adductor muscles upon which they lie. The artery

approaches the shaft of the femur near its middle; and in this place it

may be readily compressed against the bone by the hand. The anterior

crural nerve, P, dividing on the outer side of the artery, sends some of

its branches coursing over the femoral sheath; and one of these--the

long saphenous nerve--enters the sheath and follows the artery as far as

the opening in the great adductor tendon. The femoral artery, before it

passes through this opening into the popliteal space, gives off its

anastomatic branch. The profundus branch, N, springs from the outer side

of the femoral artery usually at a distance of from one to two inches

(seldom more) below Poupart's ligament, and soon subdivides. [Footnote]

The femoral artery in a few instances has been found double.

[Footnote: The ordinary length of each part of the main artery is stated

on the authority of Mr. Quain. See "Anatomy of the Arteries," &c. ]

The main artery of the lower limb may be exposed and tied in any part of

its course from the aorta to the popliteal space. But the situation most

eligible for performing such an operation depends of course upon

circumstances, both anatomical and pathological. If an aneurism affect

the popliteal part of the vessel, or if, from whatever cause arising, it

be found expedient to tie the femoral above this part, the place best

suited for the operation is that where the artery, W, first passes under

cover of the sartorius muscle. [Footnote]  For, considering that the

vessel gives off no important branch destined to supply any part of the

thigh or leg between the profundus branch and those into which it

divides below the popliteal space, the arrest to circulation will be the

same in amount at whichever part of the vessel between these two points

the ligature be applied. But since the vessel in the situation specified

can be reached with greater facility here than elsewhere lower down; and

since, moreover, a ligature applied to it here will be sufficiently

removed from the profundus branch above, and the seat of disease below,

to produce the desired result, the choice of the operator is determined

accordingly. The steps of the operation performed at the situation W,

where the artery is about to pass beneath the sartorius, are these: an

incision of sufficient length--from two to three inches--is to be made

over the course of the vessel, so as to divide the skin and adipose

membrane, and expose the fascia lata, through which the inner edge of

the sartorius muscle becomes now readily discernible. A vein (anterior

saphena) may be found to cross in this situation, but the saphena vein

proper is not met with, as this lies nearer the inner side of the thigh.

The fascia having been next divided, the edge of the sartorius is to be

turned aside, and now the pulsation of the artery in its sheath will

indicate its exact position. The sheath is next to be opened, for an

extent sufficient only to carry the point of the ligature-needle safely

around the artery, care being taken not to injure the femoral vein,

which lies close behind it, and also to exclude any nerve which may lie

in contact with the vessel.

[Footnote: This is the situation chosen by Scarpa for arresting by

ligature the circulation through the femoral artery in cases of

popliteal aneurism. The reasons stated in the text are those which

determine the surgeon to perform the operation in this place in

preference to that (the lower third of the thigh) where Mr. Hunter first

proposed to tie the vessel.]

If an aneurism affect the common femoral portion of the artery, the

external iliac part would require to be tied, because, between the seat

of the tumour and the epigastric and circumflex ilii branches above,

there would not be sufficient space to allow the ligature to rest

undisturbed; and even if the aneurism arose from the femoral below the

profundus branch in the upper third of the thigh, or if, after

amputation of the thigh, a secondary haemorrhage took place from the

femoral and the profunda arteries, a ligature would with more safety be

applied to the external iliac part than to the common femoral; because

of this latter, even when of its clear normal length, presenting so

small an interval between the epigastric and profundus branches. In

addition to this, it must be  noticed, that occasionally the profundus

itself, or some one of its branches, (external and internal circumflex,

&c.), arises as high up as Poupart's ligament, close to the origin of

the epigastric and circumflex iliac. [Footnote]

[Footnote: The main artery (Plate 47) has been exposed in the iliac and

femoral regions with the object of showing the relation which its parts

bear to each other and to the whole; all the other dissections have been

made upon the same plan, the practical tendency of which will be

illustrated when considering the subject of arterial anastomosis.]

The external iliac part of the artery, G I, when requiring to be tied,

may be reached in the following way: an incision, commencing above the

anterior iliac spine, B, is to be carried inwards parallel to, and

above, Poupart's ligament, D, as far as the outer margin of the internal

abdominal ring. This incision is the one best calculated for avoiding

the epigastric artery, and for not disturbing the peritonaeum more than

is necessary. The skin and the three abdominal muscles having been

successively incised, the fibrous transversalis fascia is next to be

carefully divided, so as to expose the peritonaeum. This membrane is

then to be gently raised by the fingers, from off the iliacus and psoas

muscles as far inwards as the margin of the true pelvis where the artery

lies. On raising the peritonaeum the spermatic vessels will be found

adhering to it. The iliac artery itself is liable to be displaced by

adhering to the serous membrane, when this is being detached from the

inner side of the psoas muscle. [Footnote] The artery having been

divested of its serous covering as far up as a point midway between I G,

the epigastric and internal iliac branches, the ligature is to be passed

around it in this place, as being equidistant from these two sources of

disturbance. As the vein, K, lies close along the inner side of the

artery, the point of the instrument should first be inserted between

them, and passed from within outwards, in order to avoid wounding the

vein. If an aneurism affect the upper end of the external iliac artery,

it is proposed to tie the common iliac; but this is an operation of so

serious a nature, that it can in this respect be exceeded only by tying

the aorta itself. The common iliac artery is so situated, that it can as

easily be reached from the groin upwards as from the side of the abdomen

inwards, and in both directions the peritonaeum would have to be

disturbed to an equal extent.

[Footnote: The student, in operating upon the dead subject, is often

puzzled to find that the iliac artery does not appear in its usual

situation, unaware at the time that he has lifted the vessel in

connexion with the peritonaeum. I have once seen a very distinguished

surgeon, whilst performing this operation on the living body, at fault

owing to the same cause.]

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 47.

A. The aorta at its point of bifurcation.

B. The anterior superior iliac spine.

C. The symphysis pubis.

D. Poupart's ligament, immediately above which are seen the circumflex

ilii and epigastric arteries, with the vas deferens and spermatic

vessels.

E E*. The right and left iliac muscles covered by the peritonaeum; the

external cutaneous nerve is seen through the membrane.

F. The vena cava.

G G*. The common iliac arteries giving off the internal iliac branches

on the sacro-iliac symphyses; g g, the right and left ureters.

H H*. The right and left common iliac veins.

I I*. The right and left external iliac arteries, each is crossed by the

circumflex ilii vein.

K K *. The right and left external iliac veins.

L. The urinary bladder covered by the peritonaeum.

M. The rectum intestinum.

N. The profundus branch of the femoral artery.

O. The femoral vein; O, the saphena vein.

P. The anterior crural nerve.

Q. The sartorius muscle, cut.

S. The pectinaeus muscle.

T. The adductor longus muscle.

U. The gracilis muscle.

V. The tendinous sheath given off from the long adductor muscle,

crossing the vessels, and becoming adherent to the vastus internus

muscle.

W. The femoral artery. The letter is on the part where the vessel

becomes first covered by the sartorius muscle.

Plate 47.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 48 & 49

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 48 & 49.

THE RELATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MALE PELVIC ORGANS.

As the abdomen and pelvis form one general cavity, the organs contained

in both regions are thereby intimately related. The viscera of the

abdomen completely fill this region, and transmit to the pelvic organs

all the impressions made upon them by the diaphragm and abdominal walls.

The expansion of the lungs, the descent of the diaphragm, and the

contraction of the abdominal muscles, cause the abdominal viscera to

descend and compress the pelvic organs; and at the same time the muscles

occupying the pelvic outlet, becoming relaxed or contracted, allow the

perinaeum to be protruded or sustained voluntarily according to the

requirements. Thus it is that the force originated in the muscular

parietes of the thorax and abdomen is, while opposed by the counterforce

of the perinaeal muscles, brought so to bear upon the pelvic organs as

to become the principal means whereby the contents of these are

evacuated. The abdominal muscles are, during this act, the antagonists

of the diaphragm, while the muscles which guard the pelvic outlet become

at the time the antagonists of both. As the pelvic organs appear

therefore to be little more than passive recipients of their contents,

the voluntary processes of defecation and micturition may with more

correctness be said to be performed rather for them than by them. The

relations which they bear to the abdomen and its viscera, and their

dependence upon these relations for the due performance of the processes

in which they serve, are sufficiently explained by pathological facts.

The same system of muscles comprising those of the thorax, abdomen and

perinaeum, performs consentaneously the acts of respiration, vomiting,

defecation and micturition. When the spinal cord suffers injury above

the origin of the phrenic nerve, immediate death supervenes, owing to a

cessation of the respiratory act. Considering, however, the effect of

such an injury upon the pelvic organs alone, these may be regarded as

being absolutely excluded from the pale of voluntary influence in

consequence of the paralysis of the diaphragm, the abdominal and

perinaeal muscles. The expulsory power over the bladder and rectum being

due to the opposing actions of these muscles above and below, if the

cord be injured in the neck below the origin of the phrenic nerve, the

inferior muscles becoming paralysed, the antagonism of muscular forces

is thereby interrupted, and the pelvic organs are, under such

circumstances, equally withdrawn from the sphere of volition. The

antagonism of the abdominal muscles to the diaphragm being necessary, in

order that the pelvic viscera may be acted upon, if the cord be injured

in the lower dorsal region, so as to paralyse the abdominal walls and

the perinaeal muscles, the downward pressure of the diaphragm alone

could not evacuate the pelvic organs voluntarily, for the abdominal

muscles are now incapable of deflecting the line of force backwards and

downwards through the pelvic axis; and the perinaeal muscles being also

unable to act in agreement, the contents of the viscera pass

involuntarily. Again, as the muscular apparatus which occupies the

pelvic outlet acts antagonistic to the abdomen and thorax, when by an

injury to the cord in the sacral spine the perinaeal apparatus alone

becomes paralysed, its relaxation allows the thoracic and abdominal

force to evacuate the pelvic organs involuntarily. It would appear,

therefore, that the term "paralysis" of the bladder or rectum, when

following spinal injuries, &c. &c. means, or should mean, only a

paralytic state of the abdomino-pelvic muscular apparatus, entirely or

in part. For, in fact, neither the bladder nor rectum ever acts

voluntarily per se any more than the stomach does, and therefore the

name "detrusor" urinae, as applied to the muscular coat investing the

bladder, is as much a misnomer (if it be meant that the act of voiding

the organ at will be dependent upon it) as would be the name "detrusor"

applied to the muscular coat of the stomach, under the meaning that this

were the agent in the spasmodic effort of vomiting.

The urinary bladder, G, Plate 49, (in the adult body,) occupies the true

pelvic region when the organ is collapsed, or only partly distended. It

is situated behind the pubic symphysis and in front of the rectum,

C,--the latter lies between it and the sacrum, A. In early infancy, when

the pelvis is comparatively small, the bladder is situated in the

hypogastric region, with its summit pointing towards the umbilicus; as

the bladder varies in shape, according to whether it be empty or full,

its relations to neighbouring parts, especially to those in connexion

with its summit, vary also considerably. When empty, the back and upper

surface of the bladder collapse against its forepart, and in this state

the organ lies flattened against the pubic symphysis. Whether the

bladder be distended or not, the small intestines lie in contact with

its upper surface, and compress it in the manner of a soft elastic

cushion. When distended largely, its summit is raised above the pubic

symphysis, the small intestines having yielded place to it, and in this

state it can be felt by the hand laid upon the hypogastrium.

The shape of the bladder varies in different individuals. In some it is

rounded, in others pyriform, in others peaked towards its summit. Its

capacity varies also considerably at different ages and in different

sexes. When distended, its long axis will be found to coincide with a

line passing from a point midway between the navel and pubes to the

point of the coccyx, the obliquity of this direction being greatest when

the body is in the erect posture, for the intestines now gravitate upon

it. When the body is recumbent, the bladder recedes somewhat from the

pubes, and as the intestines do not now press upon it from above, it

allows of being distended to a much greater degree without causing

uneasiness, and a desire to void its contents.

The manner in which the bladder is connected to neighbouring parts is

such as to admit of its full distension. Its summit, back, and upper

sides are free and covered by the elastic peritonaeum, whilst its front,

lower sides, and base are adherent to adjacent parts, and divested of

the serous membrane. On tracing the peritonaeum from the front wall of

the abdomen to its point of reflexion over the summit of the bladder, we

find the membrane to be in this part so loosely adherent, that the

bladder when much distended, raises the peritonaeum above the level of

the upper margin of the pubic symphysis. In this state the organ may be

punctured immediately above the pubic symphysis without endangering the

serous sac. When the bladder is collapsed, the peritonaeum follows its

summit below the level of the pubes, and in this position of the organ

such an operation would be inadmissible, if indeed the necessity for it

can now be conceived.

By removing the os innominatum, A D, Plate 48, together with the

internal obturator, and levator ani muscles, which arise from its inner

side, we obtain a lateral view, Plate 49, of the pelvic viscera, and of

the vessels &c. connected with them. Those parts of the bladder, G, and

the rectum, C, which are invested by the peritonaeum, are also now fully

displayed. On tracing this membrane from before backwards, over the

summit of the bladder, G, we find it descending deeply upon the

posterior surface of the organ, before it becomes reflected so as to

ascend over the forepart of the rectum. This duplicature of the serous

membrane, H H, is named the recto-vesical pouch, and it is required to

ascertain with all the exactness possible the level to which it

descends, so as to avoid it in the operation of puncturing the bladder

through the rectum. The serous pouch descends lower in some bodies than

in others; but in all there exists a space, of greater or less

dimensions, between it and the prostate, V, whereat the base of the

bladder is in direct apposition with the rectum, W, the serous membrane

not intervening.

When the peritonaeum is traced from one iliac fossa to the other, we

find it sinking deeply into the hollow of the pelvis behind the bladder,

so as to form the sides of the recto-vesical pouch; but when traced over

the summit of the bladder, this organ is seen to have the membrane

reflected upon it, almost immediately below the pelvic brim. At the

situations where the peritonaeum becomes reflected in front, laterally,

and behind, upon the sides of the bladder, the membrane is thrown into

folds, which are named "false ligaments." The pelvic fascia, in being

reflected to the bladder from the front and sides of the pelvis, at a

lower level than that of the peritonaeum, forms the "true ligaments." In

addition to these ligaments, which serve to keep the base and front of

the bladder fixed in the pelvis, other structures, such as the ureters,

K, the vasa deferentia, I, the hypogastric cords, the urachus, and the

bloodvessels, embrace the organ in various directions, and act as

bridles, to limit its expansion more or less in all directions, but

least so towards its summit, which is always comparatively free.

The neck and outlet of the bladder, V, are situated at the anterior part

of its base, and point towards the subpubic space. The prostate gland,

V, surrounds its neck, and occupies a position behind and below the

pubic arch, D, and in front of the rectum, W. The gland, V, being of a

rounded form and dense structure, can be felt in this situation by the

finger, passed upwards through the bowel. The prostate is suspended from

the back of the pubic arch by the anterior true ligament of the bladder,

and at its forepart, where the membranous portion of the urethra

commences, this passes through the deep perinaeal fascia, X. The

anterior fibres of the levator ani muscle embrace the prostate on both

its sides. Behind the base of the prostate, the ureter, K, is seen to

enter the coats of the bladder obliquely, whilst the vas deferens, I,

joined by the vesicula seminalis, L, penetrates the substance of the

prostate, V, at its lower and back part, which lies in apposition with

the rectum.

The rectum, W C, at its middle and upper parts, occupies the hollow of

the sacrum, A Q, and is behind the bladder. The lower third of the

rectum, W, not being covered by the peritonaeum, is that part on which

the various surgical operations are performed. At its upper

three-fifths, the rectum describes a curve corresponding to that of the

sacrum; and if the bladder be full, its convex back part presses the

bowel against the bone, causing its curve to be greater than if the

bladder were empty and collapsed. This fact requires to be borne in

mind, for, in order to introduce a bougie, or to allow a large injection

to pass with freedom into the bowel, the bladder should be first

evacuated. The coccygeal bones, Q, continuing in the curve of the

sacrum, bear the rectum, W, forwards against the base of the bladder,

and give to this part a degree of obliquity upwards and backwards, in

respect to the perinaeum and anus. From the point where the prostate, V,

lies in contact with the rectum, W, this latter curves downwards, and

slightly backwards, to the anus, P. The prostate is situated at a

distance of about an inch and a half or two inches from the anus--the

distance varying according to whether the bladder and bowel be distended

or not. [Footnote]

[Footnote: The distance between any two given parts is found to vary in

different cases. "In subjects of an advanced age," Mr. Stanley remarks,

"a deep perinaeum, as it is termed, is frequently met with. This may be

occasioned either by an unusual quantity of fat in the perinaeum, or by

an enlarged prostate, or by the dilatation of that part of the rectum

which is contiguous to the prostate and bladder. Under either of these

circumstances, the prostate and bladder become situated higher in the

pelvis than naturally, and consequently at a greater distance from the

perinaeum."--On the Lateral Operation of Lithotomy.]

The arteries of the bladder are derived from the branches of the

internal iliac, S. The rectum receives its arteries from the inferior

mesenteric and pudic. The veins which course upwards from the rectum are

large and numerous, and devoid of valves. When these veins become

varicose, owing to a stagnation of their circulation, produced from

whatever cause, the bowel is liable to be affected with haemorrhoids or

to assume a haemorrhagic tendency.

The pudic artery, S s, is a branch of the internal iliac. It passes from

the pelvis by the great sciatic foramen, below the pyriformis muscle,

and in company with the sciatic artery. The pudic artery and vein wind

around the spine, E, of the ischium, where they are joined by the pudic

nerve, derived from, T, the sacral plexus. The artery, in company with

the nerve and vein, re-enters the pelvis by the small sciatic foramen,

and gets under cover of a dense fibrous membrane (obturator fascia),

between which and the obturator muscle, it courses obliquely downwards

and forwards to the forepart of the perinaeum. At the place where the

vessel re-enters the pelvis, it lies removed at an interval of an inch

and a half from the perinaeum, but becomes more superficial as it

approaches the subpubic space, N. The levator ani muscle separates the

pudic vessels and nerves from the sides of the rectum and bladder. The

principal branches given off from the pudic artery of either side, are

(1st), the inferior hemorrhoidal, to supply the lower end of the rectum;

(2nd), the transverse and superficial perinaeal; (3rd), the artery of

the bulb; (4th), that which enters the corpus cavernosum of the penis,

N; and (5th), the dorsal artery of the penis. [Footnote] The branches

given off from the pudic nerve correspond in number and place to those

of the artery. Having now considered the relations of the pelvic organs

in a lateral view, we are better prepared to understand these relations

when seen at their perinaeal aspect.

[Footnote: The pudic artery, or some one of its branches, occasionally

undergoes marked deviations from the ordinary course. In Mr. Quain's

work, ("Anatomy of the Arteries,") a case is represented in which the

artery of the bulb arose from the pudic as far back as the tuber ischii,

and crossed the line of incision made in the lateral operation of

lithotomy. In another figure is seen a vessel ("accessory pudic"),

which, passing between the base of the bladder and the levator ani

muscle, crosses in contact with the left lobe of the prostate.]

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 48 & 49.

PLATE 48.

A. The anterior superior iliac spine.

B. The anterior inferior iliac spine.

C. The acetabulum; c, the ligamentum teres.

D. The tuber ischii.

E. The spine of the ischium.

F. The pubic horizontal ramus.

G. The summit of the bladder covered by the peritonaeum.

H. The femoral artery.

I. The femoral vein.

K. The anterior crural nerve.

L. The thyroid ligament.

M. The spermatic cord.

N. The corpus cavernosum penis; n, its artery.

O. The urethra; o, the bulbus urethrae.

P. The sphincter ani muscle.

Q. The coccyx.

R. The sacro-sciatic ligament.

S. The pudic artery and nerve.

T. The sacral nerves.

U. The pyriformis muscle, cut.

V. The gluteal artery.

W. The small gluteus muscle.

Plate 48

PLATE 49.

A. The part of the sacrum which joins the ilium.

B. The external iliac artery, cut across.

C. The upper part of the rectum.

D. The ascending pubic ramus.

E. The spine of the ischium, cut.

F. The horizontal pubic ramus, cut.

G. The summit of the bladder covered by the peritonaeum; G *, its side,

not covered by the membrane.

H H. The recto-vesical peritonaeal pouch,

I. The vas deferens.

K. The ureter.

L. The vesicula seminalis.

M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, refer to the same parts as in Plate 48.

V. The prostate.

W. The lower part of the rectum.

X. The deep perinaeal fascia.

Plate 49

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 50 & 51

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 50 & 51.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE SUPERFICIAL STRUCTURES OF THE

MALE PERINAEUM.

The median line of the body is marked as the situation where the

opposite halves unite and constitute a perfect symmetrical figure. Every

structure--superficial as well as deep--which occupies the median line

is either single, by the union of halves, or dual, by the cleavage and

partition of halves. The two sides of the body being absolutely similar,

the median line at which they unite is therefore common to both. Union

along the median line is an occlusion taking place by the junction of

sides; and every hiatus or opening, whether normal or abnormal, which

happens at this line, signifies an omission in the process of central

union. The sexual peculiarities are the results of the operation of this

law, and all forms which are anomalous to either sex, may be interpreted

as gradations in the same process of development; a few of these latter

occasionally come under the notice of the surgeon.

The region which extends from the umbilicus to the point of the coccyx

is marked upon the cutaneous surface by a central raphe dividing the

hypogastrium, the penis, the scrotum, and the perinaeum respectively

into equal and similar sides. The umbilicus is a cicatrix formed after

the metamorphosis of a median foetal structure--the placental cord, &c.

In the normal form, the meatus urinarius and the anus coincide with the

line of the median raphe, and signify omissions at stated intervals

along the line of central union. When between these intervals the

process of union happens likewise to be arrested, malformations are the

result; and of these the following are examples:--Extrusion of the

bladder at the hypogastrium is caused by a congenital hiatus at the

lower part of the linea alba, which is in the median line; Epispadias,

which is an urethral opening on the dorsum of the penis; and

Hypospadias, which is a similar opening on its under surface, are of the

same nature--namely, omissions in median union. Hermaphrodism may be

interpreted simply as a structural defect, compared to the normal form

of the male, and as a structural excess compared to that of the female.

Spina bifida is a congenital malformation or hiatus in union along the

median line of the sacrum or loins. As the process of union along the

median line may err by a defect or omission, so may it, on the other

hand, err by an excess of fulfilment, as, for example, when the urethra,

the vagina, or the anus are found to be imperforate. As the median line

of union thus seems to influence the form of the hypogastrium, the

genitals, and the perinaeum, the dissection of these parts has been

conducted accordingly.

By removing the skin and subjacent adipose membrane from the

hypogastrium, we expose the superficial fascia. This membrane, E E E*,

Fig. 1, Plate 50, is, in the middle line, adherent to B, the linea alba,

and thereby contributes to form the central depression which extends

from the navel to the pubes. The adipose tissue, which in some subjects

accumulates on either side of the linea alba, renders this depression

more marked in them. At the folds of the groin the fascia is found

adherent to Poupart's ligament, and this also accounts for the

depressions in both these localities. From the central linea alba to

which the fascia adheres, outwards on either side to the folds of both

groins, the membrane forms two distinct sacs, which droop down in front,

so as to invest the testicles, E**, and penis in a manner similar to

that of the skin covering these parts. As the two sacs of the

superficial fascia join each other at the line B, coinciding with the

linea alba, they form by that union the suspensory ligament of the

penis, which is a structure precisely median.

The superficial fascia having invested the testicles each in a distinct

sac, the adjacent sides of both these sacs, by joining together, form

the median septum scroti, E, Fig. 2, Plate 50. In the perinaeum, Fig. 1,

Plate 51, the fascia, A, may be traced from the back of the scrotum to

the anus. In this region the membrane is found to adhere laterally to

the rami of the ischium and pubes; whilst along the median perinaeal

line the two sacs of which the membrane is composed unite, as in the

scrotum, and form an imperfect septum. In front of the anus, beneath the

sphincter ani, the fascia degenerates into cellular membrane, one layer

of which is spread over the adipose tissue in the ischio-rectal space,

whilst its deeper and stronger layer unites with the deep perinaeal

fascia, and by this connexion separates the urethral from the anal

spaces. The superficial fascia of the hypogastrium, the scrotum, and the

perinaeum forming a continuous membrane, and being adherent to the

several parts above noticed, may be regarded as a general double sac,

which isolates the inguino-perinaeal region from the femoral and anal

regions, and hence it happens that when the urethra becomes ruptured,

the urine which is extravasated in the perinaeum, is allowed to pass

over the scrotum and the abdomen, involving these parts in consequent

inflammation, whilst the thighs and anal space are exempt. The tunicae

vaginales, which form the immediate coverings of the testicles, cannot

be entered by the urine, as they are distinct sacs originally protruded

from the abdomen. It is in consequence of the imperfect state of the

inguino-perinaeal septum of the fascia, that urine effused into one of

the sacs is allowed to enter the other.

Like all the other structures which join on either side of the median

line, the penis appears as a symmetrical organ, D D, Fig. 2, Plate 50.

While viewed in section, its two corpora cavernosa are seen to unite

anteriorly, and by this union to form a septum "pectiniforme;"

posteriorly they remain distinct and lateral, F F, Fig. 2, Plate 51,

being attached to the ischio-pubic rami as the crura penis. The urethra,

B, Fig. 2, Plate 50, is also composed of two sides, united along the

median line, but forming between them a canal by the cleavage and

partition of the urethral septum. All the other structures of the

perinaeum will be seen to be either double and lateral, or single and

median, according as they stand apart from, or approach, or occupy the

central line.

The perinaeum, Figs. 1, 2, Plate 51, is that space which is bounded

above by the arch of the pubes, behind by C, the os coccygis, and the

lower borders of, I I, the glutaei muscles and sacro-sciatic ligaments,

and laterally by D D, the ischiatic tuberosities. The osseous boundaries

can be felt through the integuments. Between the back of the scrotum and

the anus the perinaeum swells on both sides of the raphe, A B, Fig. 3,

Plate 50, and assumes a form corresponding with the bag of the

superficial fascia which encloses the structures connected with the

urethra. The anus is centrally situated in the depression formed between

D D, the ischiatic tuberosities, and the double folds of the nates.

The perinaeum, Fig. 3, Plate 50, is, for surgical purposes, described as

divisible into two spaces (anterior and posterior) by a transverse line

drawn from one tuber ischii, D, to the other, D, and crossing in front

of the anus. The anterior space, A D D, contains the urethra; the

posterior space, D D C, contains the rectum. The central raphe, A B C,

traverses both these spaces. The anterior or urethral space is (while

viewed in reference to its osseous boundaries) triangular in shape, the

apex being formed by the pubic symphysis beneath A, whilst two lines

drawn from A to D D, would coincide with the ischio-pubic rami which

form its sides. The raphe in the anterior space indicates the central

position of the urethra, as may be ascertained by passing a sound into

the bladder, when the shaft of the instrument will be felt prominently

between the points A B. Behind the point B, the sound or staff sinks

deeper in the perinaeum as it follows the curve of the urethra towards

the bladder, and becomes overlaid by the bulb, &c.

The ischiatic tuberosities, D D, Fig. 3, Plate 50, are, in all subjects,

sufficiently prominent to be felt through the integuments, &c.; and the

line which, when drawn from one to the other, serves to divide the two

perinaeal spaces, forms the base of the anterior one. In well-formed

subjects, the anterior space is equiangular, the base being equal to

each side; but according as the tuberosities approach the median line,

the base becomes narrowed, and the triangle is thereby rendered acute.

These circumstances influence the direction in which the first incision

in the lateral operation of lithotomy should be made. When the

tuberosity of the left ischium stands well apart from the perinaeal

centre, the line of incision, B E, Fig. 3, Plate 50, is carried

obliquely from above downwards and outwards; but in cases where the

tuberosity approaches the centre, the incision must necessarily be made

more vertical. The posterior perinaeal space may be described on the

surface by two lines drawn from D D, the ischiatic tuberosities, to C,

the point of the coccyx, whilst the transverse line between D and D

bounds it above.

By removing the integument and superficial fascia, we expose the

superficial vessels and nerves, together with the muscles in the

neighbourhood of the urethra and the anus. The accelerator urinae, E,

Fig. 2, Plate 51, which embraces the urethra, and the sphincter ani, B

C, which surrounds the anus, H, occupy the median line, and are divided

each into halves by a central tendon, E B C, which traverses the

perinaeum from before backwards, to the point of the coccyx. On either

side of the anus, in the ischio-rectal space, D D, Fig. 1, Plate 51, is

found a considerable quantity of granular adipose tissue, traversed by

the inferior haemorrhoidal arteries and nerves-branches of the pudic

artery and nerve.

In front of the anus are seen two small muscles (transversae perinaei),

G G, Fig. 2, Plate 51, each arising from the tuber ischii of its own

side, and the two becoming inserted into, B, the central tendon. These

transverse muscles serve to mark the boundary between the anterior and

posterior perinaeal spaces. Behind each muscle is found a small artery,

crossing to the median line. The left transverse muscle and artery are

always divided in the lateral operation of lithotomy. On the outer sides

of the anterior perinaeal space are seen the erectores penis muscles, F

F, overlaying the crura penis. Between each muscle and the accelerator

urinae, the superficialis perinaei artery and nerve course forwards to

the scrotum, &c.

The perinaeal muscles having been brought fully into view, Plate 52,

Fig. 1, their symmetrical arrangement on both sides of the median line

at once strikes the attention. On either side of the anterior space

appears a small angular interval, L, formed between B, the accelerator

urinae, D, the erector penis, and E, the transverse muscle. Along the

surface of this interval, the superficial perinaeal artery and nerve are

seen to pass forwards; and deep in it, beneath these, may also be

observed, L, the artery of the bulb, arising from the pudic, and

crossing inwards, under cover of the anterior layer of the membrane

named the deep perinaeal fascia. The first incision in the lateral

operation of lithotomy is commenced over the inferior inner angle of

this interval.

The muscles occupying the anterior perinaeal space require to be

removed, Fig. 1, Plate 53, in order to expose the urethra, B M, the crus

penis, D, and the deep perinaeal fascia. The fascia will be now seen

stretched across the subpubic triangular space, reaching from one

ischio-pubic ramus to the other, whilst by its lower border,

corresponding with the line of the transversae perinaei muscles, it

becomes continuous with the superficial fascia, in the manner before

described. The deep perinaeal fascia (triangular ligament) encloses

between its two layers, C E, on either side of the urethra, the pudic

artery, the artery of the bulb, Cowper's glands, and some muscular

fibres occasionally to be met with, to which the name "Compressor

urethrae" has been assigned. At this stage of the dissection, as the

principal vessels and parts composed of erectile tissue are now in view,

their relative situations should be well noticed, so as to avoid

wounding them in the several cutting operations required to be performed

in their vicinity.

Along the median line (marked by the raphe) from the scrotum to the

coccyx, and close to this line on either side, the vessels are

unimportant as to size. The urethra lies along the middle line in the

anterior perinaeal space; the rectum occupies the middle in the

posterior space. When either of these parts specially requires to be

incised--the urethra for impassable stricture, &c., and the lower part

of the rectum for fistula in ano--the operation may be performed

without fear of inducing dangerous arterial haemorrhage. With the object

of preserving from injury these important parts, deep incisions at, or

approaching to, the middle line must be avoided. The outer

(ischio-pubic) boundary of the perinaeum is the line along which the

pudic artery passes. The anterior half of this boundary supports also

the crus penis; hence, therefore, in order to avoid these, all deep

incisions should be made parallel to, but removed to a proper distance

from this situation. The structures placed at the middle line, B M F,

Fig. 2, Plate 52, and those in connexion with the left perinaeal

boundary, D G L, require (in order to insure the safety of these parts)

that the line of incision necessary to gain access to the neck of the

bladder in lithotomy should be made through the left side of the

perinaeum from a point midway between M, the bulb, and D, crus penis

above, to a point, K, midway between the anus, F, and tuber ischii, G,

below. As the upper end of this incision is commenced over the situation

of the superficial perinaeal artery and the artery of the bulb, the

knife at this place should only divide the skin and superficial fascia.

The lower end, K, just clears the outer side of the dilated lower part

of the rectum. The middle of the incision is over the left lobe of the

prostate gland and neck of the bladder, which parts, together with the

membranous portion of the urethra, are still concealed by the deep

perinaeal fascia, the structures between its layers, and the anterior

fibres of K, the levator ani muscle. The incision, if made in due

reference to the relative situation of the parts above noticed, will

leave them untouched; but when the pudic artery, or some one of its

branches, deviates from its ordinary course and crosses the line of

incision, a serious haemorrhage will ensue, despite the anatomical

knowledge of the most experienced operator. When it is requisite to

divide the superficial and deep sphincter ani as in the operation for

complete fistula in ano, if the incision be made transversely in the

ischio-rectal fossa, the haemorrhoidal arteries and nerves converging

towards the anus will be the more likely to escape being wounded.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES OF PLATES 50 & 51.

PLATE 50.

FIGURE 1.

A. The umbilicus.

B. The linea alba.

C. The suspensory ligament of the penis.

D D. The two corpora cavernosa penis.

E E**. The hypogastric and scrotal superficial fascia.

F F. The spermatic cords.

FIGURE 2.

A. The umbilicus.

B. The urethra.

C*. The tunica vaginalis; c, the testicle invested by the tunic.

D D. The corpora cavernosa seen in section.

E. The scrotal raphe and septum scroti.

FIGURE 3.

A B. The perinaeal raphe.

C. The place of the coccyx.

D D. The projections of the ischiatic tuberosities.

BE. The line of section in lithotomy.

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 1.

Plate 50

PLATE 51.

FIGURE 1.

A. The superficial fascia covering the urethral space.

B. The sphincter ani.

C. The coccyx.

D D. The right and left ischiatic tuberosities.

H. The anus.

I I. The glutei muscles.

FIGURE 2.

A, B, C, D, H, I. The same parts as in Fig. 1.

E. The accelerator urinae muscle.

F F. Right and left erector penis muscle.

G G. Right and left transverse muscle.

Figure 2

Figure 1.

Plate 51

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 52 & 53

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 52 & 53.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE DEEP STRUCTURES OF THE MALE PERINAEUM.

THE LATERAL OPERATION OF LITHOTOMY.

The urethra, at its membranous part, M, Fig. 1, Plate 53, which

commences behind the bulb, perforates the centre of the deep perinaeal

fascia, E E, at about an inch and a half in front of F, the anus. The

anterior layer of the fascia is continued forwards over the bulb, whilst

the posterior layer is reflected backwards over the prostate gland.

Behind the deep perinaeal fascia, the anterior fibres of K, the levator

ani muscle, arise from either side of the pubic symphysis posteriorly,

and descend obliquely down wards and forwards, to be inserted into the

sides of N N, the rectum above the anus. These fibres of the muscle, and

the lower border of the fascia which covers them, lie immediately in

front of the prostate, C C, Fig. 2, Plate 53, and must necessarily be

divided in the operation of lithotomy. Previously to disturbing the

lower end of the rectum from its natural position in the perinaeum, its

close relation to the prostate and base of the bladder should be

noticed. While the anus remains connected with the deep perinaeal fascia

in front, the fibres of the levator ani muscle of the left side may be

divided; and by now inserting the finger between them and the rectum,

the left lobe of the prostate can be felt in apposition with the

forepart of the bowel, an inch or two above the anus. It is owing to

this connexion between these parts that the lithotomist has to depress

the bowel, lest it be wounded, while the prostate is being incised. If

either the bowel or the bladder, or both together, be over-distended,

they are brought into closer apposition, and the rectum is consequently

more exposed to danger during the latter stages of the operation. The

prostate being in contact with the rectum, the surgeon is enabled to

examine by the touch, per anum, the state of the gland. If the prostate

be diseased and irregularly enlarged, the urethra, which passes through

it, becomes, in general, so distorted, that the surgeon, after passing

the catheter along the urethra as far as the prostate, will find it

necessary to guide the point of the instrument into the bladder, by the

finger introduced into the bowel. The middle or third lobe of the

prostate being enlarged, bends the prostatic part of the urethra

upwards. But when either of the lateral lobes is enlarged, the urethra

becomes bent towards the opposite side.

By dividing the levator ani muscle on both sides of the rectum, F, Fig.

2, Plate 53, and detaching and depressing this from the perinaeal

centre, the prostate, C C, and base of the bladder, P, are brought into

view. The pelvic fascia may be now felt reflected from the inner surface

of the levator ani muscle to the bladder at a level corresponding with

the base of the prostate, and the neck of the bladder in front, and the

vesiculae seminales, N N, laterally. In this manner the pelvic fascia

serves to insulate the perinaeal space from the pelvic cavity. The

prostate occupies the centre of the perinaeum. If the perinaeum were to

be penetrated at a point midway between the bulb of the urethra and the

anus, and to the depth of two inches straight backwards, the instrument

would transfix the apex of the gland. Its left lobe lies directly under

the middle of the line of incision which the lithotomist makes through

the surface; a fibrous membrane forms a capsule for the gland, and

renders its surface tough and unyielding, but its proper substance is

friable, and may be lacerated or dilated with ease, after having partly

incised its fibrous envelope. The membranous part of the urethra, M,

Fig. 2, Plate 53, enters the apex of the prostate, and traverses this

part in a line, nearer to the upper than to the under surface; and that

portion of the canal which the gland surrounds, is named prostatic. The

prostate is separated from the pudic artery by the levator ani muscle,

and from the artery of the bulb, by the deep perinaeal fascia and the

muscular fibres enclosed between its two layers.

The prostate being a median structure, is formed of two lobes, united at

the median line. The bulbus urethrae being also a median structure, is

occasionally found notched in the centre, and presenting a bifid

appearance. On the base of the bladder, P, Fig. 2, Plate 53, the two

vasa deferentia, Q Q, are seen to converge from behind forwards, and

enter the base of the gland; a triangular interval is thus formed

between the vasa, narrower before than behind, and at the middle of this

place the point of the trocar is to be passed (through the rectum,) for

the purpose of evacuating the contents of the bladder, when other

measures fail. When this operation is required to be performed, the

situation of the prostate is first to be ascertained through the bowel;

and at a distance of an inch behind the posterior border of the gland,

precisely in the median line, the distended base of the bladder may be

safely punctured. If the trocar pierce the bladder at this point, the

seminal vessels converging to the prostate from either side, and the

recto-vesical serous pouch behind, will escape being wounded. If the

prostate happen to be much enlarged, the relative position of the

neighbouring parts will be found disturbed, and in such case the bladder

can be punctured above the pubes with greater ease and safety. In cases

of impassable stricture, when extravasation of urine is threatened, or

has already occurred, the urethra should be opened in the perinaeum

behind the place where the stricture is situated, and this (in the

present instance) certainly seems to be the more effectual measure, for

at the same time that the stricture is divided, the contents of the

bladder may be evacuated through the perinaeum. If the membranous part

of the urethra be that where the stricture exists, a staff with a

central groove is to be passed as far as the strictured part, and having

ascertained the position of the instrument by the finger in the bowel,

the perinaeum should be incised, at the middle line, between the bulb of

the urethra and the anus. The urethra in this situation will be found to

curve backwards at the depth of an inch or more from the surface. The

point of the staff is now to be felt for, and the urethra is to be

incised upon it. The bistoury is next to be carried backwards through

the stricture till it enters that part of the urethra (usually dilated

in such cases) which intervenes between the seat of obstruction and the

neck of the bladder.

The lateral operation of lithotomy is to be performed according to the

above described anatomical relations of the parts concerned. The bowel

being empty and the bladder moderately full, a staff with a groove in

its left side is to be passed by the urethra into the bladder. The

position and size of the prostate is next to be ascertained by the left

fore-finger in the rectum. Having now explored the surface of the

perinaeum in order to determine the situation of the left tuberosity and

ischio-pubic ramus, in relation to the perinaeal middle line, the staff

being held steadily against the symphysis pubis, the operator proceeds

to divide the skin and superficial fascia on the left side of the

perinaeum, commencing the incision on the left of the raphe about an

inch in front of the anus, and carrying it downwards and outwards midway

between the anus and ischiatic tuberosity, to a point below these parts.

The left fore-finger is then to be passed along the incision for the

purpose of parting the loose cellular tissue; and any of the more

resisting structures, such as the transverse and levator ani muscles,

are to be divided by the knife. Deep in the forepart of the wound, the

position of the staff is now to be felt for, and the structures which

cover the membranous portion of the urethra are to be cautiously

divided. Recollecting now that the artery of the bulb passes anterior to

the staff in the urethra on a level with the bulb, the vessel is to be

avoided by inserting the point of the knife in the groove of the staff

as far backwards--that is, as near the apex of the prostate--as

possible. The point of the knife having been inserted in the groove of

the staff, the bowel is then to be depressed by the left fore-finger;

and now the knife, with its back to the staff, and its edge lateralized

(towards the lower part of the left tuber ischii), is to be pushed

steadily along the groove in the direction of the staff, and made to

divide the membranous part of the urethra and the anterior two-thirds of

the left lobe of the prostate. The gland must necessarily be divided to

this extent if the part of the urethra which it surrounds be traversed

by the knife. The extent to which the prostate is divided depends upon

the degree of the angle which the knife, passing along the urethra,

makes with the staff. The greater this angle is, the greater the extent

to which the gland will be incised. The knife being next withdrawn, the

left fore-finger is to be passed through the opening into the bladder,

and the parts are to be dilated by the finger as it proceeds, guided by

the staff. The staff is now to be removed while the point of the finger

is in the neck of the bladder, and the forceps is to be passed into the

bladder along the finger as a guide. The calculus, now in the grip of

the forceps, is to be extracted by a slow undulating motion.

The general rules to be remembered and adopted in performing the

operation of lithotomy are as follow:--1st, The incision through the

skin and sub-cutaneous cellular membrane should be freely made, in order

that the stone may be easily extracted and the urine have ready egress.

The incision which (judging from the anatomical relations of the parts)

appears to be best calculated to effect these objects, is one which

would extend from a point an inch above the anus to a point in the

posterior perinaeal space an inch or more below the anus. The wound thus

made would depend in relation to the neck of the bladder; the important

parts, vessels, &c., in the anterior perinaeal space would be avoided

where the incision, if extended upwards, would have no effect whatever

in facilitating the extraction of the stone or the egress of the urine;

and what is also of prime importance, the external opening would

directly correspond with the incision through the prostate and neck of

the bladder. 2nd, After the incision through the skin and superficial

fascia is made, the operator should separate as many of the deeper

structures as will admit of it, by the finger rather than by the knife;

and especially use the knife cautiously towards the extremities of the

wound, so as to avoid the artery of the bulb, and the bulb itself in the

upper part, and the rectum below. The pudic artery will not be

endangered if the deeper parts be divided by the knife, with its edge

directed downwards and outwards, while its point slides securely along

the staff in the prostate. 3rd, The prostate should be incised

sparingly, for, in addition to the known fact that the gland when only

partly cut admits of dilatation to a degree sufficient to admit the

passage of even a stone of large size, it is also stated upon high

authority that by incising the prostate and neck of the bladder to a

length equal to the diameter of the stone, such a proceeding is more

frequently followed with disastrous results, owing to the circumstance

that the pelvic fascia being divided at the place where it is reflected

upon the base of the gland and the side and neck of the bladder, allows

the urine to infiltrate the cellular tissue of the pelvis. [Footnote]

[Footnote: "The object in following this method," Mr. Liston observes,

"is to avoid all interference with the reflexion of the ilio-vesical

fascia from the sides of the pelvic cavity over the base of the gland

and side of the bladder. If this natural boundary betwixt the external

and internal cellular tissue is broken up, there is scarcely a

possibility of preventing infiltration of the urine, which must almost

certainly prove fatal. The prostate and other parts around the neck of

the bladder are very elastic and yielding, so that without much solution

of their continuity, and without the least laceration, the opening can

be so dilated as to admit the fore-finger readily through the same

wound; the forceps can be introduced upon this as a guide, and they can

also be removed along with a stone of considerable dimensions, say from

three to nearly five inches in circumference, in one direction, and from

four to six in the largest."--Practical Surgery, page 510. This doctrine

(founded, no doubt, on Mr. Liston's own great experience) coincides with

that first expressed by Scarpa, Le Cat, and others. Sir Benjamin Brodie,

Mr. Stanley, and Mr. Syme are also advocates for limited incisions,

extending no farther than a partial division of the prostate, the rest

being effected by dilatation. The experience, however, of Cheselden,

Martineau, and Mr. S. Cooper, inclined them in favour of a rather free

incision of the prostate and neck of the bladder proportioned to the

size of the calculus, so that this may be extracted freely, without

lacerating or contusing the parts, "and," says the distinguished

lithotomist Klein, "upon this basis rests the success of my operations;

and hence I invariably make it a rule to let the incision be rather too

large than too small, and never to dilate it with any blunt instrument

when it happens to be too diminutive, but to enlarge it with a knife,

introduced, if necessary, several times."--Practische Ansichten der

Bedeutendsten Chirurgische Operationen. Opinions of the highest

authority being thus opposed, in reference to the question whether free

or limited incisions in the neck of the bladder are followed

respectively by the greater number of fatal or favourable results, and

these being thought mainly to depend upon whether the pelvic fascia be

opened or not, one need not hesitate to conclude, that since facts seem

to be noticed in support of both modes of practice equally, the issue of

the cases themselves must really be dependent upon other circumstances,

such as the state of the constitution, the state of the bladder, and the

relative position of the internal and external incisions. "Some

individuals (observes Sir B. Brodie) are good subjects for the

operation, and recover perhaps without a bad symptom, although the

operation may have been very indifferently performed. Others may be

truly said to be bad subjects, and die, even though the operation be

performed in the most perfect manner. What is it that constitutes the

essential difference between these two classes of cases? It is,

according to my experience, the presence or absence of organic

disease."--Diseases of the Urinary Organs.]

The position in which the staff is held while the membranous urethra and

prostate are being divided should be regulated by the operator himself.

If he requires the perinaeum to be protruded and the urethra directed

towards the place of the incision, he can effect this by depressing the

handle of the instrument a little towards the right groin, taking care

at the same time that the point is kept beyond the prostate in the

interior of the bladder.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES OF PLATES 52 & 53.

PLATE 52.

FIGURE 1.

A. The urethra.

B. Accelerator urinae muscle.

C. Central perinaeal tendon.

D D. Right and left erector penis muscle.

E E. The transverse muscles.

F. The anus.

G G. The ischiatic tuberosities.

H. The coccyx.

I I. The glutei muscles.

K K. The levator ani muscle.

L. The left artery of the bulb.

Plate 52.--Figure 1

FIGURE 2.

A, D, F, G, H, I, K, L refer to the same parts as in Fig. 1, Plate 52.

B. The urethra.

C. Cowper's glands between the two layers of--

E. The deep perinaeal fascia.

M. The bulb of the urethra.

Plate 52.--Figure 2

PLATE 53.

FIGURE 1.

A, B, C, E, F, G, H, I, K, L refer to the same parts as in Fig. 2, Plate

52.

D D. The two crura penis.

M. The urethra in section

N N. The rectum.

O. The sacro-sciatic ligament.

Plate 53.--Figure 1

FIGURE 2.

A, B, D, G, H, I, K, L, O refer to the same parts as in Fig. 1, Plate 53.

C C. The two lobes of the prostate.

F. The rectum turned down.

M. The membranous part of the urethra.

N N. The vesiculae seminales.

P. The base of the bladder.

Q Q. The two vasa deferentia.

Plate 53.--Figure 2.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 54, 55, & 56

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 54, 55, & 56.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE MALE BLADDER AND URETHRA.--

LATERAL AND BILATERAL LITHOTOMY COMPARED.

Having examined the surgical relations of the bladder and adjacent

structures, in reference to the lateral operation of lithotomy, it

remains to reconsider these same parts as they are concerned in the

bilateral operation and in catheterism.

Fig. 1, Plate 54, represents the normal relations of the more important

parts concerned in lithotomy as performed at the perinaeal region. The

median line, AA, drawn from the symphysis pubis above, to the point of

the coccyx below, is seen to traverse vertically the centres of the

urethra, the prostate, the base of the bladder, the anus, and the

rectum. These several parts are situated at different depths from the

perinaeal surface. The bulb of the urethra and the lower end of the

bowel are on the same plane comparatively superficial. The prostate lies

between these two parts, and on a plane deeper than they. The base of

the bladder is still more deeply situated than the prostate; and hence

it is that the end of the bowel is allowed to advance so near the

pendent bulb, that those parts are in a great measure concealed by

these. As the apex of the prostate lies an inch (more or less) deeper

than the bulb, so the direction of the membranous urethra, which

intervenes between the two, is according to the axis of the pelvic

outlet; the prostatic end of the membranous urethra being deeper than

the part near the bulb. The scalpel of the lithotomist, guided by the

staff in this part of the urethra, is made to enter the neck of the

bladder deeply in the same direction. On comparing the course of the

pudic arteries with the median line, A A, we find that they are removed

from it at a wider interval below than above; and also that where the

vessels first enter the perinaeal space, winding around the spines of

the ischia, they are much deeper in this situation (on a level with the

base of the bladder) than they are when arrived opposite the bulb of the

urethra. The transverse line B B, drawn in front of the anus from one

tuber ischii to the other, is seen to divide the perinaeum into the

anterior and posterior spaces, and to intersect at right angles the

median line A A. In the same way the line B B divides transversely both

pudic arteries, the front of the bowel, the base of the prostate, and

the sides of the neck of the bladder. Lateral lithotomy is performed in

reference to the line A A; the bilateral operation in regard to the line

B B. In order to avoid the bulb and rectum at the median line, and the

pudic artery at the outer side of the perinaeum, the lateral incisions

are made obliquely in the direction of the lines CD. In the bilateral

operation the incision necessary to avoid the bulb of the urethra in

front, the rectum behind, and the pudic arteries laterally, is required

to be made of a semicircular form, corresponding with the forepart of

the bowel; the cornua of the incision being directed behind. In the

lateral operation, the incision C through the integument, crosses at an

acute angle the deeper incision D, which divides the neck of the

bladder, the prostate, &c. The left lobe of the prostate is divided

obliquely in the lateral operation; both lobes transversely in the

bilateral.

Plate 54, Figure 1.

Fig. 2, Plate 54.--If the artery of the bulb happen to arise from the

pudic opposite the tuber ischii, or if the inferior hemorrhoidal

arteries be larger than usual, these vessels crossing the lines of

incision in both operations will be divided. If the superficial lateral

incision C, Fig. 1, be made too deeply at its forepart, the artery of

the bulb, even when in its usual place, will be wounded; and if the deep

lateral incision D be carried too far outwards, the trunk of the pudic

artery will be severed. These accidents are incidental in the bilateral

operation also, in performing which it should be remembered that the

bulb is in some instances so large and pendulous, as to lie in contact

with the front of the rectum.

Plate 54, Figure 2.

Fig. 1, Plate 55.--When the pudic artery crosses in contact with the

prostate, F, it must inevitably be divided in either mode of operation.

Judging from the shape of the prostate, I am of opinion that this part,

whether incised transversely in the line B B, or laterally in the line

D, will exhibit a wound in the neck of the bladder of equal dimensions.

When the calculus is large, it is recommended to divide the neck of the

bladder by an incision, combined of the transverse and the lateral. The

advantages gained by such a combination are, that while the surface of

the section made in the line D is increased by "notching" the right lobe

of the prostate in the direction of the line B, the sides of both

sections are thereby rendered more readily separable, so as to suit with

the rounded form of the calculus to be extracted. These remarks are

equally applicable as to the mode in which the superficial perinaeal

incision should be made under the like necessity. If the prostate be

wholly divided in either line of section, the pelvic fascia adhering to

the base of this body will be equally subject to danger. By incising the

prostate transversely, B B, the seminal ducts, G H, which enter the base

of this body, are likewise divided; but by the simple lateral incision D

being made through the forepart of the left lobe, F, these ducts will

escape injury. [Footnote] On the whole, therefore, the lateral operation

appears preferable to the bilateral one.

[Footnote: As to the mode in which the superficial and deep incisions in

lateral lithotomy should be made, a very eminent operating surgeon

remarks--"a free incision of the skin I consider a most important

feature in the operation; but beyond this the application of the knife

should, in my opinion, be extremely limited. In so far as I can

perceive, there should be no hesitation in cutting any part of the gland

which seems to offer resistance, with the exception, perhaps, of its

under surface, where the position of the seminal ducts, and other

circumstances, should deter the surgeon from using a cutting

instrument."--Wm. Fergusson, Practical Surgery, 3d Am. Ed., p. 610.]

Plate 55--Figure 1.

Fig. 2, Plate 55.--The muscular structures surrounding the membranous

urethra and the neck of the bladder, and which are divided in lithotomy,

have been examined from time to time by anatomists with more than

ordinary painstaking, owing to the circumstance that they are found

occasionally to offer, by spasmodic contraction, an obstacle to the

passage of the catheter along the urethral canal. These muscles do not

appear to exist in all subjects alike. In some, they are altogether

wanting; in others, a few of them only appear; in others, they seem to

be not naturally separable from the larger muscles which are always

present. Hence it is that the opinions of anatomists respecting their

form, character, and even their actual existence, are so conflicting,

not only against each other, but against nature. In Fig. 2, Plate 55, I

have summed together all the facts recorded concerning them, [Footnote]

and on comparing these facts with what I have myself observed, the

muscles seem to me to assume originally the form and relative position

of the parts B C D E F viewed in their totality. Each of these parts of

muscular structure arises from the ischio-pubic ramus, and is inserted

at the median line A A. They appear to me, therefore, to be muscles of

the same category, which, if all were present, would assume the serial

order of B C D E F. When one or more of them are omitted from the

series, there occurs anatomical variety, which of course occasions

variety in opinion, fruitless though never ending. By that

interpretation of the parts which I here venture to offer, and to which

I am guided by considerations of a higher law of formation, I encompass

and bind together, as with a belt, all the dismembered parts of variety,

and of these I construct a uniform whole. Forms become, when not viewed

under comparison, as meaningless hieroglyphics, as the algebraic symbols

a + c - d = 11 are when the mind is devoid of the power of calculation.

[Footnote: The part C is that alone described by Santorini, who named it

"elevator urethrae," as passing beneath the urethra. The part B is that

first observed and described by Mr. Guthrie as passing above the

urethra. The part F represents the well-known "transversalis perinaei,"

between which and the part C there occasionally appears the part E,

supposed to be the "transversalis alter" of Albinus, and also the part

D, which is the "ischio bulbosus" of Cruveilhier. It is possible that I

may not have given one or other of these parts its proper name, but this

will not affect their anatomy.]

Plate 55--Figure 2

Fig. 3, Plate 55.--The membranous urethra A is also in some instances

embraced by two symmetrical fasciculi of muscular fibres B B, which

arising from the posterior and lower part of the symphysis pubis,

descend on either side of the canal and join beneath it. The muscles B

C, Fig. 2, Plate 55, are between the two layers of the deep perinaeal

fascia, while the muscle B B, Fig. 3, Plate 55, lies like the forepart

of the levator ani, C C, behind this structure and between it and the

anterior ligaments of the bladder. [Footnote] As to the interpretation

of the muscle, I, myself, am inclined to believe that it is simply a

part of the levator ani, and for these reasons--1st, it arises from the

pubic symphysis, and is inserted into the perinaeal median line with the

levator ani; 2nd, the fibres of both muscles overlie the forepart of the

prostate, and present the same arrangement in parallel order; 3rd, the

one is not naturally separable from the other.

[Footnote: This is the muscle, B B, which is described by Santorini as

the "levator prostatae;" by Winslow as "le prostatique superieur;" by

Wilson as the "pubo-urethrales;" by Muller as not existing; by Mr.

Guthrie as forming (when existing), with the parts B C, Fig. 2, Plate

55, his "compressor isthmi urethrae;" and by M. Cruveilhier as being

part of the levator ani muscle. "As in one case," (observes Mr. Quain,)

"I myself saw a few vertical muscular fibres connected with the

transverse compressor, it has been thought best to retain the muscle in

the text."--Dr. Quain's Anat., Am. Ed. vol. ii. p. 539.]

Plate 55--Figure 3

Fig. 1, Plate 56, represents by section the natural forms of the urethra

and bladder. The general direction of the urethra measured during its

relaxed state from the vesical orifice to the glans is usually described

as having the form of the letter S laid procumbent to the right side

[capital S rotated 90 degrees right] or to the left [capital S rotated

90 degrees left]. But as the anterior half of the canal is moveable, and

liable thereby to obliterate the general form, while the posterior half

is fixed, I shall direct attention to the latter half chiefly, since

upon its peculiar form and relative position depends most of the

difficulty in the performance of catheterism. The portion of the urethra

which intervenes between the neck of the bladder, K, and the point E,

where the penis is suspended from the front of the symphysis pubis by

the suspensory ligament, assumes very nearly the form of a semicircle,

whose anterior half looks towards the forepart, and whose posterior half

is turned to the back of the pubis. The pubic arch, A, spans crossways,

the middle of this part of the urethra, G, opposite the bulb H. The two

extremes, F K, of this curve, and the lower part of the symphysis pubis,

occupy in the adult the same antero-posterior level; and it follows,

therefore, that the distance to which the urethra near its bulb, H, is

removed from the pubic symphysis above must equal the depth of its own

curve, which measures about an inch perpendicularly. The urethral

aperture of the triangular ligament appears removed at this distance

below the pubic symphysis, and that portion of the canal which lies

behind the ligament, and ascends obliquely backwards and upwards to the

vesical orifice on a level with the symphysis pubis in the adult should

be remembered, as varying both in direction and length in individuals of

the extremes of age. In the young, this variation is owing to the usual

high position of the bladder in the pelvis, whilst in the old it may be

caused by an enlarged state of the prostate. The curve of the urethra

now described is permanent in all positions of the body, while that

portion of the canal anterior to the point F, which is free, relaxed,

and moveable, can by traction towards the umbilicus be made to continue

in the direction of the fixed curve F K, and this is the general form

which the urethra assumes when a bent catheter of ordinary shape is

passed along the canal into the bladder. The length of the urethra

varies at different ages and in different individuals, and its structure

in the relaxed state is so very dilatable that it is not possible to

estimate the width of its canal with fixed accuracy. As a general rule,

the urethra is much more dilatable, and capable consequently of

receiving an instrument of much larger bore in the aged than in the

adult.

The three portions into which the urethra is described as being

divisible, are the spongy, the membranous, and the prostatic. These

names indicate the difference in the structure of each part. The spongy

portion is the longest of the three, and extending from the glans to the

bulb may be said on a rough, but for practical purposes, a sufficiently

accurate estimate to comprise seven parts of the whole urethra, which

measures nine. The membranous and prostatic portions measure

respectively one part of the whole. These relative proportions of the

three parts are maintained in different individuals of the same age, and

in the same individual at different ages. The spongy part occupies the

inferior groove formed between the two united corpora cavernosa of the

penis, and is subcutaneous as far back as the scrotum under the pubes,

between which point and the bulb it becomes embraced by the accelerator

urinae muscle. The bulb and glans are expansions or enlargements of the

spongy texture, and do not affect the calibre of the canal. When the

spongy texture becomes injected with blood, the canal is rendered much

narrower than otherwise. The canal of the urethra is

uniform-cylindrical. The meatus is the narrowest part of it, and the

prostatic part is the widest. At the point of junction between the

membranous and spongy portions behind the bulb, the canal is described

as being naturally constricted. Behind the meatus exists a dilatation

(fossa navicularis), and opposite the bulb another (sinus of the bulb).

Muscular fibres are said to enter into the structure of the urethra, but

whether such be the case or not, it is at least very certain that they

never prove an obstacle to the passage of instruments, or form the

variety of stricture known as spasmodic. The urethra is lined by a

delicate mucous membrane presenting longitudinal folds, which become

obliterated by distention; and its entire surface is numerously studded

with the orifices of mucous cells (lacunae), one of which, larger than

the rest, appears on the upper side of the canal near the meatus. Some

of these lacunae are nearly an inch long, and all of them open in an

oblique direction forwards. Instruments having very narrow apices are

liable to enter these ducts and to make false passages. The ducts of

Cowper's glands open by very minute orifices on the sides of the spongy

urethra anterior to and near the bulb. On the floor of the prostatic

urethra appears the crest of the veru montanum, upon which the two

seminal ducts open by orifices directed forwards. On either side of the

veru montanum the floor of the prostate may be seen perforated by the

"excretory ducts" of this so-called gland. The part K, which is here

represented as projecting from the floor of the bladder, near its neck,

is named the "uvula vesicae," (Lieutaud.) It is the same as that which

is named the "third lobe of the prostate," (Home.) The part does not

appear as proper to the bladder in the healthy condition, Fig. 2, Plate

56. On either side of the point K may be seen the orifices, M M, of the

ureters, opening upon two ridges of fibrous substance directed towards

the uvula. These are the fibres which have been named by Sir Charles

Bell as "the muscles of the ureters;" but as they do not appear in the

bladder when in a state of health, I do not believe that nature ever

intended them to perform the function assigned to them by this

anatomist. And the same may be said of the fibres, which surrounding the

vesical orifice, are supposed to act as the "sphincter vesicae." The

form of that portion of the base of the bladder which is named "trigone

vesical" constitutes an equilateral triangle, and may be described by

two lines drawn from the vesical orifice to both openings of the

ureters, and another line reaching transversely between the latter.

Behind the trigone a depression called "bas fond" is formed in the base

of the bladder. Fig. 2, Plate 56, represents the prostate of a boy nine

years of age. Fig. 3, Plate 56, represents that of a man aged forty

years. A difference as to form and size, &c., is observable between

both.

Plate 56--Figure 1, 2, 3

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 57 & 58

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 57 & 58.

CONGENITAL AND PATHOLOGICAL DEFORMITIES OF THE PREPUCE AND

URETHRA.--STRICTURE AND MECHANICAL OBSTRUCTIONS OF THE URETHRA.

When any of the central organs of the body presents in a form differing

from that which we term natural, or structurally perfect and efficient,

if the deformity be one which results as a malformation, ascribable to

an error in the law of development, it is always characterized as an

excess or defect of the substance of the organ at, and in reference to,

the median line. And when any of the canals which naturally open upon

the external surface at the median line happens to deviate from its

proper position, such deviation, if it be the result of an error in the

law of development, always occurs, by an actual necessity, at the median

line. On the contrary, though deformities which are the results of

diseased action in a central organ may and do, in some instances,

simulate those which occur by an error in the process of development,

the former cannot bear a like interpretation with the latter, for those

are the effects of ever-varying circumstances, whereas these are the

effects of certain deviations in a natural process--a law, whose course

is serial, gradational, and in the sequent order of a continuous chain

of cause and effect.

Fig. 1, Plate 57, represents the prepuce in a state of congenital

phymosis. The part hypertrophied and pendent projects nearly an inch in

front of the meatus, and forms a canal, continued forwards from this

orifice. As the prepuce in such a state becomes devoid of its proper

function, and hence must be regarded, not only as a mere superfluity,

but as a cause of impediment to the generative function of the whole

organ, it should be removed by an operation.

Plate 57.--Figure 1.

Fig. 2, Plate 57, represents the prepuce in the condition of

paraphymosis following gonorrhoeal inflammation. The part appears

constricting the penis and urethra behind the corona glandis. This state

of the organ is produced in the following-mentioned way:--the prepuce,

naturally very extensible, becomes, while covering the glans, inflamed,

thickened, and its orifice contracted. It is during this state withdrawn

forcibly backwards over the glans, and in this situation, while being

itself the first cause of constriction, it induces another--namely, an

arrest to the venous circulation, which is followed by a turgescence of

the glans. In the treatment of such a case, the indication is, first, to

reduce by gradual pressure the size of the glans, so that the prepuce

may be replaced over it; secondly, to lessen the inflammation by the

ordinary means.

Plate 57.--Figure 2.

Fig. 3, Plate 57, exhibits the form of a gonorrhoeal phymosis. The

orifice of the prepuce is contracted, and the tissue of it infiltrated.

If in this state of the part, consequent upon diseased action, or in

that of Fig. 1, which is congenital, the foreskin be retracted over the

glans, a paraphymosis, like Fig. 2, will be produced.

Plate 57.--Figure 3.

Fig. 4, Plate 57, shows a form of phymosis in which the prepuce during

inflammation has become adherent to the whole surface of the glans. The

orifice of the prepuce being directly opposite the meatus, and the parts

offering no obstruction to the flow of urine, an operation for

separating the prepuce from the glans would not be required.

Plate 57.--Figure 4.

Fig. 5, Plate 57.--In this figure is represented the form of the penis

of an adult, in whom the prepuce was removed by circumcision at an early

age. The membrane covering the glans and the part which is cicatrised

becomes in these cases dry, indurated, and deprived of its special sense.

Plate 57.--Figure 5.

Fig. 6, Plate 57.--In this figure the glans appears protruding through

the upper surface of the prepuce, which is thickened and corrugated.

This state of the parts was caused by a venereal ulceration of the upper

part of the prepuce, sufficient to allow the glans to press through the

aperture. The prepuce in this condition being superfluous, and acting as

an impediment, should be removed by operation.

Plate 57.--Figure 6.

Fig. 7, Plate 57.--In this figure is shown a condition of the glans and

prepuce resembling that last mentioned, and the effect of a similar

cause. By the removal of the prepuce when in the position here

represented, or in that of Fig. 6, the organ may be made to assume the

appearance of Fig. 5.

Plate 57.--Figure 7.

Fig. 8, Plate 57, represents the form of a congenital hypospadias. The

corpus spongiosum does not continue the canal of the urethra as far

forwards as the usual position of the meatus, but has become defective

behind the fraenum praeputii, leaving the canal open at this place. In a

case of this kind an operation on the taliacotian principle might be

tried in order to close the urethra where it presents abnormally patent.

Plate 57.--Figure 8.

Fig. 9, Plate 57, represents a congenital hypospadias, in which the

canal of the urethra opens by two distinct apertures along the under

surface of the corpus spongiosum at the middle line. A probe traverses

both apertures. In such a case, if the canal of the urethra were

perforate as far forwards as the meatus, and this latter in its normal

position, the two false openings should be closed by an operation.

Plate 57.--Figure 9.

Fig. 10, Plate 57.--The urethra is here represented as having a false

opening on its under surface behind the fraenum. The perforation was

caused by a venereal ulcer. The meatus and urethra anterior to the false

aperture remained perforate. Part of a bougie appears traversing the

false opening and the meatus. In this state of the organ an attempt

should be made to close the false aperture permanently.

Plate 57.--Figure 10.

Fig. 11, Plate 57, shows a state of the urethra similar to that of Fig.

10, and the effect of the same cause. Part of a bougie is seen

traversing the false aperture from the meatus before to the urethra

behind. In this case, as the whole substance of the corpus spongiosum

was destroyed for half an inch in extent, the taliacotian operation, by

which lost quantity is supplied, is the measure most likely to succeed

in closing the canal.

Plate 57.--Figure 11

Fig. 12, Plate 57.--Behind the meatus, and on the right of the fraenum,

is represented a perforation in the urethra, caused by a venereal ulcer.

The meatus and the false opening have approached by the contraction of

the cicatrix; in consequence of which, also, the apex of the glans is

distorted towards the urethra; a bougie introduced by the meatus

occupies the urethral canal.

Plate 57.--Figure 12.

Fig. 13, Plate 57.--In this figure the canal of the urethra appears

turning upwards and opening at the median line behind the corona

glandis. This state of the urethra was caused by a venereal ulcer

penetrating the canal from the dorsum of the penis. The proper direction

of the canal might be restored by obliterating the false passage,

provided the urethra remained perforate in the direction of the meatus.

Plate 57.--Figure 13.

Fig. 14, Plate 57, exhibits the form of a congenital epispadias, in

which the urethra is seen to open on the dorsal surface of the prepuce

at the median line. The glans appears cleft and deformed. The meatus is

deficient at its usual place. The prepuce at the dorsum is in part

deficient, and bound to the glans around the abnormal orifice.

Plate 57.--Figure 14.

Fig. 15, Plate 57, represents in section a state of the parts in which

the urethra opened externally by one fistulous aperture, a, behind the

scrotum; and by another, b, in front of the scrotum. At the latter place

the canal beneath the penis became imperforate for an inch in extent.

Parts of catheters are seen to enter the urethra through the fistulous

openings a b; and another instrument, c, is seen to pass by the proper

meatus into the urethra as far as the point where this portion of the

canal fails to communicate with the other. The under part of the scrotum

presents a cleft corresponding with the situation of the scrotal septum.

This state of the urinary passage may be the effect either of congenital

deficiency or of disease. When caused by disease, the chief features in

its history, taking these in the order of their occurrence, are, 1st, a

stricture in the anterior part of the urethra; 2ndly, a rupture of this

canal behind the stricture; 3rdly, the formation (on an abscess opening

externally) of a fistulous communication between the canal and the

surface of some part of the perinaeum; 4thly, the habitual escape of the

urine by the false aperture;  5thly, the obliteration of the canal to a

greater or less extent anterior to the stricture; 6thly, the parts

situated near the urethral fistula become so consolidated and confused

that it is difficult in some and impossible in many cases to find the

situation of the urethra, either by external examination or by means of

the catheter passed into the canal. The original seat of the stricture

becomes so masked by the surrounding disease, and the stricture itself,

even if found by any chance, is generally of so impassable a kind, that

it must be confessed there are few operations in surgery more irksome to

a looker-on than is the fruitless effort made, in such a state of the

parts, by a hand without a guide, to pass perforce a blunt pointed

instrument like a catheter into the bladder. In some instances the

stricture is slightly pervious, the urine passing in small quantity by

the meatus. In others, the stricture is rendered wholly imperforate, and

the canal either contracted or nearly obliterated anteriorly through

disuse. Of these two conditions, the first is that in which catheterism

may be tried with any reasonable hope of passing the instrument into the

bladder. In the latter state, catheterism is useless, and the only means

whereby the urethra may be rendered pervious in the proper direction is

that of incising the stricture from the perinaeum, and after passing a

catheter across the divided part into the bladder, to retain the

instrument in this situation till the wound and the fistulae heal and

close under the treatment proper for this end. (Mr. Syme.)

Plate 57.--Figure 15.

Fig. 1, Plate 58.--In this figure the urethra appears communicating with

a sac like a scrotum. A bougie is represented entering by the meatus,

traversing the upper part of the sac, and passing into the membranous

part of the urethra beyond. This case which was owing to a congenital

malformation of the urethra, exhibits a dilatation of the canal such as

might be produced behind a stricture wherever situated. The urine

impelled forcibly by the whole action of the abdominal muscles against

the obstructing part dilates the urethra behind the stricture, and by a

repetition of such force the part gradually yields more and more, till

it attains a very large size, and protrudes at the perinaeum as a

distinct fluctuating tumour, every time that an effort is made to void

the bladder. If the stricture in such a case happen to cause a complete

retention of urine, and that a catheter cannot be passed into the

bladder, the tumour should be punctured prior to taking measures for the

removal of the stricture. (Sir B. Brodie.)

Plate 58.--Figure 1.

Fig. 2, Plate 58, represents two close strictures of the urethra, one of

which is situated at the bulb, and the other at the adjoining membranous

part. These are the two situations in which strictures of the organic

kind are said most frequently to occur, (Hunter, Home, Cooper, Brodie,

Phillips, Velpeau.) False passages likewise are mentioned as more liable

to be made in these places than elsewhere in the urethral canal. These

occurrences--the disease and the accident--would seem to follow each

other closely, like cause and consequence. The frequency with which

false passages occur in this situation appears to me to be chiefly owing

to the anatomical fact, that the urethra at and close to the bulb is the

most dependent part of the curve, F K, Fig. 1, Plate 56; and hence, that

instruments descending to this part from before push forcibly against

the urethra, and are more apt to protrude through it than to have their

points turned so as to ascend the curve towards the neck of the bladder.

If it be also true that strictures happen here more frequently than

elsewhere, this circumstance will of course favour the accident. An

additional cause why the catheter happens to be frequently arrested at

this situation and to perforate the canal, is owing to the fact, that

the triangular ligament is liable to oppose it, the urethral opening in

this structure not happening to coincide with the direction of the point

of the instrument. In the figure, part of a bougie traverses the urethra

through both strictures and lodges upon the enlarged prostate. Another

instrument, after entering the first stricture, occupies a false passage

which was made in the canal between the two constricted parts.

Plate 58.--Figure 2.

Fig. 3, Plate 58.--A calculus is here represented lodging in the urethra

at the bulb. The walls of the urethra around the calculus appear

thickened. Behind the obstructing body the canal has become dilated,

and, in front of it, contracted. In some instances the calculus presents

a perforation through its centre, by which the urine escapes. In others,

the urine makes its exit between the calculus and the side of the

urethra, which it dilates. In this latter way the foreign body becomes

loosened in the canal and gradually pushed forwards as far as the

meatus, within which, owing to the narrowness of this aperture, it

lodges permanently. If the calculus forms a complete obstruction to the

passage of the urine, and its removal cannot be effected by other means,

an incision should be made to effect this object.

Plate 58.--Figure 3.

Fig. 4, Plate 58, represents the neck of the bladder and neighbouring

part of the urethra of an ox, in which a polypous growth is seen

attached by a long pedicle to the veru montanum and blocking up the neck

of the bladder. Small irregular tubercles of organized lymph, and

tumours formed by the lacunae distended by their own secretion, their

orifices being closed by inflammation, are also found to obstruct the

urethral canal.

Plate 58.--Figure 4.

Fig. 5, Plate 58.--In this figure is represented a small calculus

impacted in and dilating the membranous part of the urethra.

Plate 58.--Figure 5.

Fig. 6, Plate 58.--Two strictures are here shown to exist in the

urethra, one of which is situated immediately in front of the bulb, and

the other at a point midway between the bulb and the meatus.

Plate 58.--Figure 6.

Fig. 7, Plate 58.--A stricture is here shown situated at the bulb.

Plate 58.--Figure 7.

Fig. 8, Plate 58, represents a stricture of the canal in front of the bulb.

Plate 58.--Figure 8.

Fig. 9, Plate 58, represents the form of an old callous stricture half

an inch long, situated midway between the bulb and the meatus. This is

perhaps the most common site in which a stricture of this kind is found

to exist. In some instances of old neglected cases the corpus spongiosum

appears converted into a thick gristly cartilaginous mass, several

inches in extent, the passage here being very much contracted, and

chiefly so at the middle of the stricture. When it becomes impossible to

dilate or pass the canal of such a stricture by the ordinary means, it

is recommended to divide the part by the lancetted stilette. (Stafford.)

Division of the stricture, by any means, is no doubt the readiest and

most effectual measure that can be adopted, provided we know clearly

that the cutting instrument engages fairly the part to be divided. But

this is a knowledge less likely to be attained if the stricture be

situated behind than in front of the triangular ligament.

Plate 58.--Figure 9.

Fig. 10, Plate 58, exhibits a lateral view of the muscular parts which

surround the membranous portion of the urethra and the prostate; a, the

membranous urethra embraced by the compressor urethrae muscle; b, the

levator prostatae muscle; c, the prostate; d, the anterior ligament of

the bladder.

Plate 58.--Figure 10.

Fig. 11, Plate 58.--A posterior view of the parts seen in Fig. 10; a,

the urethra divided in front of the prostate; b b, the levator prostatae

muscle; c c, the compressor urethrae; d d, parts of the obturator

muscles; e e, the anterior fibres of the levator ani muscle; f g, the

triangular ligament enclosing between its layers the artery of the bulb,

Cowper's glands, the membranous urethra, and the muscular parts

surrounding this portion of the canal. The fact that the flow of urine

through the urethra happens occasionally to be suddenly arrested, and

this circumstance contrasted with the opposite fact that the organic

stricture is of slow formation, originated the idea that the former

occurrence arose from a spasmodic muscular contraction. By many this

spasm was supposed to be due to the urethra being itself muscular. By

others, it was demonstrated as being dependent upon the muscles which

surround the membranous part of the urethra, and which act upon this

part and constrict it. From my own observations I have formed the

settled opinion that the urethra itself is not muscular. And though, on

the one hand, I believe that this canal, per se, never causes by active

contraction the spasmodic form of stricture, I am far from supposing, on

the other, that all sudden arrests to the passage of urine through the

urethra are solely attributable to spasm of the muscles which embrace

this canal.

Plate 58.--Figure 11.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 59 & 60

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 59 & 60.

THE VARIOUS FORMS AND POSITIONS OF STRICTURES AND OTHER

OBSTRUCTIONS OF THE URETHRA.--FALSE PASSAGES.--ENLARGEMENTS

AND DEFORMITIES OF THE PROSTATE.

Impediments to the passage of the urine through the urethra may arise

from different causes, such as the impaction of a small calculus in the

canal, or any morbid growth (a polypus, &c.) being situated therein, or

from an abscess which, though forming externally to the urethra, may

press upon this tube so as either to obstruct it partially, by bending

one of its sides towards the other, or completely, by surrounding the

canal on all sides. These causes of obstruction may happen in any part

of the urethra, but there are two others (the prostatic and the

spasmodic) which are, owing to anatomical circumstances, necessarily

confined to the posterior two-thirds of the urethra. The portion of the

urethra surrounded by the prostate can alone be obstructed by this body

when it has become irregularly enlarged, while the spasmodic stricture

can only happen to the membranous portion of the urethra, and to an inch

or two of the canal anterior to the bulb, these being the parts which

are embraced by muscular structures. The urethra itself not being

muscular, cannot give rise to the spasmodic form of stricture. But that

kind of obstruction which is common to all parts of the urethra, and

which is dependent, as well upon the structures of which the canal is

uniformly composed, as upon the circumstance that inflammation may

attack these in any situation and produce the same effect, is the

permanent or organic stricture. Of this disease the forms are as various

as the situations are, for as certainly as it may reasonably be supposed

that the plastic lymph, effused in an inflamed state of the urethra from

any cause, does not give rise to stricture of any special or particular

form, exclusive of all others; so as certainly may it be inferred that,

in a structurally uniform canal, inflammation points to no one

particular place of it, whereat by preference to establish the organic

stricture. The membranous part of the canal is, however, mentioned as

being the situation most prone to the disease; but I have little doubt,

nevertheless, that owing to general rules of this kind being taken for

granted, upon imposing authority, many more serious evils (false

passages, &c.) have been effected by catheterism than existed previous

to the performance of this operation.[Footnote]

[Footnote: Home describes "a natural constriction of the urethra,

directly behind the bulb, which is probably formed with a power of

contraction to prevent," &c. This is the part which he says is "most

liable to the disease of stricture." (Strictures of the Urethra.) Now,

if anyone, even among the acute observing microscopists, can discern the

structure to which Home alludes, he will certainly prove this anatomist

to be a marked exception amongst those who, for the enforcement of any

doctrine, can see any thing or phenomenon they wish to see. And, if

Hunter were as the mirror from which Home's mind was reflected, then the

observation must be imputed to the Great Original. Upon the question,

however, as to which is the most frequent seat of stricture, I find that

both these anatomists do not agree, Hunter stating that its usual seat

is just in front of the bulb, while Home regrets, as it were, to be

obliged to differ from "his immortal friend," and avers its seat to be

an infinitesimal degree behind the bulb. Sir A. Cooper again, though

arguing that the most usual situation of stricture is that mentioned by

Hunter, names, as next in order of frequency, strictures of the

membranous and prostatic parts of the urethra. Does it not appear

strange now, how questions of this import should have occupied so much

of the serious attention of our great predecessors, and of those, too,

who at the present time form the vanguard of the ranks of science? Upon

what circumstance, either anatomical or pathological, can one part of

the urethra be more liable to the organic stricture than another?]

Figs. 1 and 2, Plate 59.--In these figures are presented seven forms of

organic stricture occurring, in different parts of the urethra. In a,

Fig. 1, the mucous membrane is thrown into a sharp circular fold, in the

centre of which the canal, appears much contracted; a section of this

stricture appears in b, Fig. 2. In b, Fig. 1, the canal is contracted

laterally by a prominent fold of the mucous membrane at the opposite

side. In c, Fig. 1, an organized band of lymph is stretched across the

canal; this stricture is seen in section in c, Fig. 2. In e, Fig. 1, a

stellate band of organized lymph, attached by pedicles to three sides of

the urethra, divides the canal into three passages. In d, Fig. 1, the

canal is seen to be much contracted towards the left side by a

crescentic fold of the lining membrane projecting from the right. In f,

the canal appears contracted by a circular membrane, perforated in the

centre; a section of which is seen at a, Fig. 2. The form of the organic

stricture varies therefore according to the three following

circumstances:--1st. When lymph becomes effused within the canal upon

the surface of the lining mucous membrane, and contracts adhesions

across the canal. 2ndly. When lymph is effused external to the lining

membrane, and projects this inwards, thereby narrowing the diameter of

the canal. 3rdly. When the outer and inner walls of a part of the

urethra are involved in the effused organizable matter, and on

contracting towards each other, encroach at the same time upon the area

of the canal. This latter state presents the form, which is known as the

old callous tough stricture, extending in many instances for an inch or

more along the canal. In cases where the urethra becomes obstructed by

tough bands of substance, c e, which cross the canal directly, the

points of flexible catheters, especially if these be of slender shape,

are apt to be bent upon the resisting part, and on pressure being

continued, the operator may be led to suppose that the instrument

traverses the stricture, while it is most probably perforating the wall

of the urethra. But in those cases where the diameter of the canal is

circularly contracted, the stricture generally presents a conical

depression in front, which, receiving the point of the instrument,

allows this to enter the central passage unerringly. A stricture formed

by a crescentic septum, such as is seen in b d, Fig. 1, offers a more

effectual obstacle to the passage of a catheter than the circular septum

like a f.

Figure 1

Figure 2.

Plate 59.

Fig. 3, Plate 59.--In this there are seen three separate strictures, a,

b, c, situated in the urethra, anterior to the bulb. In some cases there

are many more strictures (even to the number of six or seven) situated

in various parts of the urethra; and it is observed that when one

stricture exists, other slight tightnesses in different parts of the

canal frequently attend it. (Hunter.) When several strictures occur in

various parts of the urethra, they may occasion as much difficulty in

passing an instrument as if the whole canal between the extreme

constrictions were uniformly narrowed.

Plate 59.--Figure 3.

Fig. 4, Plate 59.--In this the canal is constricted at the point a,

midway between the bulb and glans. A false passage has been made under

the urethra by an instrument which passed out of the canal at the point

f, anterior to the stricture a, and re-entered the canal at the point c,

anterior to the bulb. When a false passage of this kind happens to be

made, it will become a permanent outlet for the urine, so long as the

stricture remains. For it can be of no avail that we avoid re-opening

the anterior perforation by the catheter, so long as the urine prevented

from flowing by the natural canal enters the posterior perforation.

Measures should be at once taken to remove the stricture.

Plate 59.--Figure 4.

Fig. 5, Plate 59.--The stricture a appears midway between the bulb and

glans, the area of the passage through the stricture being sufficient

only to admit a bristle to pass. It would seem almost impossible to pass

a catheter through a stricture so close as this, unless by a laceration

of the part, combined with dilatation.

Plate 59.--Figure 5.

Fig. 6, Plate 59.--Two instruments, a, b, have made false passages

beneath the mucous membrane, in a case where no stricture at all

existed. The resistance which the instruments encountered in passing out

of the canal having been mistaken, no doubt, for that of passing through

a close stricture.

Plate 59.--Figure 6.

Fig. 7, Plate 59.--A bougie, b b, is seen to perforate the urethra

anterior to the stricture c, situated an inch behind the glans, and

after traversing the substance of the right corpus cavernosum d, for its

whole length, re-enters the neck of the bladder through the body of the

prostate.

Plate 59.--Figure 7.

Fig. 8, Plate 59.--A bougie, c c, appears tearing and passing beneath

the lining membrane, d d, of the prostatic urethra. It is remarked that

the origin of a false passage is in general anterior to the stricture.

It may, however, occur at any part of the canal in which no stricture

exists, if the hand that impels the instrument be not guided by a true

knowledge of the form of the urethra; and perhaps the accident happening

from this cause is the more general rule of the two.

Plate 59.--Figure 8.

Fig. 9, Plate 59.--Two strictures are represented here, the one, e,

close to the bulb d, the other, f, an inch anterior to this part. In the

prostate, a b, are seen irregularly shaped abscess pits, communicating

with each other, and projecting upwards the floor of this body to such a

degree, that the prostatic canal appears nearly obliterated.

Plate 59.--Figure 9.

Fig. 10, Plate 59.--Two bougies, d e, are seen to enter the upper wall

of the urethra, c, anterior to the prostate, a b. This accident happens

when the handle of a rigid instrument is depressed too soon, with the

object of raising its point over the enlarged third lobe of the

prostate.

Plate 59.--Figure 10.

Fig. 11, Plate 59.--Two instruments appear transfixing the prostate, of

which body the three lobes, a, b, c, are much enlarged. The instrument d

perforates the third lobe, a; while the instrument e penetrates the

right lobe, c, and the third lobe, a. This accident occurs when

instruments not possessing the proper prostatic bend are forcibly pushed

forwards against the resistance at the neck of the bladder.

Plate 59.--Figure 11.

Fig. 12, Plate 59.--In this case an instrument, d d, after passing

beneath part of the lining membrane, e e, anterior to the bulb,

penetrates b, the right lobe of the prostate. A second instrument, c c,

penetrates the left lobe. A third smaller instrument, f f, is seen to

pass out of the urethra anterior to the prostate, and after transfixing

the right vesicula seminalis external to the neck of the bladder, enters

this viscus at a point behind the prostate. The resistance which the two

larger instruments met with in penetrating the prostate, made it seem,

perhaps, that a tight stricture existed in this situation, to match

which the smaller instrument, f f, was afterwards passed in the course

marked out.

Plate 59.--Figure 12.

Figs. 1 to 5, Plate 60, represent a series of prostates, in which the

third lobe gradually increases in size. In Fig. 1, which shows the

healthy state of the neck of the bladder, unmarked by the prominent

lines which are said to bound the space named "trigone vesical," or by

those which indicate the position of the "muscles of the ureters," the

third lobe does not exist. In Fig. 2 it appears as the uvula vesicae, a.

In Fig. 3 the part a is increased, and under the name now of third lobe

is seen to contract and bend upwards the prostatic canal. In Fig. 4 the

effect which the growth of the lobe, a, produces upon the form of the

neck of the bladder becomes more marked, and the part presenting

perforations, e e, produced by instruments, indicates that by its shape

it became an obstacle to the egress of the urine as well as to the

entrance of instruments. A calculus of irregular form is seen to lodge

behind the third lobe, and to be out of the reach of the point of a

sound, supposing this to enter the bladder over the apex of the lobe. In

Fig. 5 the three lobes are enlarged, but the third is most so, and while

standing on a narrow pedicle attached to the floor of the prostate,

completely blocks up the neck of the bladder. [Footnote]

Plate 60.--Figure 1

Plate 60.--Figure 2

Plate 60.--Figure 3

Plate 60.--Figure 4

Plate 60.--Figure 5

[Footnote: On comparing this series of figures, it must appear that the

third lobe of the prostate is the product of diseased action,  in so far

at least as an unnatural hypertrophy of a part may be so designated. It

is not proper to the bladder in the healthy state of this organ, and

where it does manifest itself by increase it performs no healthy

function in the economy. When Home, therefore, described this part as a

new fact in anatomy, he had in reality as little reason for so doing as

he would have had in naming any other tumour, a thing unknown to normal

anatomy. Langenbeck (Neue Bibl. b. i. p. 360) denies its existence in

the healthy state. Cruveilhier (Anat. Pathog. liv. xxvii.) deems it

incorrect to reckon a third lobe as proper to the healthy bladder.]

Fig. 6, Plate 60.--The prostatic canal is bent upwards by the enlarged

third lobe to such a degree as to form a right angle with the membranous

part of the canal. A bougie is seen to perforate the third lobe, and

this is the most frequent mode in which, under such circumstances, and

with instruments of the usual imperfect form, access may be gained to

the bladder for the relief of retention of urine. "The new passage may

in every respect be as efficient as one formed by puncture or incision

in any other way." (Fergusson.)

Plate 60.--Figure 6

Fig. 7, Plate 60.--The three lobes of the prostate, a, b, c, are equally

enlarged. The prostatic canal is consequently much contracted and

distorted, so that an instrument on being passed into the bladder has

made a false passage through the third lobe. When a catheter is

suspected to have entered the bladder by perforating the prostate, the

instrument should be retained in the newly made passage till such time

as this has assumed the cylindrical form of the instrument. If this be

done, the new passage will be the more likely to become permanent. It is

ascertained that all false passages and fistulae by which the urine

escapes, become after a time lined with a membrane similar to that of

the urethra. (Stafford.)

Plate 60.--Figure 7

Fig. 8, Plate 60.--The three lobes, a, b, c, of the prostate are

irregularly enlarged. The third lobe, a a, projecting from below,

distorts the prostatic canal upwards and to the right side.

Plate 60.--Figure 8.

Fig. 9, Plate 60.--The right lobe, a c c, of the prostate appears

hollowed out so as to form the sac of an abscess which, by its

projection behind, pressed upon the forepart of the rectum, and by its

projection in front, contracted the area of the prostatic canal, and

thereby caused an obstruction in this part. Not unfrequently when a

catheter is passed along the urethra, for the relief of a retention of

urine caused by the swell of an abscess in this situation, the sac

becomes penetrated by the instrument, and, instead of urine, pus flows.

The sac of a prostatic abscess frequently opens of its own accord into

the neighbouring part of the urethra, and when this occurs it becomes

necessary to retain a catheter in the neck of the bladder, so as to

prevent the urine entering the sac.

Plate 60.--Figure 9.

Fig. 10, Plate 60.--The prostate presents four lobes of equal size, and

all projecting largely around the neck of the bladder. The prostatic

canal is almost completely obstructed, and an instrument has made a

false passage through the lobe a.

Plate 60.--Figure 10.

Fig. 11, Plate 60.--The third lobe of the prostate is viewed in section,

and shows the track of the false passage made by the catheter, d,

through it, from its apex to its base. The proper canal is bent upwards

from its usual position, which is that at present marked by the

instrument in the false passage.

Plate 60.--Figure 11.

Fig. 12, Plate 60.--The prostatic lobes are uniformly enlarged, and

cause the corresponding part of the urethra to be uniformly contracted,

so as closely to embrace the catheter, d d, occupying it, and to offer

considerable resistance to the passage of the instrument.

Plate 60.--Figure 12.

Fig. 13, Plate 60.--The prostate, bc, is considerably enlarged

anteriorly, b, in consequence of which the prostatic canal appears more

horizontal even than natural. The catheter, d, occupying the canal lies

nearly straight. The lower wall, c, of the prostate is much diminished

in thickness. A nipple-shaped process, a, is seen to be attached by a

pedicle to the back of the upper part, b, of the prostate, and to act

like a stopper to the neck of the bladder. The body a being moveable, it

will be perceived how, while the bladder is distended with urine, the

pressure from above may block up the neck of the organ with this part,

and thus cause complete retention, which, on the introduction of a

catheter, becomes readily relieved by the instrument pushing the

obstructing body aside.

Plate 60.--Figure 13.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 61 & 62

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 61 & 62.

DEFORMITIES OF THE PROSTATE.--DISTORTIONS AND

OBSTRUCTIONS OF THE PROSTATIC URETHRA.

The prostate is liable to such frequent and varied deformities, the

consequence of diseased action, whilst, at the same time, its healthy

function (if it have any) in the male body is unknown, that it admits at

least of one interpretation which may, according to fact, be given of

it--namely, that of playing a principal part in effecting some of the

most distressing of "the thousand natural ills that flesh is heir to."

But heedless of such a singular explanation of a final cause, the

practical surgeon will readily confess the fitting application of the

interpretation, such as it is, and rest contented with the proximate

facts and proofs. As physiologists, however, it behooves us to look

further into nature, and search for the ultimate fact in her prime

moving law. The prostate is peculiar to the male body, the uterus to the

female. With the exception of these two organs there is not another

which appears in the one sex but has its analogue in the opposite sex;

and thus these two organs, the prostate and the uterus, appear by

exclusion of the rest to approach the test of comparison, by which their

analogy becomes as fully manifested as that between the two quantities,

a-b, and a+b the only difference which exists depends upon the

subtraction or the addition of the quantity, b. The difference between a

prostate and a uterus is simply one of quantity, such as we see existing

between the male and the female breast. The prostate is to the uterus

absolutely what a rudimentary organ is to its fully developed analogue.

The one, as being superfluous, is in accordance with nature's law of

nihil supervacaneum nihil frutra, arrested in its development, and in

such a character appears the prostate. This body is not a gland any more

than is the uterus, but both organs being quantitatively, and hence

functionally different, I here once more venture to call down an

interpretation of the part from the unfrequented bourne of comparative

anatomy, and turning it to lend an interest to the accompanying figures

even with a surgical bearing, I remark that the prostatic or rudimentary

uterus, like a germ not wholly blighted, is prone to an occasional

sprouting or increase beyond its prescribed dimensions--a hypertrophy in

barren imitation, as it were, of gestation. [Footnote]

[Footnote: This expression of the fact to which I allude will not, I

trust, be extended beyond the limits I assign to it. Though I have every

reason to believe, that between the prostate of the male and the uterus

of the female, the same amount of analogy exists, as between a coccygeal

ossicle and the complete vertebral form elsewhere situated in the spinal

series, I am as far from regarding the two former to be in all respects

structurally or functionally alike, as I am from entertaining the like

idea in respect to the two latter. But still I maintain that between a

prostate and a uterus, as between a coccygeal bone and a vertebra, the

only difference which exists is one of quantity, and that hence arises

the functional difference. A prostate is part of a uterus, just as a

coccygeal bone is part (the centrum) of a vertebra. That this is the

absolute signification of the prostate I firmly believe, and were this

the proper place, I could prove it in detail, by the infallible rule of

analogical reasoning. John Hunter has observed that the use of the

prostate was not sufficiently known to enable us to form a judgment of

the bad consequences of its diseased state. When the part becomes

morbidly enlarged, it acts as a mechanical impediment to the passage of

urine from the bladder, but from this circumstance we cannot reasonably

infer, that while of its normal healthy proportions, its special

function is to facilitate the egress of the urine, for the female

bladder, though wholly devoid of the prostate, performs its own function

perfectly. It appears to me, therefore, that the real question should

be, not what is the use of the prostate? but has it any proper function?

If the former question puzzled even the philosophy of Hunter, it was

because the latter question must be answered in the negative. The

prostate has no function proper to itself per se. It is a thing distinct

from the urinary apparatus, and distinct likewise from the generative

organs. It may be hypertrophied or atrophied, or changed in texture, or

wholly destroyed by abscess, and yet neither of the functions of these

two systems of organs will be impaired, if the part while diseased act

not as an obstruction to them. In texture the prostate is similar to an

unimpregnated uterus. In form it is, like the uterus, symmetrical. In

position it corresponds to the uterus. The prostate has no ducts proper

to itself. Those ducts which are said to belong to it (prostatic ducts)

are merely mucous cells, similar to those in other parts of the urethral

lining membrane. The seminal ducts evidently do not belong to it. The

texture of the prostate is not such as appears in glandular bodies

generally. In short, the facts which prove what it is not, prove what it

actually is--namely, a uterus arrested in its development, and as a sign

of that all-encompassing law in nature, which science expresses by the

term "unity in variety." This interpretation of the prostate, which I

believe to be true to nature, will last perhaps till such time as the

microscopists shall discover in its "secretion" some species of

mannikins, such as may pair with those which they term spermatozoa.]

Fig. 1, Plate 61.--The prostate, a b, is here represented thinned in its

walls above and below. The lower wall is dilated into a pouch caused by

the points of misdirected instruments in catheterism having been rashly

forced against it.

Plate 61.--Figure 1.

Fig. 2, Plate 61.--The prostate, a b, is here seen to be somewhat more

enlarged than is natural. A tubercle, b, surmounts the lower part, c, of

the prostate, and blocks up the vesical orifice. Catheters introduced by

the urethra for retention of urine which existed in this case, have had

their points arrested at the bulb, and on being pushed forwards in this

direction, have dilated the bulb into the form of a pouch, seen at d.

The sinus of the bulb, being the lowest part of the urethral canal, is

very liable to be distorted or perforated by the points of instruments

descending upon it from above and before. [Footnote]

[Footnote: When a stricture exists immediately behind the bulb, this

circumstance will, of course, favour the occurrence of the accident.

"False passages (observes Mr. Benjamin Phillips) are less frequent here

(in the membranous part of the urethra) than in the bulbous portion of

the canal. The reason of this must be immediately evident: false

passages are ordinarily made in consequence of the difficulty

experienced in the endeavour to pass an instrument through the

strictured portion of the tube. Stricture is most frequently seated at

the point of junction between the bulbous and membranous portions of the

canal; consequently, the false passage will be usually anterior to this

latter point."--(On the Urethra, its Diseases. &c., p. 15.) ]

Plate 61.--Figure 2

Fig. 3, Plate 61.--A cyst, c, is seen to grow from the left side of the

base of the prostate, a b, and to form an obstruction at the vesical

orifice.

Plate 61.--Figure 3.

Fig. 4, Plate 61.--A globular excrescence, a, appears blocking up the

vesical orifice, and giving to this the appearance of a crescentic slit,

corresponding to the shape of the obstructing body. The prostate, b b,

is enlarged in both its lateral lobes. A small bougie, c, is placed in

the prostatic canal and vesical opening.

Plate 61.--Figure 4

Fig. 5, Plate 61.--The prostate, d, is considerably enlarged, and the

vesical orifice is girt by a prominent ring, b b, from the right border

of which the nipple-shaped body, a, projects and occupies the outlet.

Owing to the retention of urine caused by this state of the prostate,

the ureters, c c, have become very much dilated.

Plate 61.--Figure 5.

Fig. 6, Plate 61.--The lateral lobes of the prostate, c c, are seen

enlarged, and from the inner side and base of each, irregularly shaped

masses, a, b, d, project, and bend the prostatic urethra first to the

right side, then to the left. The part, a, resting upon the part, b,

acts like a valve against the vesical outlet, which would become closed

the tighter according to the degree of superincumbent pressure. A

flexible catheter would, in such a case as this, be more likely,

perhaps, to follow the sinuous course of the prostatic passage than a

rigid instrument of metal.

Plate 61.--Figure 6.

Fig. 7, Plate 61.--A globular mass, a, of large size, occupies the neck

of the bladder, and gives the vesical orifice, c, a crescentic shape,

convex towards the right side. The two lobes of the prostate, b, are

much enlarged.

Plate 61.--Figure 7.

Fig. 8, Plate 61.--The lateral lobes, b b, of the prostate are

irregularly enlarged, and the urinary passage is bent towards the right

side, c, from the membranous portion, which is central. Surmounting the

vesical orifice, c, is seen the tuberculated mass, a, which being

moveable, can be forced against the vesical orifice and thus produce

complete retention of urine. In this case, also, a flexible catheter

would be more suitable than a metallic one.

Plate 61.--Figure 8.

Fig. 9, Plate 61.--The lateral lobes, b b, of the prostate are enlarged.

The third lobe, a, projects at the neck of the bladder, distorting the

vesical outlet. A small calculus occupies the prostatic urethra, and

being closely impacted in this part of the canal, would arrest the

progress of a catheter, and probably lead to the supposition that the

instrument grated against a stone in the interior of the bladder, in

which case it would be inferred that since the urine did not flow

through the catheter no retention existed.

Plate 61.--Figure 9.

Plate 61.--Figure 10.

Fig. 10, Plate 61.--Both lateral lobes, b c, of the prostate appear much

increased in size. A large irregular shaped mass, a, grows from the base

of the right lobe, and distorts the prostatic canal and vesical orifice.

When the lobes of the prostate increase in size in this direction, the

prostatic canal becomes much more elongated than natural, and hence the

instrument which is to be passed for relieving the existing retention of

urine should have a wide and long curve to correspond with the form of

this part of the urethra. [Footnote]

[Footnote: Both lobes of the prostate are equally liable to chronic

enlargement. Home believed the left lobe to be oftener increased in size

than the right. Wilson (on the Male Urinary and Genital Organs) mentions

several instances of the enlargement of the right lobe. No reason can be

assigned why one lobe should be more prone to hypertrophy than the

other, even supposing it to be matter of fact, which it is not. But the

observations made by Cruveilhier (Anat. Pathol.), that the lobulated

projections of the prostate always take place internally at its vesical

aspect, is as true as the manner in which he accounts for the fact is

plausible. The dense fibrous envelope of the prostate is sufficient to

repress its irregular growth externally.]

Fig. 11, Plate 61.--Both lobes of the prostate are enlarged, and from

the base of each a mass projects prominently around the vesical orifice,

a b. The prostatic urethra has been moulded to the shape of the

instrument, which was retained in it for a considerable time.

Plate 61.--Figure 11.

Fig. 12, Plate 61.--The prostate, c b, is enlarged and dilated, like a

sac. Across the neck, a, of the bladder the prostate projects in an

arched form, and is transfixed by the instrument, d. The prostate may

assume this appearance, as well from instruments having been forced

against it, as from an abscess cavity formed in its substance having

received, from time to time, a certain amount of the urine, and retained

this fluid under the pressure of strong efforts, made to void the

bladder while the vesical orifice was closed above.

Plate 61.--Figure 12.

Fig. 13, Plate 61.--The lateral lobes, d e, of the prostate are

enlarged; and, occupying the position of the third lobe, appear as three

masses, a b c, plicated upon each other, and directed towards the

vesical orifice, which they close like valves. The prostatic urethra

branches upwards into three canals, formed by the relative position of

the parts, e, c, b, a, d, at the neck of the bladder. The ureters are

dilated, in consequence of the regurgitation of the contents of the

bladder during the retention which existed ..

Plate 61.--Figure 13.

Fig. 1, Plate 62, exhibits the lobes of the prostate greatly increased

in size. The part, a b, girds irregularly, and obstructs the vesical

outlet, while the lateral lobes, c d, encroach upon the space of the

prostatic canal. The walls of the bladder are much thickened.

Plate 62.--Figure 1.

Fig. 2, Plate 62.--The three lobes, a, d, c, of the prostate are

enlarged and of equal size, moulded against each other in such a way

that the prostatic canal and vesical orifice appear as mere clefts

between them. The three lobes are encrusted on their vesical surfaces

with a thick calcareous deposit. The surface of the third lobe, a, which

has been half denuded of the calcareous crust, b, in order to show its

real character, appeared at first to be a stone impacted in the neck of

the bladder, and of such a nature it certainly would seem to the touch,

on striking it with the point of a sound or other instrument.

Plate 62.--Figure 2.

Fig. 3, Plate 62, represents the prostate with its three lobes enlarged,

and the prostatic canal and vesical orifice narrowed. The walls of the

bladder are thickened, fasciculated, and sacculated; the two former

appearances being caused by a hypertrophy of the vesical fibres, while

the latter is in general owing to a protrusion of the mucous membrane

between the fasciculi.

Plate 62.--Figure 3.

Fig. 4, Plate 62.--The prostate presents four lobes, a, b, c, d, each

being of large size, and projecting far into the interior of the

bladder, from around the vesical orifice which they obstruct. The

bladder is thickened, and the prostatic canal is elongated. The urethra

and the lobes of the prostate have been perforated by instruments,

passed for the retention of urine which existed. A stricturing band, e,

is seen to cross the membranous part of the canal.

Plate 62.--Figure 4.

Fig. 5, Plate 62.--The prostate, a a, is greatly enlarged, and projects

high in the bladder, the walls of the latter, b b, being very much

thickened. The ureters, c, are dilated, and perforations made by

instruments are seen in the prostate. The prostatic canal being directed

almost vertically, and the neck of the bladder being raised nearly as

high as the upper border of the pubic symphysis, it must appear that if

a stone rest in the bas fond of the bladder, a sound or staff cannot

reach the stone, unless by perforating the prostate; and if, while the

staff occupies this position, lithotomy be performed, the incisions will

not be required to be made of a greater depth than if the prostate were

of its ordinary proportions. On the contrary, if the staff happen to

have surmounted the prostate, the incision, in order to divide the whole

vertical thickness of this body, will require to be made very deeply

from the perinaeal surface, and this circumstance occasions what is

termed a "deep perinaeum."

Plate 62.--Figure 5.

Fig. 6, Plate 62.--The lower half, c, b, f, of the prostate, having

become the seat of abscess, appears hollowed out in the form of a sac.

This sac is separated from the bladder by a horizontal septum, e e, the

proper base of the bladder, g g. The prostatic urethra, between a e, has

become vertical in respect to the membranous part of the canal, in

consequence of the upward pressure of the abscess. The sac opens into

the urethra, near the apex of the prostate, at the point c; and a

catheter passed along the urethra has entered the orifice of the sac,

the interior of which the instrument traverses, and the posterior wall

of which it perforates. The bladder contains a large calculus, i. The

bladder and sac do not communicate, but the urethra is a canal common to

both. In a case of this sort it becomes evident that, although symptoms

may strongly indicate either a retention of urine, or the presence of a

stone in the bladder, any instrument taking the position and direction

of d d, cannot relieve the one or detect the other; and such is the

direction in which the instrument must of necessity pass, while the sac

presents its orifice more in a line with the membranous part of the

urethra than the neck of the bladder is. The sac will intervene between

the rectum and the bladder; and on examination of the parts through the

bowel, an instrument in the sac will readily be mistaken for being in

the bladder, while neither a calculus in the bladder, nor this organ in

a state of even extreme distention, can be detected by the touch any

more than by the sound or catheter. If, while performing lithotomy in

such a state of the parts, the staff occupy the situation of d d d, then

the knife, following the staff, will open, not the bladder which

contains the stone, but the sac, which, moreover, if it happen to be

filled with urine regurgigated from the urethra, will render the

deception more complete.

Plate 62.--Figure 6.

Fig. 7, Plate 62.--The walls, a a, of the bladder, appear greatly

thickened, and the ureters, b, dilated. The sides, c c c, of the

prostate are thinned; and in the prostatic canal are two calculi, d d,

closely impacted. In such a state of the parts it would be impossible to

pass a catheter into the bladder for the relief of a retention of urine,

or to introduce a staff as a guide to the knife in lithotomy. If,

however, the staff can be passed as far as the situation of the stone,

the parts may be held with a sufficient degree of steadiness to enable

the operator to incise the prostate upon the stone.

Plate 62.--Figure 7.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 63 & 64

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 63 & 64.

DEFORMITIES OF THE URINARY BLADDER.--THE OPERATIONS OF SOUNDING FOR

STONE, OF CATHETERISM AND OF PUNCTURING THE BLADDER ABOVE THE PUBES.

The urinary bladder presents two kinds of deformity--viz., congenital

and pathological. As examples of the former may be mentioned that in

which the organ is deficient in front, and has become everted and

protruded like a fungous mass through an opening at the median line of

the hypogastrium; that in which the rectum terminates in the bladder

posteriorly; and that in which the foetal urachus remains pervious as a

uniform canal, or assumes a sacculated shape between the summit of the

bladder and the umbilicus. The pathological deformities are, those in

which vesical fistulae, opening either above the pubes, at the

perinaeum, or into the rectum, have followed abscesses or the operation

of puncturing the bladder in these situations, and those in which the

walls of the organ appear thickened and contracted, or thinned and

expanded, or sacculated externally, or ridged internally, in consequence

of its having been subjected to abdominal pressure while overdistended

with its contents, and while incapable of voiding these from some

permanent obstruction in the urethral canal.[Footnote] The bladder is

liable to become sacculated from two causes--from a hernial protrusion

of its mucous membrane through the separated fasciculi of its fibrous

coat, or from the cyst of an abscess which has formed a communication

with the bladder, and received the contents of this organ. Sacs, when

produced in the former way, may be of any number, or size, or in any

situation; when caused by an abscess, the sac is single, is generally

formed in the prostate, or corresponds to the base of the bladder, and

may attain to a size equalling, or even exceeding, that of the bladder

itself. The sac, however formed, will be found lined by mucous membrane.

The cyst of an abscess, when become a recipient for the urine, assumes

after a time a lining membrane similar to that of the bladder. If the

sac be situated at the summit or back of the bladder, it will be found

invested by peritonaeum; but, whatever be its size, structure, or

position, it may be always distinguished from the bladder by being

devoid of the fibrous tunic, and by having but an indirect relation to

the vesical orifice.

[Footnote: On considering these cases of physical impediments to the

passage of urine from the vesical reservoir through the urethral

conduit, it seems to me as if these were sufficient to account for the

formation of stone in the bladder, or any other part of the urinary

apparatus, without the necessity of ascribing it to a constitutional

disease, such as that named the lithic diathesis by the humoral

pathologists.

The urinary apparatus (consisting of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and

urethra) is known to be the principal emunctory for eliminating and

voiding the detritus formed by the continual decay of the parts

comprising the animal economy. The urine is this detritus in a state of

solution. The components of urine are chemically similar to those of

calculi, and as the components of the one vary according to the

disintegration occurring at the time in the vital alembic, so do those

of the other. While, therefore, a calculus is only as urine precipitated

and solidified, and this fluid only as calculous matter suspended in a

menstruum, it must appear that the lithic diathesis is as natural and

universal as structural disintegration is constant and general in

operation. As every individual, therefore, may be said to void day by

day a dissolved calculus, it must follow that its form of precipitation

within some part of the urinary apparatus alone constitutes the disease,

since in this form it cannot be passed. On viewing the subject in this

light, the question that springs directly is, (while the lithic

diathesis is common to individuals of all ages and both sexes,) why the

lithic sediment should present in the form of concrement in some and not

in others? The principal, if not the sole, cause of this seems to me to

be obstruction to the free egress of the urine along the natural

passage. Aged individuals of the male sex, in whom the prostate is prone

to enlargement, and the urethra to organic stricture, are hence more

subject to the formation of stone in the bladder, than youths, in whom

these causes of obstruction are less frequent, or than females of any

age, in whom the prostate is absent, and the urethra simple, short,

readily dilatable, and seldom or never strictured. When an obstruction

exists, lithic concretions take place in the urinary apparatus in the

same manner as sedimentary particles cohere or crystallize elsewhere.

The urine becoming pent up and stagnant while charged with saline

matter, either deposits this around a nucleus introduced into it, or as

a surplus when the menstruum is insufficient to suspend it. The most

depending part of the bladder is that where lithic concretions take

place; and if a sacculus exist here, this, becoming a recipient for the

matter, will favour the formation of stone.] [End Footnote]

FIG. 1, Plate 63.--The lateral lobes of the prostate, 3, 4, are

enlarged, and contract the prostatic canal. Behind them the third lobe

of smaller size occupies the vesical orifice, and completes the

obstruction. The walls of the bladder have hence become fasciculated and

sacculated. One sac, 1, projects from the summit of the bladder;

another, 2, containing a stone, projects laterally. When a stone

occupies a sac, it does not give rise to the usual symptoms as

indicating its presence, nor can it be always detected by the sound.

Plate 63,--Figure 1.

FIG. 2, Plate 63.--The prostate, 2, 3, is enlarged, and the middle lobe,

2, appears bending the prostatic canal to an almost vertical position,

and obstructing the vesical orifice. The bladder, 1, 1, 1, is thickened;

the ureters, 7, are dilated; and a large sac, 6, 6, projects from the

base of the bladder backwards, and occupies the recto-vesical fossa. The

sac, equal in size to the bladder, communicates with this organ by a

small circular opening, 8, situated between the orifices of the ureters.

The peritonaeum is reflected from the summit of the bladder to that of

the sac. A catheter, 4, appears perforating the third lobe of the

prostate, 2, and entering the sac, 5, through the base of the bladder,

below the opening, 8. In a case of this kind, a catheter occupying the

position 4, 5, would, while voiding the bladder through the sac, make it

seem as if it really traversed the vesical orifice. If a stone occupied

the bladder, the point of the instrument in the sac could not detect it,

whereas, if a stone lay within the sac, the instrument, on striking it

here, would give the impression as if it lay within the bladder.

Plate 63,--Figure 2.

FIG. 3, Plate 63.--The urethra being strictured, the bladder has become

sacculated. In the bas fond of the bladder appears a circular opening,

2, leading to a sac of large dimensions, which rested against the

rectum. In such a case as this, the sac, occupying a lower position than

the base of the bladder, must first become the recipient of the urine,

and retain this fluid even after the bladder has been evacuated, either

voluntarily or by means of instruments. If, in such a state of the

parts, retention of urine called for puncturation, it is evident that

this operation would be performed with greater effect by opening the

depending sac through the bowel, than by entering the summit of the

bladder above the pubes.

Plate 63,--Figure 3.

FIG. 4, Plate 63.--The vesical orifice is obstructed by two portions, 3,

4, of the prostate, projecting upwards, one from each of its lateral

lobes, 6, 6. The bladder is thickened and fasciculated, and from its

summit projects a double sac, 1, 2, which is invested by the

peritonaeum.

Plate 63,--Figure 4.

FIG. 5, Plate 63.--The prostatic canal is constricted and bent upwards

by the third lobe. The bladder is thickened, and its base is dilated in

the form of a sac, which is dependent, and upon which rests a calculus.

An instrument enters the bladder by perforating the third lobe, but does

not come into contact with the calculus, owing to the low position

occupied by this body.

Plate 63,--Figure 5.

FIG. 6, Plate 63.--Two sacs appear projecting on either side of the base

of the bladder. The right one, 5, contains a calculus, 6; the left one,

of larger dimensions, is empty. The rectum lay in contact with the base

of the bladder between the two sacs.

Plate 63,--Figure 6.

FIG. 7, Plate 63.--Four calculi are contained in the bladder. This organ

is divided by two septa, 2, 4, into three compartments, each of which,

1, 3, 5, gives lodgment to a calculus; and another, 6, of these bodies

lies impacted in the prostatic canal, and becomes a complete bar to the

passage of a catheter. Supposing lithotomy to be performed in an

instance of this kind, it is probable that, after the extraction of the

calculi, 6, 5, the two upper ones, 3, 1, would, owing to their being

embedded in the walls of the bladder, escape the forceps.

Plate 63,--Figure 7.

FIG. 8, Plate 63.-Two large polypi, and many smaller ones, appear

growing from the mucous membrane of the prostatic urethra and vesical

orifice, and obstructing these parts. In examining this case during life

by the sound, the two larger growths, 1, 2, were mistaken by the surgeon

for calculi. Such a mistake might well be excused if they happened to be

encrusted with lithic matter.

Plate 63,--Figure 8.

FIG. 9, Plate 63.--The base of the bladder, 8, 8, appears dilated into a

large uniform sac, and separated from the upper part of the organ by a

circular horizontal fold, 2, 2. The ureters are also dilated. The left

ureter, 3, 4, opens into the sac below this fold, while the right ureter

opens above it into the bladder. In all cases of retention of urine from

permanent obstruction of the urethra, the ureters are generally found

more or less dilated. Two circumstances combine to this effect--while

the renal secretion continues to pass into the ureters from above, the

contents of the bladder under abdominal pressure are forced

regurgitating into them from below, through their orifices.

Plate 63,--Figure 9.

FIG. 1, Plate 64.--The bladder, 6, appears symmetrically sacculated. One

sac, 1, is formed at its summit, others, 3, 2, project laterally, and

two more, 5, 4, from its base. The ureters, 7, 7, are dilated, and enter

the bladder between the lateral and inferior sacs.

Plate 64,--Figure 1.

Fig. 2, Plate 64.--The prostate is greatly enlarged, and forms a narrow

ring around the vesical orifice. Through this an instrument, 12, enters

the bladder. The walls of the bladder are thickened and sacculated. On

its left side appear numerous sacs, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and on the

inner surface of its right side appear the orifices of as many more. On

its summit another sac is formed. The ureters, 9, are dilated.

Plate 64,--Figure 2.

FIG. 3, Plate 64.--The prostate is enlarged, its canal is narrowed, and

the bladder is thickened and contracted. A calculus, 1, 2, appears

occupying nearly the whole vesical interior. The incision in the neck of

the bladder in lithotomy must necessarily be extensive, to admit of the

extraction of a stone of this size.

Plate 64,--Figure 3.

FIG. 4, Plate 64.--The prostatic canal is contracted by the lateral

lobes, 4, 5; resting upon these, appear three calculi, 1, 2, 3, which

nearly fill the bladder. This organ is thickened and fasciculated. In

cases of this kind, and that last mentioned, the presence of stone is

readily ascertainable by the sound.

Plate 64,--Figure 4.

FIG. 5, Plate 64.--The three prostatic lobes are enlarged, and appear

contracting the vesical orifice. In the walls of the bladder are

embedded several small calculi, 2, 2, 2, 2, which, on being struck with

the convex side of a sound, might give the impression as though a single

stone of large size existed. In performing lithotomy, these calculi

would not be within reach of the forceps.

Plate 64,--Figure 5.

FIG. 6, Plate 64.--Two sacculi, 4, 5, appear projecting at the middle

line of the base of the bladder, between the vasa deferentia, 7, 7, and

behind the prostate, in the situation where the operation of puncturing

the bladder per anum is recommended to be performed in retention of

urine.

Plate 64,--Figure 6.

FIG. 7, Plate 64.--A sac, 4, is situated on the left side of the

bladder, 3, 3, immediately above the orifice of the ureter. In the sac

was contained a mass of phosphatic calculus. This substance is said to

be secreted by the mucous lining of the bladder, while in a state of

chronic inflammation, but there seems nevertheless very good reason for

us to believe that it is, like all other calculous matter, a deposit

from the urine.

Plate 64,--Figure 7.

FIG. 8, Plate 64, represents, in section, the relative position of the

parts concerned in catheterism. [Footnote] In performing this operation,

the patient is to be laid supine; his loins are to be supported on a

pillow; and his thighs are to be flexed and drawn apart from each other.

By this means the perinaeum is brought fully into view, and its

structures are made to assume a fixed relative position. The operator,

standing on the patient's left side, is now to raise the penis so as to

render the urethra, 8, 8, 8, as straight as possible between the meatus,

a, and the bulb, 7. The instrument (the concavity of its curve being

turned to the left groin) is now to be inserted into the meatus, and

while being gently impelled through the canal, the urethra is to be

drawn forwards, by the left hand, over the instrument. By stretching the

urethra, we render its sides sufficiently tense for facilitating the

passage of the instrument, and the orifices of the lacunae become

closed. While the instrument is being passed along this part of the

canal, its point should be directed fairly towards the urethral opening,

6*, of the triangular ligament, which is situated an inch or so below

the pubic symphysis, 11. With this object in view, we should avoid

depressing its handle as yet, lest its point be prematurely tilted up,

and rupture the upper side of the urethra anterior to the ligament. As

soon as the instrument has arrived at the bulb, its further progress is

liable to be arrested, from these causes:--1st, This portion of the

canal is the lowest part of its perinaeal curve, 3, 6, 8, and is closely

embraced by the middle fibres of the accelerator urinae muscle. 2nd, It

is immediately succeeded by the commencement of the membranous urethra,

which, while being naturally narrower than other parts, is also the more

usual seat of organic stricture, and is subject to spasmodic

constriction by the fibres of the compressor urethrae. 3d, The

triangular ligament is behind it, and if the urethral opening of the

ligament be not directly entered by the instrument, this will bend the

urethra against the front of that dense structure. On ascertaining these

to be the causes of resistance, the instrument is to be withdrawn a

little in the canal, so as to admit of its being readjusted for engaging

precisely the opening in the triangular ligament. As this structure, 6,

is attached to the membranous urethra, 6*, which perforates it, both

these parts may be rendered tense, by drawing the penis forwards, and

thereby the instrument may be guided towards and through the aperture.

The instrument having passed the ligament, regard is now to be paid to

the direction of the pelvic portion of the canal, which is upwards and

backwards to the vesical orifice, 3, d, 3. In order that the point of

the instrument may freely traverse the urethra in this direction, its

handle, a, requires to be depressed, b c, slowly towards the perinaeum,

and at the same time to be impelled steadily back in the line d, d,

through the pubic arch, 11. If the third lobe of the prostate happen to

be enlarged, the vesical orifice will accordingly be more elevated than

usual. In this case, it becomes necessary to depress the instrument to a

greater extent than is otherwise required, so that its point may

surmount the obstacle. But since the suspensory ligament of the penis,

10, and the perinaeal structures prevent the handle being depressed

beyond a certain degree, which is insufficient for the object to be

attained, the instrument should possess the prostatic curve, c c,

compared with c b.

[Footnote: It may be necessary for me to state that, with the exception

of this figure (which is obviously a plan, but sufficiently accurate for

the purposes it is intended to serve) all the others representing

pathological conditions and congenital deformities of the urethra, the

prostate, and the bladder, have been made by myself from natural

specimens in the museums and hospitals of London and Paris.]

Plate 64,--Figure 8.

In the event of its being impossible to pass a catheter by the urethra,

in cases of retention of urine threatening rupture, the base or the

summit of the bladder, according as either part may be reached with the

greater safety to the peritonaeal sac, will require to be punctured. If

the prostate be greatly and irregularly enlarged, it will be safer to

puncture the bladder above the pubes, and here the position of the organ

in regard to the peritonaeum, 1, becomes the chief consideration. The

shape of the bladder varies very considerably from its state of

collapse, 3, 3, 5, to those of mediate, 3, 3, 2, 1, and extreme

distention, 3, 3, 4. This change of form is chiefly effected by the

expansive elevation of its upper half, which is invested by the

peritonaeum. As the summit of the bladder falls below, and rises above

the level of the upper margin of the pubic symphysis, it carries the

peritonaeum with it in either direction. While the bladder is fully

expanded, 4, there occurs an interval between the margin of the

symphysis pubis and the point of reflexion of the peritonaeum, from the

recti muscles, to the summit of the viscus. At this interval, close to

the pubes, and in the median line, the trocar may be safely passed

through the front wall of the bladder. The instrument should, in all

cases, be directed downwards and backwards, h, h, in a line pointing to

the hollow of the sacrum.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 65 & 66

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 65 & 66.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE POPLITEAL SPACE

AND THE POSTERIOR CRURAL REGION.

On comparing the bend of the knee with the bend of the elbow, as evident

a correspondence can be discerned between these two regions, as exists

between the groin and the axilla.

Behind the knee-joint, the muscles which connect the leg with the thigh

enclose the space named popliteal. When the integuments and subcutaneous

substance are removed from this place, the dense fascia lata may be seen

binding these muscles so closely together as to leave but a very narrow

interval between them at the mesial line. On removing this fascia, B B M

M, Plate 65, the muscles part asunder, and the popliteal space as

usually described is thereby formed. This region now presents of a

lozenge-shaped form, B J D K, of which the widest diameter, D J, is

opposite the knee-joint. The flexor muscles, C D J, in diverging from

each other as they pass down from the sides of the thigh to those of the

upper part of the leg, form the upper angle of this space; whilst its

lower angle is described by the two heads of the gastrocnemius muscle, E

E, arising inside the flexors, from the condyles of the femur. The

popliteal space is filled with adipose substance, in which are embedded

several lymphatic bodies and through which pass the principal vessels

and nerves to the leg.

In the dissection of the popliteal space, the more important parts first

met with are the branches of the great sciatic nerve. In the upper angle

of the space, this nerve will be found dividing into the peronaeal, I,

and posterior tibial branches, H K. The peronaeal nerve descends close

to the inner margin of the tendon, J, of the biceps muscle; and, having

reached the outer side of the knee, I*, Plate 66, below the insertion of

the tendon into the head of the fibula, winds round the neck of this

bone under cover of the peronaeus longus muscle, S, to join the anterior

tibial artery. The posterior tibial nerve, H K, Plate 65, descends the

popliteal space midway to the cleft between the heads of the

gastrocnemius; and, after passing beneath this muscle, to gain the inner

side of the vessels, H*, Plate 66, it then accompanies the posterior

tibial artery. On the same plane with and close to the posterior tibial

nerve in the popliteal space, will be seen the terminal branch of the

lesser sciatic nerve, together with a small artery and vein destined for

distribution to the skin and other superficial parts on the back of the

knee. Opposite the heads of the gastrocnemius, the peronaeal and

posterior tibial nerves give off each a branch, both of which descend

along the mesial line of the calf, and joining near the upper end of the

tendo Achillis, the single nerve here, N, Plate 65, becomes superficial

to the fascia, and thence descends behind the outer ankle to gain the

external border of the foot, where it divides into cutaneous branches

and others to be distributed to the three or four outer toes. In company

with this nerve will be seen the posterior saphena vein, L, which,

commencing behind the outer ankle, ascends the mesial line of the calf

to join the popliteal vein, G, in the cleft between the heads of the

gastrocnemius.

On removing next the adipose substance and lymphatic glands, we expose

the popliteal vein and artery. The relative position of these vessels

and the posterior tibial nerve, may now be seen. Between the heads of

the gastrocnemius, the nerve, H, giving off large branches to this

muscle, lies upon the popliteal vein, G, where this is joined by the

posterior saphena vein. Beneath the veins lies the popliteal artery, F.

On tracing the vessels and nerve from this point upwards through the

popliteal space, we find the nerve occupying a comparatively superficial

position at the mesial line, while the vessels are directed upwards,

forwards, and inwards, passing deeply, as they become covered by the

inner flexor muscles, C D, to the place where they perforate the tendon

of the adductor magnus on the inner side of the lower third of the

femur.

The popliteal artery, F, Plate 66, being the continuation of the

femoral, extends from the opening in the great adductor tendon at the

junction of the middle and lower third of the thigh, to the point where

it divides, in the upper, and back part of the leg, at the lower border

of the popliteus muscle, L, into the anterior and posterior tibial

branches. In order to expose the vessel through this extent, we have to

divide and reflect the heads of the gastrocnemius muscle, E E, and to

retract the inner flexors. The popliteal artery will now be seen lying

obliquely over the middle of the back of the joint. It is deeply placed

in its whole course. Its upper and lower thirds are covered by large

muscles; whilst the fascia and a quantity of adipose tissue overlies its

middle. The upper part of the artery rests upon the femur, its middle

part upon the posterior ligament of the joint, and its lower part upon

the popliteus muscle. The popliteal vein, G; adheres to the artery in

its whole course, being situated on its outer side above, and posterior

to it below. The vein is not unfrequently found to be double; one vein

lying to either side of the artery, and both having branches of

communication with each other, which cross behind the artery. In some

instances the posterior saphena vein, instead of joining the popliteal

vein, ascends superficially to terminate in some of the large veins of

the thigh. Numerous lymphatic vessels accompany the superficial and deep

veins into the popliteal space, where they join the lymphatic bodies,

which here lie in the course of the artery.

The branches derived from the popliteal artery are the muscular and the

articular. The former spring from the vessel opposite those parts of the

several muscles which lie in contact with it; the latter are generally

five in number--two superior, two inferior, and one median. The two

superior articular branches arise from either side of the artery, and

pass, the one beneath the outer, the other beneath the inner flexors,

above the knee-joint; and the two inferior pass off from it, the one

internally, the other externally, beneath the heads of the gastrocnemius

below the joint; while the middle articular enters the joint through the

posterior ligament. The two superior and inferior articular branches

anastomose freely around the knee behind, laterally, and in front, where

they are joined by the terminal branches of the anastomotic, from the

femoral, and by those of the recurrent, from the anterior tibial. The

main vessel, having arrived at the lower border of the popliteus muscle,

divides into two branches, of which one passes through the interosseous

ligament to become the anterior tibial; while the other, after

descending a short way between the bones of the leg, separates into the

peronaeal and posterior tibial arteries. In some rare instances the

popliteal artery is found to divide above the popliteus muscle into the

anterior, or the posterior tibial, or the peronaeal.

The two large muscles, (gastrocnemius and soleus,) forming the calf of

the leg, have to be removed together with the deep fascia in order to

expose the posterior tibial, and peronaeal vessels and nerves. The

fascia forms a sheath for the vessels, and binds them close to the deep

layer of muscles in their whole course down the back of the leg. The

point at which the main artery, F, Plate 66, gives off the anterior

tibial, is at the lower border of the popliteus muscle, on a level with

N, the neck of the fibula; that at which the artery again subdivides

into the peronaeal, P, and posterior tibial branches, O, is in the

mesial line of the leg, and generally on a level with the junction of

its upper and middle thirds. From this place the two arteries diverge in

their descent; the peronaeal being directed along the inner border of

the fibula towards the back of the outer ankle; while the posterior

tibial, approaching the inner side of the tibia, courses towards the

back of the inner ankle. The gastrocnemius and soleus muscles overlie

both arteries in their upper two thirds; but as these muscles taper

towards the mesial line where they end in the tendo Achillis, V V, Plate

65, they leave the posterior tibial artery, O, with its accompanying

nerve and vein, uncovered in the lower part of the leg, except by the

skin and the superficial and deep layers of fasciae. The peronaeal

artery is deeply situated in its whole course. Soon after its origin, it

passes under cover of the flexor longus pollicis, R, a muscle of large

size arising from the lower three fourths of the fibula, N, and will be

found overlapped by this muscle on the outer border of the tendo

Achillis, as low down as the outer ankle. The two arteries are

accompanied by venae comites, which, with the short saphena vein, form

the popliteal vein. The posterior tibial artery is closely followed by

the posterior tibial nerve. In the popliteal space, this nerve crosses

to the inner side of the posterior tibial artery, where both are about

to pass under the gastrocnemius muscle, to which they give large

branches. Near the middle of the leg, the nerve recrosses the artery to

its outer side and in this relative position both descend to a point

about midway between the inner ankle and calcaneum, where they appear

having the tendons of the tibialis posticus and flexor longus digitorum

to their inner side and the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis on

their outer side. Numerous branches are given off from the nerve and

artery to the neighbouring parts in their course.

The varieties of the posterior crural arteries are these--the tibial

vessel, in some instances, is larger than usual, while the peronaeal is

small, or absent; and, in others, the peronaeal supplies the place of

the posterior tibial, when the latter is diminished in size. The

peronaeal has been known to take the position of the posterior tibial in

the lower part of the leg, and to supply the plantar arteries. In

whatever condition the two vessels may be found, there will always be

seen ramifying around the ankle-joint, articular branches, which

anastomose freely with each other and with those of the anterior tibial.

The popliteal artery is unfavourably circumstanced for the application

of a ligature. It is very deeply situated, and the vein adheres closely

to its posterior surface. Numerous branches (articular and muscular)

arise from it at short intervals; and these, besides being a source of

disturbance to a ligature, are liable to be injured in the operation, in

which case the collateral circulation cannot be maintained after the

main vessel is tied. There is a danger, too, of injuring the middle

branch of the sciatic nerve, in the incisions required to reach the

artery; and, lastly, there is a possibility of this vessel dividing

higher up than usual. Considering these facts in reference to those

cases in which it might be supposed necessary to tie the popliteal

artery--such cases, for example, as aneurism of either of the crural

arteries, or secondary haemorrhages occurring after amputations of the

leg at a time when the healing process was far advanced and the bleeding

vessels inaccessible,--it becomes a question whether it would not be

preferable to tie the femoral, rather than the popliteal artery. But

when the popliteal artery itself becomes affected with aneurism, and

when, in addition to the anatomical circumstances which forbid the

application of a ligature to this vessel, we consider those which are

pathological,--such as the coats of the artery being here diseased, the

relative position of the neighbouring parts being disturbed by the

tumour, and the large irregular wound which would be required to isolate

the disease, at the risk of danger to the health from profuse

suppuration, to the limb from destruction of the collateral branches, or

to the joint from cicatrization, rendering it permanently bent,--we must

acknowledge at once the necessity for tying the femoral part of the main

vessel.

When the popliteal artery happens to be divided in a wound, it will be

required to expose its bleeding orifices, and tie both these in the

wound. For this purpose, the following operation usually recommended for

reaching the vessel may be necessary. The skin and fascia lata are to be

incised in a direction corresponding to that of the vessel. The extent

of the incision must be considerable, (about three inches,) so as the

more conveniently to expose the artery in its deep situation. On laying

bare the outer margin of the semi-membranosus muscle, while the knee is

straight, it now becomes necessary to flex the joint, in order that this

muscle may admit of being pressed inwards from over the vessel. The

external margin of the wound, including the middle branch of the sciatic

nerve, should be retracted outwards, so as to ensure the safety of that

nerve, while room is gained for making the deeper incisions. The adipose

substance, which is here generally abundant, should now be divided,

between the mesial line and the semimembranosus, till the sheath of

the vessels be exposed. The sheath should be incised at its inner side,

to avoid wounding the popliteal vein. The pulsation of the artery will

now indicate its exact position. As the vein adheres firmly to the coats

of the artery, some care is required to separate the two vessels, so as

to pass the ligature around each end of the artery from without inwards,

while excluding the vein. While this operation is being performed in a

case of wound of the popliteal artery, the haemorrhage may be arrested

by compressing the femoral vessel, either against the femur or the os

pubis.

In the operation for tying the posterior tibial artery near its middle,

an incision of three or four inches in extent is to be made through the

skin and fascia, in a line corresponding with the inner posterior margin

of the tibia and the great muscles of the calf. The long saphena vein

should be here avoided. The origins of the gastrocnemius and soleus

muscles require to be detached from the tibia, and then the knee is to

be flexed and the foot extended, so as to allow these muscles to be

retracted from the plane of the vessels. This being done, the deep

fascia which covers the artery and its accompanying nerve is next to be

divided. The artery will now appear pulsating at a situation an inch

from the edge of the tibia. While the ligature is being passed around

the artery, due care should be taken to exclude the venae comites and

the nerve.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 65 & 66.

PLATE 65.

A. Tendon of the gracilis muscle.

B B. The fascia lata.

C C. Tendon of the semimembranosus muscle.

D. Tendon of the semitendinosus muscle.

E E. The two heads of the gastrocnemius muscle.

F. The popliteal artery.

G. The popliteal vein joined by the short saphena vein.

H. The middle branch of the sciatic nerve.

I. The outer (peronaeal) branch of the sciatic nerve.

K. The posterior tibial nerve continued from the middle branch of the

sciatic, and extending to K, behind the inner ankle.

L. The posterior (short) saphena vein.

M M. The fascia covering the gastrocnemius muscle.

N. The short (posterior) saphena nerve, formed by the union of branches

from the peronaeal and posterior tibial nerves.

O. The posterior tibial artery appearing from beneath the soleus muscle

in the lower part of the leg.

P. The soleus muscle joining the tendo Achillis.

Q. The tendon of the flexor longus communis digitorum muscle.

R. The tendon of the flexor longus pollicis muscle.

S. The tendon of the peronaeus longus muscle.

T. The peronaeus brevis muscle.

U U. The internal annular ligament binding down the vessels, nerves, and

tendons in the hollow behind the inner ankle.

V V. The tendo Achillis.

W. The tendon of the tibialis posticus muscle.

X. The venae comites of the posterior tibial artery.

PLATE 66.

A C D E F G H I indicate the same parts as in Plate 65.

B. The inner condyle of the femur.

K. The plantaris muscle lying upon the popliteal artery.

L. The popliteus muscle.

M M M. The tibia.

N N. The fibula.

O O. The posterior tibial artery.

P. The peronaeal artery.

Q R S T U V W. The parts shown in Plate 65.

X. The astragalus.

Plates 65, 66

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 67 & 68

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 67 & 68.

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE ANTERIOR CRURAL REGION,

THE ANKLES, AND THE FOOT.

Beneath the integuments and subcutaneous adipose tissue on the fore part

of the leg and foot, the fascia H H, Plate 67, Figure 2, is to be seen

stretched over the muscles and sending processes between them, thus

encasing each of these in a special sheath.

The fascia is here of considerable density. It is attached on the inner

side of the leg to the spine of the tibia, D, Plate 67, Figure 2, and on

the outer side it passes over the peronaeal muscles to those forming the

calf. Between the extensor communis digitorum, B b, and the peronaeus

longus, F, it sends in a strong process to be attached to the fibula, E.

In front of the ankle joint, the fascia is increased in density,

constituting a band (anterior annular ligament) which extends between

the malleoli, forms sheaths for the several extensor tendons, and binds

these down in front of the joint. From the lower border of the annular

ligament, the fascia is continued over the dorsum of the foot, forming

sheaths for the tendons and muscles of this part. Behind the inner

malleolus, d, Plate 67, Figure 1, the fascia attached to this process

and to the inner side of the os calcis appears as the internal annular

ligament, which being broad and strong, forms a kind of arch, beneath

which in special sheaths the flexor tendons, and the posterior tibial

vessel and nerve, pass to the sole of the foot. On tracing the fascia

from the front to the back of the leg, it will be seen to divide into

two layers--superficial and deep; the former passes over the muscles of

the calf and their common tendon (tendo Achillis) to which it adheres,

while the latter passes between these muscles and the deep flexors. The

deep layer is that which immediately overlies the posterior tibial and

peronaeal vessels and nerves. While exposing the fascia on the forepart

of the leg and dorsum of the foot, we meet with the musculo-cutaneous

branch of the peronaeal nerve, which pierces the fascia at about the

middle of the limb, and descends superficially in a direction between

the fibula, and the extensor longus digitorum muscle, and after dividing

into branches a little above the outer ankle, these traverse in two

groups the dorsum of the foot, to be distributed to the integuments of

the five toes. On the inner side of the tibia, D, Plate 67, Figure 1,

will be seen the internal or long saphena vein, B B, which commencing by

numerous branches on the dorsal surface of the foot ascends in front of

the inner ankle, d, to gain the inner side of the leg, after which it

ascends behind the inner side of the knee and thigh, till it terminates

at the saphenous opening, where it joins the femoral vein. In its course

along the lower part of the thigh, the leg and the foot, this vein is

closely accompanied by the long saphenous nerve, derived from the

anterior crural, and also by a group of lymphatics.

By removing the fascia from the front of the leg and foot, we expose the

several muscles and tendons which are situated in these parts. In the

upper part of the leg the tibialis anticus, A, Plate 67, Figure 2, and

extensor-communis muscle, B, are adherent to the fascia which covers

them, and to the intermuscular septum which divides them. In the lower

part of the leg where these muscles and the extensor pollicis, C,

terminate in tendons, a b c, they are readily separable from one

another. The tibialis anticus lies along the outer side of the tibia,

from which, and from the head of the fibula and interosseous ligament,

it arises tendinous and fleshy. This muscle is superficial in its whole

length; its tendon commencing about the middle of the leg, passes in a

separate loose sheath of the annular ligament in front of the inner

ankle, to be inserted into the inner side of the cuneiform bone and base

of the metatarsal bone of the great toe. The extensor communis digitorum

lies close to the outer side of the anterior tibial muscle, and arises

from the upper three-fourths of the fibula, from the interosseous

ligament and intermuscular septum. At the lower part of the leg, this

muscle ends in three or four flat tendons, which pass through a ring of

the annular ligament, and extending forwards, b b b b, over the dorsum

of the foot, become inserted into the four outer toes. The peronaeus

tertius or anterior, is that part of the common extensor muscle which is

inserted into the base of the fifth metatarsal bone. On separating the

anterior tibial and common extensor muscles, we find the extensor

pollicis, C c, which, concealed between the two, arises from the middle

of the fibula, and the interosseous ligament; its tendon passes beneath

the annular ligament in front of the ankle joint, and after traversing

the inner part of the dorsum of the foot, becomes inserted into the

three phalanges of the great toe. Beneath the tendons of the extensor

communis on the instep, will be seen the extensor digitorum brevis, K K,

lying in an oblique direction, between the upper and outer part of the

os calcis, from which it arises, and the four inner toes, into each of

which it is inserted by a small flat tendon, which joins the

corresponding tendon of the long common extensor.

The anterior tibial artery, L, Plate 67, Figure 2, extends from the

upper part of the interosseous ligament which it perforates, to the bend

of the ankle, whence it is continued over the dorsum of the foot. In the

upper third of the leg, the anterior tibial artery lies deeply situated

between the tibialis anticus, and flexor communis muscles. Here it will

be found, close in front of the interosseous ligament, at about an inch

and-a-half in depth from the anterior surface, and removed from the

spine of the tibia at an interval equal to the width of the tibialis

anticus muscle. In its course down the leg, the vessel passes obliquely

from a point close to the inner side of the neck of the fibula, to

midway between the ankles. In its descent, it becomes gradually more

superficial. In the middle of the leg, the vessel passes between the

extensor longus pollicis, and the tibialis anticus muscles. Above,

beneath, and below the annular ligament, this artery will be found to

pass midway between the extensor pollicis tendon, and those of the

extensor communis, and to hold the same relation to these parts in

traversing the dorsum of the foot, till it gains the interval between

the two inner metatarsal bones, where it divides into two branches, one

of which passes forwards in the first interdigital space, while the

other sinks between the bones, to inosculate with the plantar arteries.

The innermost tendon of the short common extensor crosses in front of

the dorsal artery of the foot near its termination. Between the ankle

and the first interosseous space the artery lies comparatively

superficial, being here covered only by the skin and fascia and cellular

membrane. Two veins accompany the anterior tibial artery and its

continuation on the dorsum of the foot. The anterior tibial nerve, a

branch of the peronaeal, joins the outer side of the artery, about the

middle of the leg, and accompanies it closely in this position, till

both have passed beneath the annular ligament. On the dorsum of the foot

the nerve will be found to the inner side of the artery.

The branches of the anterior tibial artery are articular and muscular.

From its upper end arises the recurrent branch which anastomoses in

front of the knee with the articular branches of the popliteal artery.

Near the ankle, arise on either side of the vessel two malleolar

branches, internal and external, the former communicating with branches

of the posterior tibial, the latter with those of the peronaeal.

Numerous muscular branches arise, at short intervals, from the vessel in

its passage down the leg. Tarsal, metatarsal, and small digital branches

spring from the dorsal artery of the foot. The anterior tibial artery is

rarely found to deviate from its usual course; in some cases it appears

of less or of greater size than usual. When this vessel appears

deficient, its place is usually supplied by some branch of the peronaeal

or posterior tibial, which pierces the interosseous ligament from

behind.

The anterior tibial artery when requiring a ligature to be applied to it

in any part of its course, may be exposed by an incision, extending for

three or four inches, (more or less, according to the depth of the

vessel) along the outer border of the tibialis anticus muscle. The

fibrous septum between this muscle and the extensor communis, will serve

as a guide to the vessel in the upper third of the leg, where it lies

deeply on the interosseous ligament. In the middle of the leg, the

vessel is to be sought for between the anterior tibial and extensor

longus pollicis muscles. In the lower part of the leg, and on the dorsum

of the foot, it will be found between the extensor longus pollicis, and

extensor communis tendons, the former being taken as a guide for the

incision. In passing the ligature around this vessel at either of these

situations, care is required to avoid including the venae comites and

the accompanying nerve.

The sole of the foot is covered by a hard and thick integument, beneath

which will be seen a large quantity of granulated adipose tissue so

intersected by bands of fibrous structure as to form a firm, but elastic

cushion, in the situations particularly of the heel and joints of the

toes. On removing this structure, we expose the plantar fascia, B, Plate

68, Figure 1, extending from the os calcis, A, to the toes. This fascia

is remarkably strong, especially its middle and outer parts, which serve

to retain the arched form of the foot, and thereby to protect the

plantar structures from superincumbent pressure during the erect

posture. The superficial plantar muscles become exposed on removing the

plantar fascia, to which they adhere. In the centre will be seen the

thick fleshy flexor digitorum brevis muscle, B, arising from the

inferior part of the os calcis, and passing forwards to divide into four

small tendons, b b b b, for the four outer toes. On the inner side of

the foot appears the abductor pollicis, D, arising from the inner side

of the os calcis and internal annular ligament, and passing to be

inserted with the flexor pollicis brevis, H, into the sesamoid bones and

base of the first phalanx of the great toe. On the external border of

the foot is situated the abductor minimi digiti, C, arising from the

outer side of the os calcis, and passing to be inserted with the flexor

brevis minimi digiti into the base of the first phalanx of the little

toe. When the flexor brevis digitorum muscle is removed, the plantar

arteries, L M, and nerves, are brought partially into view; and by

further dividing the abductor pollicis, D, their continuity with the

posterior tibial artery and nerves, K L, Plate 67, Figure 1, behind the

inner ankle may be seen.

The plantar branches of the posterior tibial artery are the internal and

external, both of which are deeply placed between the superficial and

deep plantar muscles. The internal plantar artery is much the smaller of

the two. The external plantar artery, L, Plate 68, Figure 1, is large,

and seems to be the proper continuation of the posterior tibial. It

corresponds, in the foot, to the deep palmar arch in the hand. Placed at

first between the origin of the abductor pollicis and the calcaneum, the

external plantar artery passes outwards between the short common flexor,

B, and the flexor accessorius, E, to gain the inner borders of the

muscles of the little toe; from this place it curves deeply inwards

between the tendons of the long common flexor of the toes, F f f, and

the tarso-metatarsal joints, to gain the outer side of the first

metatarsal bone, H, Plate 68, Figure 2. In this course it is covered in

its posterior half by the flexor brevis digitorum, and in its anterior

half by this muscle, together with the tendons of the long flexor, F,

Plate 68, Figure 1, of the toes and the lumbricales muscles, i i i i.

From the external plantar artery are derived the principal branches for

supplying the structures in the sole of the foot. The internal plantar

nerve divides into four branches, for the supply of the four inner toes,

to which they pass between the superficial and deep flexors. The

external plantar nerve, passing along the inner side of the

corresponding artery, sends branches to supply the outer toe and

adjacent side of the next, and then passes, with the artery, between the

deep common flexor tendon and the metatarsus, to be distributed to the

deep plantar muscles.

The posterior tibial artery may be tied behind the inner ankle, on being

laid bare in the following way:--A curved incision (the concavity

forwards) of two inches in length, is to be made midway between the

tendo Achillis and the ankle. The skin and superficial fascia having

been divided, we expose the inner annular ligament, which will be found

enclosing the vessels and nerve in a canal distinct from that of the

tendons. Their fibrous sheath having been slit open, the artery will be

seen between the venae comites, and with the nerve, in general, behind

it.

When any of the arteries of the leg or the foot are wounded, and the

haemorrhage cannot be commanded by compression, it will be necessary to

search for the divided ends of the vessel in the wound, and to apply a

ligature to both. The expediency of this measure must become fully

apparent when we consider the frequent anastomoses existing between the

collateral branches of the crural arteries, and that a ligature applied

to any one of these above the seat of injury will not arrest the

recurrent circulation through the vessels of the foot.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 67 & 68.

PLATE 67.

FIGURE 1.

A. The tendon of the tibialis anticus muscle.

B B. The long saphena vein.

C C. The tendon of the tibialis posticus muscle.

D. The tibia; d, the inner malleolus.

E E. The tendon of the flexor longus digitorum muscle.

F. The gastrocnemius muscle; f, the tendo Achillis.

G. The soleus muscle.

H. The tendon of the plantaris muscle.

I I. The venae comites.

K K. The posterior tibial artery.

L L. The posterior tibial nerve.

FIGURE 2.

A. The tibialis anticus muscle; a, its tendon.

B. The extensor longus digitorum muscle; b b b b, its four tendons.

C C. The extensor longus pollicis muscle.

D D. The tibia.

E. The fibula; e, the outer malleolus.

F F. The tendon of the peronaeus longus muscle.

G G. The peronaeus brevis muscle; i, the peronaeus tertius.

H H. The fascia.

K. The extensor brevis digitorum muscle; k k, its tendons.

L L. The anterior tibial artery and nerve descending to the dorsum of

the foot.

Plate 67, Figures 1, 2

PLATE 68.

FIGURE 1.

A. The calcaneum.

B. The plantar fascia and flexor brevis digitorum muscle cut; b b b, its

tendons.

C. The abductor minimi digiti muscle.

D. The abductor pollicis muscle.

E. The flexor accessorius muscle.

F. The tendon of the flexor longus digitorum muscle, subdividing into

f f f f, tendons for the four outer toes.

G. The tendon of the flexor pollicis longus muscle.

H. The flexor pollicis brevis muscle.

i i i i. The four lumbricales muscles.

K. The external plantar nerve.

L. The external plantar artery.

M. The internal plantar nerve and artery.

Plate 68, Figure 1

FIGURE 2.

A. The heel covered by the integument.

B. The plantar fascia and flexor brevis digitorum muscle cut; b b b, the

tendons of the muscle.

C. The abductor minimi digiti.

D. The abductor pollicis.

E. The flexor accessorius cut.

F. The tendon of the flexor digitorum longus cut; f f f, its digital

ends.

G. The tendon of the flexor pollicis.

H. The head of the first metatarsal bone.

I. The tendon of the tibialis posticus.

K. The external plantar nerve.

L L. The arch of the external plantar artery.

M M M M. The four interosseous muscles.

N. The external plantar nerve and artery cut.

Plate 68, Figure 2

CONCLUDING COMMENTARY

SURGICAL ANATOMY by JOSEPH MACLISE

CONCLUDING COMMENTARY.

ON THE FORM AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM AS A WHOLE.

ANOMALIES.--RAMIFICATION.--ANASTOMOSIS.

I.--The heart, in all stages of its development, is to the vascular

system what the point of a circle is to the circumference--namely, at

once the beginning and the end. The heart, occupying, it may be said,

the centre of the thorax, circulates the blood in the same way, by

similar channels, to an equal extent, in equal pace, and at the same

period of time, through both sides of the body. In its adult normal

condition, the heart presents itself as a double or symmetrical organ.

The two hearts, though united and appearing single, are nevertheless, as

to their respective cavities, absolutely distinct. Each heart consists

again of two compartments--an auricle and a ventricle. The two auricles

are similar in structure and form. The two ventricles are similar in the

same respects. A septum divides the two auricles, and another--the two

ventricles. Between the right auricle and ventricle, forming the right

heart, there exists a valvular apparatus (tricuspid), by which these two

compartments communicate; and a similar valve (bicuspid) admits of

communication between the left auricle and ventricle. The two hearts

being distinct, and the main vessels arising from each respectively

being distinct likewise, it follows that the capillary peripheries of

these vessels form the only channels through which the blood issuing

from one heart can enter the other.

II.--As the aorta of the left heart ramifies throughout all parts of the

body, and as the countless ramifications of this vessel terminate in an

equal number of ramifications of the principal veins of the right heart,

it will appear that between the systemic vessels of the two hearts

respectively, the capillary anastomotic circulation reigns universal.

III.--The body generally is marked by the median line, from the vertex

to the perinaeum, into corresponding halves. All parts excepting the

main bloodvessels in the neighbourhood of the heart are naturally

divisible by this line into equals. The vessels of each heart, in being

distributed to both sides of the body alike, cross each other at the

median line, and hence they are inseparable according to this line,

unless by section. If the vessels proper to each heart, right and left,

ramified alone within the limits of their respective sides of the body,

then their capillary anastomosis could only take place along the median

line, and here in such case they might be separated by median section

into two distinct systems. But as each system is itself double in

branching into both sides of the body, the two would be at the same time

equally divided by vertical section. From this it will appear that the

vessels belonging to each heart form a symmetrical system, corresponding

to the sides of the body, and that the capillary anastomosis of these

systemic veins and arteries is divisible into two great fields, one

situated on either side of the median line, and touching at this line.

IV.--The vessels of the right heart do not communicate at their

capillary peripheries, for its veins are systemic, and its arteries are

pulmonary. The vessels of the left heart do not anastomose, for its

veins are pulmonary, and its arteries are systemic. The arteries of the

right and left hearts cannot anastomose, for the former are pulmonary,

and the latter are systemic; and neither can the veins of the right and

left hearts, for a similar reason. Hence, therefore, there can be,

between the vessels of both hearts, but two provinces of

anastomosis--viz., that of the lungs, and that of the system. In the

lungs, the arteries of the right heart and the veins of the left

anastomose. In the body generally (not excepting the lungs), the

arteries of the left heart, and the veins of the right, anastomose; and

thus in the pulmonary and the systemic circulation, each heart plays an

equal part through the medium of its proper vessels. The pulmonary bear

to the systemic vessels the same relation as a lesser circle contained

within a greater; and the vessels of each heart form the half of each

circle, the arteries of the one being opposite the veins of the other.

V.--The two hearts being, by the union of their similar forms, as one

organ in regard to place, act, by an agreement of their corresponding

functions, as one organ in respect to time. The action of the auricles

is synchronous; that of the ventricles is the same; that of the auricles

and ventricles is consentaneous; and that of the whole heart is

rhythmical, or harmonious--the diastole of the auricles occurring in

harmonical time with the systole of the ventricles, and vice versa. By

this correlative action of both hearts, the pulmonary and systemic

circulations take place synchronously; and the phenomena resulting in

both reciprocate and balance each other. In the pulmonary circulation,

the blood is aerated, decarbonized, and otherwise depurated; whilst in

the systemic circulation, it is carbonized and otherwise deteriorated.

VI.--The circulation through the lungs and the system is carried on

through vessels having the following form and relative position, which,

as being most usual, is accounted normal. The two brachio-cephalic veins

joining at the root of the neck, and the two common iliac veins joining

in front of the lumbar vertebrae, form the superior and inferior venae

cavae, by which the blood is returned from the upper and lower parts of

the body to the right auricle, and thence it enters the right ventricle,

by which it is impelled through the pulmonary artery into the two lungs;

and from these it is returned (aerated) by the pulmonary veins to the

left auricle, which passes it into the left ventricle, and by this it is

impelled through the systemic aorta, which branches throughout the body

in a similar way to the systemic veins, with which the aortic branches

anastomose generally. On viewing together the system of vessels proper

to each heart, they will be seen to exhibit in respect to the body a

figure in doubly symmetrical arrangement, of which the united hearts

form a duplex centre. At this centre, which is the theatre of

metamorphosis, the principal abnormal conditions of the bloodvessels

appear; and in order to find the signification of these, we must retrace

the stages of development.

VII.--From the first appearance of an individualized centre in the

vascular area of the human embryo, that centre (punctum saliens) and the

vessels immediately connected with it, undergo a phaseal metamorphosis,

till such time after birth as they assume their permanent character. In

each stage of metamorphosis, the embryo heart and vessels typify the

normal condition of the organ in one of the lower classes of animals.

The several species of the organ in these classes are parallel to the

various stages of change in the human organ. In its earliest condition,

the human heart presents the form of a simple canal, similar to that of

the lower Invertebrata, the veins being connected with its posterior

end, while from its anterior end a single artery emanates. The canal

next assumes a bent shape, and the vessels of both its ends become

thereby approximated. The canal now being folded upon itself in

heart-shape, next becomes constricted in situations, marking out the

future auricle and ventricle and arterial bulb, which still communicate

with each other. From the artery are given off on either side

symmetrically five branches (branchial arches), which arch laterally

from before, outwards and backwards, and unite in front of the

vertebrae, forming the future descending aorta. In this condition, the

human heart and vessels resemble the Piscean pipe. The next changes

which take place consist in the gradual subdivision, by means of septa,

of the auricle and ventricle respectively into two cavities. On the

separation of the single auricle into two, while the ventricle as yet

remains single, the heart presents that condition which is proper to the

Reptilian class. The interauricular and interventricular septa, by

gradual development from without inwards, at length meet and coalesce,

thereby dividing the two cavities into four--two auricles and two

ventricles--a condition proper to the Avian and Mammalian classes

generally. In the centre of the interauricular septum of the human

heart, an aperture (foramen ovale) is left as being necessary to the

foetal circulation. While the septa are being completed, the arterial

bulb also becomes divided by a partition formed in its interior in such

a manner as to adjust the two resulting arteries, the one in connexion

with the right, the other with the left ventricle. The right ventricular

artery (pulmonary aorta) so formed, has assigned to it the fifth

(posterior) opposite pair of arches, and of these the right one

remaining pervious to the point where it gives off the right pulmonary

branch, becomes obliterated beyond this point to that where it joins the

descending aorta, while the left arch remains pervious during foetal

life, as the ductus arteriosus still communicating with the descending

aorta, and giving off at its middle the left pulmonary branch. The left

ventricular artery (systemic aorta) is formed of the fourth arch of the

left side, while the opposite arch (fourth right) is altogether

obliterated. The third and second arches remain pervious on both sides,

afterwards to become the right and left brachio-cephalic arteries. The

first pair of arches, if not converted into the vertebral arteries, or

the thyroid axes, are altogether metamorphosed. By these changes the

heart and primary arteries assume the character in which they usually

present themselves at birth, and in all probability the primary veins

corresponded in form, number, and distribution with the arterial

vessels, and underwent, at the same time, a similar mode of

metamorphosis. One point in respect to the original symmetrical

character of the primary veins is demonstrable--namely, that in front of

the aortic branches the right and left brachio-cephalic veins, after

joining by a cross branch, descend separately on either side of the

heart, and enter (as two superior venae cavae) the right auricle by

distinct orifices. In some of the lower animals, this double condition

of the superior veins is constant, but in the human species the left

vein below the cross branch (left brachio-cephalic) becomes obliterated,

whilst the right vein (vena cava superior) receives the two

brachio-cephalic veins, and in this condition remains throughout life.

After birth, on the commencement of respiration, the foramen ovale of

the interauricular septum closes, and the ductus arteriosus becomes

impervious. This completes the stages of metamorphosis, and changes the

course of the simple foetal circulation to one of a more complex

order--viz., the systemic-pulmonary characteristic of the normal state

in the adult body.

VIII.--Such being the phases of metamorphosis of the primary (branchial)

arches which yield the vessels in their normal adult condition, we

obtain in this history an explanation of the signification not only of

such of their anomalies as are on record, but of such also as are

potential in the law of development; a few of them will suffice to

illustrate the meaning of the whole number:--lst, The interventricular

as well as the interauricular septum may be arrested in growth, leaving

an aperture in the centre of each; the former condition is natural to

the human foetus, the latter to the reptilian class, while both would be

abnormal in the human adult. 2nd. The heart may be cleft at its apex in

the situation of the interventricular septum--a condition natural to the

Dugong, A similar cleavage may divide the base of the heart in the

situation of the interauricular septum. 3rd. The partitioning of the

bulbus arteriosus may occur in such a manner as to assign to the two

aortae a relative position, the reverse of that which they normally

occupy--the pulmonary aorta springing from the left ventricle and the

systemic aorta arising from the right, and giving off from its arch the

primary branches in the usual order. [Footnote 1] 4th. As the two aortae

result from a division of the common primary vessel (bulbus arteriosus),

an arrest in the growth of the partition would leave them still as one

vessel, which (supposing the ventricular septum remained also

incomplete) would then arise from a single ventricle. 5th. The ductus

arteriosus may remain pervious, and while co-existing with the proper

aortic arch, two arches would then appear on the left side. 6th. The

systemic normal aortic arch may be obliterated as far up as the

innominate branch, and while the ductus arteriosus remains pervious, and

leading from the pulmonary artery to the descending part of the aortic

arch, this vessel would then present the appearance of a branch

ascending from the left side and giving off the brachio-cephalic

arteries. The right ventricular artery would then, through the medium of

the ductus arteriosus, supply both the lungs and the system. Such a

state of the vessels would require (in order that the circulation of a

mixed blood might be carried on) that the two ventricles freely

communicate. 7th. If the fourth arch of the right side remained pervious

opposite the proper aortic arch, there would exist two aortic arches

placed symmetrically, one on either side of the vertebral column, and,

joining below, would include in their circle the trachea and oesophagus.

8th. If the fifth arch of the right side remained pervious opposite the

open ductus arteriosus, both vessels would present a similar

arrangement, as two symmetrical ducti arteriosi co-existing with

symmetrical aortic arches. 9th. If the vessels appeared co-existing in

the two conditions last mentioned, they would represent four aortic

arches, two on either side of the vertebral column. 10th. If the fourth

right arch, instead of the fourth left (aorta), remained pervious, the

systemic aortic arch would then be turned to the right side of the

vertebral column, and have the trachea and oesophagus on its left. 11th.

When the bulbus arteriosus divides itself into three parts, the two

lateral parts, in becoming connected with the left ventricle, will

represent a double ascending systemic aorta, and having the pulmonary

artery passing between them to the lungs. 12th. When of the two original

superior venae cavae the right one instead of the left suffers

metamorphosis, the vena cava superior will then appear on the left side

of the normal aortic arch. [Footnote 2] Of these malformations, some are

rather frequently met with, others very seldom, and others cannot exist

compatible with life after birth. Those which involve a more or less

imperfect discharge of the blood-aerating functions of the lungs, are in

those degrees more or less fatal, and thus nature aborting as to the

fitness of her creation, cancels it.

[Footnote 1: This physiological truth has, I find, been applied by Dr.

R. Quain to the explanation of a numerous class of malformations

connected with the origins of the great vessels from the heart, and of

their primary branches. See The Lancet, vol. I. 1842.]

[Footnote 2: For an analysis of the occasional peculiarities of these

primary veins in the human subject, see an able and original monograph

in the Philosophical Transactions, Part 1., 1850, entitled, "On the

Development of the Great Anterior Veins in Man and Mammalia." By John

Marshall, F.R.C.S., &c. ]

IX.--The portal system of veins passing to the liver, and the hepatic

veins passing from this organ to join the inferior vena cava, exhibit in

respect to the median line of the body an example of a-symmetry, since

appearing on the right side, they have no counterparts on the left. As

the law of symmetry seems to prevail universally in the development of

organized beings, forasmuch as every lateral organ or part has its

counterpart, while every central organ is double or complete, in having

two similar sides, then the portal system, as being an exception to this

law, is as a natural note of interrogation questioning the signification

of that fact, and in the following observations, it appears to me, the

answer may be found. Every artery in the body has its companion vein or

veins. The inferior vena cava passes sidelong with the aorta in the

abdomen. Every branch of the aorta which ramifies upon the abdominal

parietes has its accompanying vein returning either to the vena cava or

the vena azygos, and entering either of these vessels at a point on the

same level as that at which itself arises. The renal vessels also have

this arrangement. But all the other veins of the abdominal viscera,

instead of entering the vena cava opposite their corresponding arteries,

unite into a single trunk (vena portae), which enters the liver. The

special purpose of this destination of the portal system is obvious, but

the function of a part gives no explanation of its form or relative

position, whether singular or otherwise. On viewing the vessels in

presence of the general law of symmetrical development, it occurs to me

that the portal and hepatic veins form one continuous system, which

taken in the totality, represents the companion veins of the arteries of

the abdominal viscera. The liver under this interpretation appears as a

gland developed midway upon these veins, and dismembering them into a

mesh of countless capillary vessels, (a condition necessary for all

processes of secretion,) for the special purpose of decarbonizing the

blood. In this great function the liver is an organ correlative or

compensative to the lungs, whose office is similar. The secretion of the

liver (bile) is fluidform; that of the lungs is aeriform. The bile being

necessary to the digestive process, the liver has a duct to convey that

product of its secretion to the intestines. The trachea is as it were

the duct of the lungs. In the liver, then, the portal and hepatic veins

being continuous as veins, the two systems, notwithstanding their

apparent distinctness, caused by the intervention of the hepatic

lobules, may be regarded as the veins corresponding with the arteries of

the coeliac axis, and the two mesenteric. The hepatic artery and the

hepatic veins evidently do not pair in the sense of afferent and

efferent, with respect to the liver, both these vessels having

destinations as different as those of the bronchial artery and the

pulmonary veins in the lungs. The bronchial artery is attended by its

vein proper, while the vein which corresponds to the hepatic artery

joins either the hepatic or portal veins traversing the liver, and in

this position escapes notice.[Footnote]

[Footnote: In instancing these facts, as serving under comparison to

explain how the hepatic vessels constitute no radical exception to the

law of symmetry which presides over the development and distribution of

the vascular system as a whole, I am led to inquire in what respect (if

in any) the liver as an organ forms an exception to this general law

either in shape, in function, or in relative position. While seeing that

every central organ is single and symmetrical by the union of two

absolutely similar sides, and that each lateral pair of organs is double

by the disunion of sides so similar to each other in all respects that

the description of either side serves for the other opposite, it has

long since seemed to me a reasonable inference that, since the liver on

the right has no counterpart as a liver on the left, and that, since the

spleen on the left has no counterpart as a spleen on the right, so these

two organs (the liver and spleen) must themselves correspond to each

other, and as such, express their respective significations. Under the

belief that every exception (even though it be normal) to a general law

or rule, is, like the anomaly itself, alone explicable according to such

law, and expressing a fact not more singular or isolated from other

parallel facts than is one form from another, or from all others

constituting the graduated scale of being, I would, according to the

light of this evidence alone, have no hesitation in stating that the

liver and spleen, as opposites, represent corresponding organs, even

though they appeared at first view more dissimilar than they really are.

In support of this analogy of both organs, which is here, so far as I am

aware, originally enunciated for anatomical science, I record the

following observations:--1st. Between the opposite parts of the same

organic entity (between the opposite leaves of the same plant, for

example), nature manifests no such absolute difference in any case as

exists between the leaf of a plant and of a book. 2ndly. When between

two opposite parts of the same organic form there appears any

differential character, this is simply the result of a modification or

metamorphosis of one of the two perfectly similar originals or

archetypes, but never carried out to such an extreme degree as to

annihilate all trace of their analogy. 3rdly. The liver and the spleen

are opposite parts; and as such, they are associated by arteries which

arise by a single trunk (coeliac axis) from the aorta, and branch right

and left, like indices pointing to the relationship between both these

organs, in the same manner as the two emulgent arteries point to the

opposite renal organs. 4thly. The liver is divided into two lobes, right

and left; the left is less than the right; that quantity which is

wanting to the left lobe is equal to the quantity of a spleen; and if in

idea we add the spleen to the left lobe of the liver, both lobes of this

organ become quantitatively equal, and the whole liver symmetrical;

hence, as the liver plus the spleen represents the whole structural

quantity, so the liver minus the spleen signifies that the two organs

now dissevered still relate to each other as parts of the same whole.

5thly. The liver, as being three-fourths of the whole, possesses the

duct which emanates at the centre of all glandular bodies. The spleen,

as being one-fourth of the whole, is devoid of the duct. The liver

having the duct, is functional as a gland, while the spleen having no

duct, cannot serve any such function. If, in thus indicating the

function which the spleen does not possess, there appears no proof

positive of the function which it does, perhaps the truth is, that as

being the ductless portion of the whole original hepatic quantity, it

exists as a thing degenerate and functionless, for it seems that the

animal economy suffers no loss of function when deprived of it. 6thly.

In early foetal life, the left lobe of the liver touches the spleen on

the left side; but in the process of abdominal development, the two

organs become separated from each other right and left. 7thly. In

animals devoid of the spleen, the liver appears of a symmetrical shape,

both its lobes being equal; for that quantity which in other animals has

become splenic, is in the former still hepatic. 8thly. In cases of

transposition of both organs, it is the right lobe of the liver--that

nearest the spleen, now on the right side--which is the smaller of the

two lobes, proving that whichever lobe be in this condition, the spleen,

as being opposite to it, represents the minus hepatic quantity. From

these, among other facts, I infer that the spleen is the representative

of the liver on the left side, and that as such, its signification being

manifest, there exists no exception to the law of animal symmetry. "Tam

miram uniformitatem in planetarum systemate, necessario fatendum est

intelligentia et concilio fuisse effectam. Idemque dici possit de

uniformitate illa quae est in corporibus animalium. Habent videlicet

animalia pleraque omnia, bina latera, dextrum et sinistrum, forma

consimili: et in lateribus illis, a posteriore quidem corporis sui

parte, pedes binos; ab anteriori autem parte, binos armos, vel pedes,

vel alas, humeris affixos: interque humeros collum, in spinam excurrens,

cui affixum est caput; in eoque capite binas aures, binos oculos, nasum,

os et linguam; similiter posita omnia, in omnibus fere animalibus."

--Newton, Optices, sive de reflex, &c. p. 411.]

X.--The heart, though being itself the recipient, the prime mover, and

the dispenser of the blood, does not depend either for its growth,

vitality, or stimulus to action, upon the blood under these uses, but

upon the blood circulating through vessels which are derived from its

main systemic artery, and disposed in capillary ramifications through

its substance, in the manner of the nutrient vessels of all other organs.

The two coronary arteries of the heart arise from the systemic aorta

immediately outside the semilunar valves, situated in the root of this

vessel, and in passing right and left along the auriculo-ventricular

furrows, they send off some branches for the supply of the organ itself,

and others by which both vessels anastomose freely around its base and

apex. The vasa cordis form an anastomotic circulation altogether

isolated from the vessels of the other thoracic organs, and also from

those distributed to the thoracic parietes. The coronary arteries are

accompanied by veins which open by distinct orifices (foramina Thebesii)

into the right auricle. Like the heart itself, its main vessels do not

depend for their support upon the blood conveyed by them, but upon that

circulated by the small arteries (vasa vasorum) derived either from the

vessel upon which they are distributed, or from some others in the

neighbourhood. These little arteries are attended by veins of a

corresponding size (venules) which enter the venae comites, thus

carrying out the general order of vascular distribution to the minutest

particular. Besides the larger nerves which accompany the main vessels,

there are delicate filaments of the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic

system distributed to their coats, for the purpose, as it is supposed,

of governing their "contractile movements." The vasa vasorum form an

anastomosis as well upon the inner surface of the sheath as upon the

artery contained in this part; and hence in the operation for tying the

vessel, the rule should be to disturb its connexions as little as

possible, otherwise its vitality, which depends upon these minute

branches, will, by their rupture, be destroyed in the situation of the

ligature, where it is most needed.

XI.--The branches of the systemic aorta form frequent anastomoses with

each other in all parts of the body. This anastomosis occurs chiefly

amongst the branches of the main arteries proper to either side. Those

branches of the opposite vessels which join at the median line are

generally of very small size. There are but few instances in which a

large blood vessel crosses the central line from its own side to the

other. Anastomosis at the median line between opposite vessels happens

either by a fusion of their sides lying parallel, as for example (and

the only one) that of the two vertebral arteries on the basilar process

of the occipital bone; or else by a direct end-to-end union, of which

the lateral pair of cerebral arteries, forming the circle of Willis, and

the two labial arteries, forming the coronary, are examples. The

branches of the main arteries of one side form numerous anastomoses in

the muscles and in the cellular and adipose tissue generally. Other

special branches derived from the parent vessel above and below the

several joints ramify and anastomose so very freely over the surfaces of

these parts, and seem to pass in reference to them out of their direct

course, that to effect this mode of distribution appears to be no less

immediate a design than to support the structures of which the joints

are composed.

XII.--The innominate artery. When this vessel is tied, the free direct

circulation through the principal arteries of the right arm, and the

right side of the neck, head, and brain, becomes arrested; and the

degree of strength of the recurrent circulation depends solely upon the

amount of anastomosing points between the following arteries of the

opposite sides. The small terminal branches of the two occipital, the

two auricular, the two superficial temporal, and the two frontal,

inosculate with each other upon the sides, and over the vertex of the

head; the two vertebral, and the branches of the internal carotid, at

the base and over the surface of the brain; the two facial with each

other, and with the frontal above and mental below, at the median line

of the face; the two internal maxillary by their palatine, pharyngeal,

meningeal, and various other branches upon the surface of the parts to

which they are distributed; and lastly, the two superior thyroid

arteries inosculate around the larynx and in the thyroid body. By these

anastomoses, it will be seen that the circulation is restored to the

branches of the common carotid almost solely. In regard to the

subclavian artery, the circulation would be carried on through the

anastomosing branches of the two inferior thyroid in the thyroid body;

of the two vertebral, in the cranium and upon the cervical vertebrae; of

the two internal mammary, with each other behind the sternum, and with

the thoracic branches of the axillary and the superior intercostal

laterally; lastly, through the anastomosis of the ascending cervical

with the descending branch of the occipital, and with the small lateral

offsets of the vertebral.

XIII.--The common carotid arteries, Of these two vessels, the left one

arising, in general, from the arch of the aorta, is longer than the

right one by the measure of the innominate artery from which the right

arises. When either of the common carotids is tied, the circulation will

be maintained through the anastomosing branches of the opposite vessels

as above specified. When the vertebral or the inferior thyroid branch

arises from the middle of the common carotid, this vessel will have an

additional source of supply if the ligature be applied to it below the

origin of such branch. In the absence of the innominate artery, the

right as well as the left carotid will be found to spring directly from

the aortic arch.

XIV.--The subclavian arteries. When a ligature is applied to the inner

third of this vessel within its primary branches, the collateral

circulation is carried on by the anastomoses of the arteries above

mentioned; but if the vertebral or the inferior thyroid arises either

from the aorta or the common carotid, the sources of arterial supply in

respect to the arm will, of course, be less numerous. When the outer

portion of the subclavian is tied between the scalenus and the clavicle,

while the branches arise from its inner part in their usual position and

number, the collateral circulation in reference to the arm is maintained

by the following anastomosing branches:--viz., those of the

superficialis colli, and the supra and posterior scapular, with those of

the acromial thoracic; the subscapular, and the anterior and posterior

circumflex around the shoulder-joint, and over the dorsal surface of

the scapula; and those of the internal mammary and superior intercostal,

with those of the thoracic arteries arising from the axillary. Whatever

be the variety as to their mode or place of origin, the branches

emanating from the subclavian artery are constant as to their

destination. The length of the inner portion of the right subclavian

will vary according to the place at which it arises, whether from the

innominate artery, from the ascending, or from the descending part of

the aortic arch.

XV.--The axillary artery. As this vessel gives off

throughout its whole length, numerous branches which inosculate

principally with the scapular, mammary, and superior intercostal

branches of the subclavian, it will be evident that, in tying it above

its own branches, the anastomotic circulation will with much greater

freedom be maintained in respect to the arm, than if the ligature be

applied below those branches. Hence, therefore, when the axillary artery

is affected with aneurism, thereby rendering it unsafe to apply a

ligature to this vessel, it becomes not only pathologically, but

anatomically, the more prudent measure to tie the subclavian immediately

above the clavicle.

XVI.--The brachial artery, When this artery is tied immediately below

the axilla, the collateral circulation will be weakly maintained, in

consequence of the small number of anastomosing branches arising from it

above and below the seat of the ligature. The two circumflex humeri

alone send down branches to inosculate with the small muscular offsets

from the middle of the brachial artery. When tied in the middle of the

arm between the origins of the superior and inferior profunda arteries,

the collateral circulation will depend chiefly upon the anastomosis of

the former vessel with the recurrent branch of the radial, and of

muscular branches with each other. When the ligature is applied to the

lower third of the vessel, the collateral circulation will be

comparatively free through the anastomoses of the two profundi and

anastomotic branches with the radial, interosseous, and ulnar recurrent

branches. If the artery happen to divide in the upper part of the arm

into either of the branches of the forearm, or into all three, a

ligature applied to any one of them will, of course, be insufficient to

arrest the direct circulation through the forearm, if this be the object

in view.

XVII.--The radial artery. If this vessel be tied in any part of its

course, the collateral circulation will depend principally upon the free

communications between it and the ulnar, through the medium of the

superficial and deep palmar arches and those of the  branches derived

from both vessels, and from the two interossei distributed to the

fingers and back of the hand.

XVIII.--The ulnar artery. When this vessel is tied, the collateral

circulation will depend upon the anastomosis of the palmar arches, as in

the case last mentioned. While the radial, ulnar, and interosseous

arteries spring from the same main vessel, and are continuous with each

other in the hand, they represent the condition of a circle of which,

when either side is tied, the blood will pass in a current of almost

equal strength towards the seat of the ligature from above and below--a

circumstance which renders it necessary to tie both ends of the vessel

in cases of wounds.

XIX.--The common iliac artery. When a ligature is applied to the middle

of this artery, the direct circulation becomes arrested in the lower

limb and side of the pelvis corresponding to the vessel operated on. The

collateral circulation will then be carried on by the anastomosis of the

following branches--viz., those of the lumbar, the internal mammary, and

the epigastric arteries of that side with each other, and with their

fellows in the anterior abdominal parietes; those of the middle and

lateral sacral; those of the superior with the middle and inferior

haemorrhoidal; those of the aortic and internal iliac uterine branches

in the female; and of the aortic and external iliac spermatic branches

in the male. The anastomoses of these arteries with their opposite

fellows along the median line, are much less frequent than those of the

arteries of the neck and head.

XX.--The external iliac artery. This vessel, when tied at its middle,

will have its collateral circulation carried on by the anastomoses of

the internal mammary with the epigastric; by those of the ilio-lumbar

with the circumflex ilii; those of the internal circumflex femoris, and

superior perforating arteries of the profunda femoris, with the

obturator, when this branch arises from the internal iliac; those of the

gluteal with the external circumflex; those of the latter with the

sciatic; and those of both obturators, with each other, when

arising--the one from the internal, the other from the external iliac.

Not unfrequently either the epigastric, obturator, ilio-lumbar, or

circumflex ilii, arises from the middle of the external iliac, in which

case the ligature should be placed above such branch.

XXI.--The common femoral artery. On considering the circles of

inosculation formed around the innominate bone between the branches

derived from the iliac arteries near the sacro-iliac junction, and those

emanating from the common femoral, above and below Poupart's ligament,

it will at once appear that, in respect to the lower limb, the

collateral circulation will occur more freely if the ligature be applied

to the main vessel (external iliac) than if to the common femoral below

its branches.

XXII.--The superficial femoral artery. When a ligature is applied to

this vessel at the situation where it is overlapped by the sartorius

muscle, the collateral circulation will be maintained by the following

arteries:--the long descending branches of the external circumflex

beneath the rectus muscle, inosculate with the muscular branches of the

anastomotica magna springing from the lower third of the main vessel;

the three perforating branches of the profunda inosculate with the

latter vessel, with the sciatic, and with the articular and muscular

branches around the knee-joint.

XXIII.--The popliteal artery. When any circumstance renders it necessary

to tie this vessel in preference to the femoral, the ligature should be

placed above its upper pair of articular branches; for by so doing a

freer collateral circulation will take place in reference to the leg.

The ligature in this situation will lie between the anastomotic and

articular arteries, which freely communicate with each other.

XXIV.--The anterior and posterior tibial and peronoeal arteries. As

these vessels correspond to the arteries of the forearm, the

observations which apply to the one set apply also to the other.

[Footnote]

[Footnote: For a complete history of the general vascular system, see

The Anatomy of the Arteries of the Human Body, by Richard Quain, F.R.S.,

&c., in which work, besides the results of the author's own great

experience and original observations, will be found those of Haller's,

Scarpa's, Tiedemann's, &c., systematically arranged with a view to

operative surgery.]

THE END.

Return to Title

[Transcriber's Notes]

Thanks to Carol Presher of Timeless Antiques, Valley, Alabama,  for

lending the original book for this production. The 140 year old binding

had disintegrated, but the paper and printing was in amazingly good

condition, particularly the multicolor images.

Thanks also to the Mayo Clinic. This book has increased my appreciation

of their skilled care of my case by showing the many ways that things

could go wrong.

Footnotes are indicated by "[Footnote]" where they appear in the text.

The body of the footnote appears immediately following the complete

paragraph. If more than one footnote appears in the same paragraph, they

are numbered.

A few obvious misspellings have been corrected. Several cases of

alternate spelling of the same(?) word have not been modified.

Pages have been reorganized to avoid splitting sentences and paragraphs.

Each image is inserted immediately following its description.

Some of the plates did not fit on the scanner and were captured as two

separate images. The merged images show some artifacts of the merge

process due to slightly different lighting of the page. The contrast and

gamma values have been adjusted to restore the images.

To view a figure while reading the corresponding text, try opening the

file in two windows. For some viewers, you may have to copy the file and

open both the copy and the original.

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Transciber's Glossary

[End Transcriber's Notes]

SURGICAL ANATOMY

BY

JOSEPH MACLISE

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS.

WITH SIXTY-EIGHT COLOURED PLATES.

PHILADELPHIA:

BLANCHARD AND LEA.

1859.

[Stamped by owner: John D. Warren, Physician & Surgeon.]

I INSCRIBE THIS WORK TO THE GENTLEMEN

WITH WHOM AS A FELLOW-STUDENT I WAS ASSOCIATED AT THE

London University College:

AND IN AN ESPECIAL MANNER, IN THEIR NAME AS WELL AS MY OWN,

I AVAIL MYSELF OF THE OPPORTUNITY TO RECORD, ON THIS PAGE,

ALBEIT IN CHARACTERS LESS IMPRESSIVE THAN THOSE WHICH ARE

WRITTEN ON THE LIVING TABLET OF MEMORY,

THE DEBT OF GRATITUDE WHICH WE OWE TO THE LATE

SAMUEL COOPER, F.R.S., AND ROBERT LISTON, F.R.S.,

TWO AMONG THE MANY DISTINGUISHED PROFESSORS OF THAT

INSTITUTION, WHOSE PUPILS WE HAVE BEEN,

AND FROM WHOM WE INHERIT THAT BETTER POSSESSION THAN LIFE

ITSELF, AN ASPIRATION FOR THE LIGHT OF SCIENCE.

JOSEPH MACLISE.

PREFACE.

The object of this work is to present to the student of medicine and the

practitioner removed from the schools, a series of dissections

demonstrative of the relative anatomy of the principal regions of the

human body. Whatever title may most fittingly apply to a work with this

intent, whether it had better be styled surgical or medical, regional,

relative, descriptive, or topographical anatomy, will matter little,

provided its more salient or prominent character be manifested in its

own form and feature. The work, as I have designed it, will itself show

that my intent has been to base the practical upon the anatomical, and

to unite these wherever a mutual dependence was apparent.

That department of anatomical research to which the name topographical

strictly applies, as confining itself to the mere account of the form

and relative location of the several organs comprising the animal body,

is almost wholly isolated from the main questions of physiological and

transcendental interest, and cannot, therefore, be supposed to speak in

those comprehensive views which anatomy, taken in its widest

signification as a science, necessarily includes. While the anatomist

contents himself with describing the form and position of organs as they

appear exposed, layer after layer, by his dissecting instruments, he

does not pretend to soar any higher in the region of science than the

humble level of other mechanical arts, which merely appreciate the

fitting arrangement of things relative to one another, and combinative

to the whole design of the form or machine of whatever species this may

be, whether organic or inorganic. The descriptive anatomist of the human

body aims at no higher walk in science than this, and hence his

nomenclature is, as it is, a barbarous jargon of words, barren of all

truthful signification, inconsonant with nature, and blindly

irrespective of the cognitio certa ex principiis certis exorta.

Still, however, this anatomy of form, although so much requiring

purification of its nomenclature, in order to clothe it in the high

reaching dignity of a science, does not disturb the medical or surgical

practitioner, so far as their wants are concerned. Although it may, and

actually does, trammel the votary who aspires to the higher

generalizations and the development of a law of formation, yet, as this

is not the object of the surgical anatomist, the nomenclature, such as

it is, will answer conveniently enough the present purpose.

The anatomy of the human form, contemplated in reference to that of all

other species of animals to which it bears comparison, constitutes the

study of the comparative anatomist, and, as such, establishes the

science in its full intent. But the anatomy of the human figure,

considered as a species, per se, is confessedly the humblest walk of the

understanding in a subject which, as anatomy, is relationary, and

branches far and wide through all the domain of an animal kingdom. While

restricted to the study of the isolated human species, the cramped

judgment wastes in such narrow confine; whereas, in the expansive gaze

over all allying and allied species, the intellect bodies forth to its

vision the full appointed form of natural majesty; and after having

experienced the manifold analogies and differentials of the many, is

thereby enabled, when it returns to the study of the one, to view this

one of human type under manifold points of interest, to the appreciation

of which the understanding never wakens otherwise. If it did not happen

that the study of the human form (confined to itself) had some practical

bearing, such study could not deserve the name of anatomical, while

anatomical means comparative, and whilst comparison implies inductive

reasoning.

However, practical anatomy, such as it is, is concerned with an exact

knowledge of the relationship of organs as they stand in reference to

each other, and to the whole design of which these organs are the

integral parts. The figure, the capacity, and the contents of the

thoracic and abdominal cavities, become a study of not more urgent

concernment to the physician, than are the regions named cervical,

axillary, inguinal, &c., to the surgeon. He who would combine both modes

of a relationary practice, such as that of medicine and surgery, should

be well acquainted with the form and structures characteristic of all

regions of the human body; and it may be doubted whether he who pursues

either mode of practice, wholly exclusive of the other, can do so with

honest purpose and large range of understanding, if he be not equally

well acquainted with the subject matter of both. It is, in fact, more

triflingly fashionable than soundly reasonable, to seek to define the

line of demarcation between the special callings of medicine and

surgery, for it will ever be as vain an endeavour to separate the one

from the other without extinguishing the vitality of both, as it would

be to sunder the trunk from the head, and give to each a separate living

existence. The necessary division of labour is the only reason that can

be advanced in excuse of specialisms; but it will be readily agreed to,

that that practitioner who has first laid within himself the foundation

of a general knowledge of matters relationary to his subject, will

always be found to pursue the speciality according to the light of

reason and science.

Anatomy--the  the knowledge based on principle--is the

foundation of the curative art, cultivated as a science in all its

branchings; and comparison is the nurse of reason, which we are fain to

make our guide in bringing the practical to bear productively. The human

body, in a state of health, is the standard whereunto we compare the

same body in a state of disease. The knowledge of the latter can only

exist by the knowledge of the former, and by the comparison of both.

Comparison may be fairly termed the pioneer to all certain knowledge. It

is a potent instrument--the only one, in the hands of the pathologist,

as well as in those of the philosophic generalizer of anatomical facts,

gathered through the extended survey of an animal kingdom. We best

recognise the condition of a dislocated joint after we have become well

acquainted with the contour of its normal state; all abnormal conditions

are best understood by a knowledge of what we know to be normal

character. Every anatomist is a comparer, in a greater or lesser degree;

and he is the greatest anatomist who compares the most generally.

Impressed with this belief, I have laid particular emphasis on imitating

the character of the normal form of the human figure, taken as a whole;

that of its several regions as parts of this whole, and that of the

various organs (contained within those regions) as its integrals or

elements. And in order to present this subject of relative anatomy in

more vivid reality to the understanding of the student, I have chosen

the medium of illustrating by figure rather than by that of written

language, which latter, taken alone, is almost impotent in a study of

this nature.

It is wholly impossible for anyone to describe form in words without the

aid of figures. Even the mathematical strength of Euclid would avail

nothing, if shorn of his diagrams. The professorial robe is impotent

without its diagrams. Anatomy being a science existing by demonstration,

(for as much as form in its actuality is the language of nature,) must

be discoursed of by the instrumentality of figure.

An anatomical illustration enters the understanding straight-forward in

a direct passage, and is almost independent of the aid of written

language. A picture of form is a proposition which solves itself. It is

an axiom encompassed in a frame-work of self-evident truth. The best

substitute for Nature herself, upon which to teach the knowledge of her,

is an exact representation of her form.

Every surgical anatomist will (if he examine himself) perceive that,

previously to undertaking the performance of an operation upon the

living body, he stands reassured and self-reliant in that degree in

which he is capable of conjuring up before his mental vision a distinct

picture of his subject. Mr. Liston could draw the same anatomical

picture mentally which Sir Charles Bell's handicraft could draw in

reality of form and figure. Scarpa was his own draughtsman.

If there may be any novelty now-a-days possible to be recognised upon

the out-trodden track of human relative anatomy, it can only be in

truthful and well-planned illustration. Under this view alone may the

anatomist plead an excuse for reiterating a theme which the beautiful

works of Cowper, Haller, Hunter, Scarpa, Soemmering, and others, have

dealt out so respectably. Except the human anatomist turns now to what

he terms the practical ends of his study, and marshals his little

knowledge to bear upon those ends, one may proclaim anthropotomy to have

worn itself out. Dissection can do no more, except to repeat

Cruveilhier. And that which Cruveilhier has done for human anatomy,

Muller has completed for the physiological interpretation of human

anatomy; Burdach has philosophised, and Magendie has experimented to the

full upon this theme, so far as it would permit. All have pushed the

subject to its furthest limits, in one aspect of view. The narrow circle

is footworn. All the needful facts are long since gathered, sown, and

known. We have been seekers after those facts from the days of

Aristotle. Are we to put off the day of attempting interpretation for

three thousand years more, to allow the human physiologist time to slice

the brain into more delicate atoms than he has done hitherto, in order

to coin more names, and swell the dictionary? No! The work must now be

retrospective, if we would render true knowledge progressive. It is not

a list of new and disjointed facts that Science at present thirsts for;

but she is impressed with the conviction that her wants can alone be

supplied by the creation of a new and truthful theory,--a generalization

which the facts already known are sufficient to supply, if they were

well ordered according to their natural relationship and mutual

dependence. "Le temps viendra peut-etre," says Fontenelle, "que 1'on

joindra en un corps regulier ces membres epars; et, s'ils sont tels

qu'on le souhaite, ils s'assembleront en quelque sorte d'eux-memes.

Plusieurs verites separees, des qu'elles sont en assez grand nombre,

offrent si vivement a 1'esprit leurs rapports et leur mutuelle

dependance, qu'il semble qu'apres les avoir detachees par une espece de

violence les unes des autres, elles cherchent naturellement a se

reunir."--(Preface sur l'utilite des Sciences, &c.)

The comparison of facts already known must henceforward be the scalpel

which we are to take in hand. We must return by the same road on which

we set out, and reexamine the things and phenomena which, as novices, we

passed by too lightly. The travelled experience may now sit down and

contemplate.

That which I have said and proved elsewhere in respect to the skeleton

system may, with equal truth, be remarked of the nervous system--namely,

that the question is not in how far does the limit of diversity extend

through the condition of an evidently common analogy, but by what rule

or law the uniform ens is rendered the diverse entity? The womb of

anatomical science is pregnant of the true interpretation of the law of

unity in variety; but the question is of longer duration than was the

life of the progenitor. Though Aristotle and Linnaeus, and Buffon and

Cuvier, and Geoffroy St. Hilaire and Leibnitz, and Gothe, have lived and

spoken, yet the present state of knowledge proclaims the Newton of

physiology to be as yet unborn. The iron scalpel has already made

acquaintance with not only the greater parts, but even with the

infinitesimals of the human body; and reason, confined to this narrow

range of a subject, perceives herself to be imprisoned, and quenches her

guiding light in despair. Originality has outlived itself; and discovery

is a long-forgotten enterprise, except as pursued in the microcosm on

the field of the microscope, which, it must be confessed, has drawn

forth demonstrations only commensurate in importance with the magnitude

of the littleness there seen.

The subject of our study, whichever it happen to be, may appear

exhausted of all interest, and the promise of valuable novelty, owing to

two reasons:--It may be, like descriptive human anatomy, so cold, poor

and sterile in its own nature, and so barren of product, that it will be

impossible for even the genius of Promethean fire to warm it; or else,

like existing physiology, the very point of view from which the mental

eye surveys the theme, will blight the fair prospect of truth, distort

induction, and clog up the paces of ratiocination. The physiologist of

the present day is too little of a comparative anatomist, and far too

closely enveloped in the absurd jargon of the anthropotomist, ever to

hope to reveal any great truth for science, and dispel the mists which

still hang over the phenomena of the nervous system. He is steeped too

deeply in the base nomenclature of the antique school, and too indolent

to question the import of Pons, Commissure, Island, Taenia, Nates,

Testes, Cornu, Hippocamp, Thalamus, Vermes, Arbor Vitro, Respiratory

Tract, Ganglia of Increase, and all such phrase of unmeaning sound, ever

to be productive of lucid interpretation of the cerebro-spinal ens.

Custom alone sanctions his use of such names; but

"Custom calls him to it!

What custom wills; should custom always do it,

The dust on antique time would lie unswept,

And mountainous error be too highly heaped,

For truth to overpeer."

Of the illustrations of this work I may state, in guarantee of their

anatomical accuracy, that they have been made by myself from my own

dissections, first planned at the London University College, and

afterwards realised at the Ecole Pratique, and School of Anatomy

adjoining the Hospital La Pitie, Paris, a few years since. As far as the

subject of relative anatomy could admit of novel treatment, rigidly

confined to facts unalterable, I have endeavoured to give it.

The unbroken surface of the human figure is as a map to the surgeon,

explanatory of the anatomy arranged beneath; and I have therefore left

appended to the dissected regions as much of the undissected as was

necessary. My object was to indicate the interior through the

superficies, and thereby illustrate the whole living body which concerns

surgery, through its dissected dead counterfeit. We dissect the dead

animal body in order to furnish the memory with as clear an account of

the structure contained in its living representative, which we are not

allowed to analyse, as if this latter were perfectly translucent, and

directly demonstrative of its component parts.

J. M

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PREFACE

INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF ANATOMY AS A SCIENCE.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 1 & 2

THE FORM OF THE THORAX, AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF ITS

CONTAINED PARTS--THE LUNGS, HEART, AND LARGER BLOOD VESSELS.

The structure, mechanism, and respiratory motions of the thoracic

apparatus. Its varieties in form, according to age and sex. Its

deformities. Applications to the study of physical diagnosis.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 3 & 4

THE SURGICAL FORM OF THE SUPERFICIAL, CERVICAL, AND FACIAL

REGIONS, AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOOD

VESSELS, NERVES, ETC.

The cervical surgical triangles considered in reference to the position

of the subclavian and carotid vessels, &c. Venesection in respect to the

external jugular vein. Anatomical reasons for avoiding transverse

incisions in the neck. The parts endangered in surgical operations on

the parotid and submaxillary glands, &c.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 5 & 6

THE SURGICAL FORM OF THE DEEP CERVICAL AND FACIAL REGIONS,

AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOOD VESSELS,

NERVES, ETC.

The course of the carotid and subclavian vessels in reference to each

other, to the surface, and to their respective surgical triangles.

Differences in the form of the neck in individuals of different age and

sex. Special relations of the vessels. Physiological remarks on the

carotid artery. Peculiarities in the relative position of the subclavian

artery.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 7 & 8

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE SUBCLAVIAN AND CAROTID

REGIONS, AND THE RELATIVE ANATOMY OF THEIR CONTENTS.

General observations. Abnormal complications of the carotid and

subclavian arteries. Relative position of the vessels liable to change

by the motions of the head and shoulder. Necessity for a fixed surgical

position in operations affecting these vessels. The operations for tying

the carotid or the subclavian at different situations in cases of

aneurism, &c. The operation for tying the innominate artery. Reasons of

the unfavourable results of this proceeding.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 9 & 10

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE EPISTERNAL OR TRACHEAL

REGION, AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF ITS MAIN BLOOD VESSELS,

NERVES, ETC.

Varieties of the primary aortic branches explained by the law of

metamorphosis. The structures at the median line of the neck. The

operations of tracheotomy and laryngotomy in the child and adult, The

right and left brachio-cephalic arteries and their varieties considered

surgically.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 11 & 12

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE AXILLARY AND BRACHIAL

REGIONS, DISPLAYING THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THEIR CONTAINED PARTS.

The operation for tying the axillary artery. Remarks on fractures of the

clavicle and dislocation of the humerus in reference to the axillary

vessels. The operation for tying the brachial artery near the axilla.

Mode of compressing this vessel against the humerus.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 13 & 14

THE SURGICAL FORMS OF THE MALE AND FEMALE AXILLAE

COMPARED.

The mammary and axillary glands in health and disease. Excision of these

glands. Axillary abscess. General surgical observations on the axilla.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 15 & 16

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE BEND OF THE ELBOW AND THE

FOREARM, SHOWING THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE VESSELS AND NERVES.

General remarks. Operation for tying the brachial artery at its middle

and lower thirds. Varieties of the brachial artery. Venesection at the

bend of the elbow. The radial and ulnar pulse. Operations for tying the

radial and ulnar arteries in several parts.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 17, 18, & 19

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE WRIST AND HAND.

General observations. Superficial and deep palmar arches. Wounds of

these vessels requiring a ligature to be applied to both ends. General

surgical remarks on the arteries of the upper limb. Palmar abscess, &c.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 20 & 21

THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE CRANIAL, NASAL,

ORAL, AND PHARYNGEAL CAVITIES, ETC.

Fractures of the cranium, and the operation of trephining anatomically

considered. Instrumental measures in reference to the fauces, tonsils,

oesophagus, and lungs.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 22

THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE SUPERFICIAL

ORGANS OF THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN.

Application to correct physical diagnosis. Changes in the relative

position of the organs during the respiratory motions. Changes effected

by disease. Physiological remarks on wounds of the thorax and on

pleuritic effusion. Symmetry of the organs, &c.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 23

THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE DEEPER ORGANS

OF THE THORAX AND THOSE OF THE ABDOMEN.

Of the heart in reference to auscultation and percussion. Of the lungs,

ditto. Relative capacity of the thorax and abdomen as influenced by the

motions of the diaphragm. Abdominal respiration. Physical causes of

abdominal herniae. Enlarged liver as affecting the capacity of the

thorax and abdomen. Physiological remarks on wounds of the lungs.

Pneumothorax, emphysema, &c.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 24

THE RELATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOODVESSELS TO THE

VISCERA OF THE THORACICO-ABDOMINAL CAVITY.

Symmetrical arrangement of the vessels arising from the median

thoracico-abdominal aorta, &c. Special relations of the aorta. Aortic

sounds. Aortic aneurism and its effects on neighbouring organs.

Paracentesis thoracis. Physical causes of dropsy. Hepatic abscess.

Chronic enlargements of the liver and spleen as affecting the relative

position of other parts. Biliary concretions. Wounds of the intestines.

Artificial anus.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 25

THE RELATION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOODVESSELS OF

THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN TO THE OSSEOUS SKELETON.

The vessels conforming to the shape of the skeleton. Analogy between the

branches arising from both ends of the aorta. Their normal and abnormal

conditions. Varieties as to the length of these arteries considered

surgically. Measurements of the abdomen and thorax compared.

Anastomosing branches of the thoracic and abdominal parts of the aorta.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 26

THE RELATION OF THE INTERNAL PARTS TO THE EXTERNAL SURFACE.

In health and disease. Displacement of the lungs from pleuritic

effusion. Paracentesis thoracis. Hydrops pericardii. Puncturation.

Abdominal and ovarian dropsy as influencing the position of the viscera.

Diagnosis of both dropsies. Paracentesis abdominis. Vascular

obstructions and their effects.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 27

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE SUPERFICIAL PARTS AND

BLOODVESSELS OF THE INGUINO-FEMORAL REGION.

Physical causes of the greater frequency of inguinal and femoral

herniae. The surface considered in reference to the subjacent parts.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 28 & 29

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE FIRST, SECOND, THIRD, AND

FOURTH LAYERS OF THE INGUINAL REGION, IN CONNEXION WITH THOSE

OF THE THIGH.

The external abdominal ring and spermatic cord. Cremaster muscle--how

formed. The parts considered in reference to inguinal hernia. The

saphenous opening, spermatic cord, and femoral vessels in relation to

femoral hernia.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 30 & 31

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE FIFTH, SIXTH, SEVENTH, AND

EIGHTH LAYERS OF THE INGUINAL REGION, AND THEIR CONNEXION WITH

THOSE OF THE THIGH.

The conjoined tendon, internal inguinal ring, and cremaster muscle,

considered in reference to the descent of the testicle and of the

hernia. The structure and direction of the inguinal canal.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 32, 33, & 34

THE DISSECTION OF THE OBLIQUE OR EXTERNAL,

AND OF THE DIRECT OR INTERNAL INGUINAL HERNIA.

Their points of origin and their relations to the inguinal rings. The

triangle of Hesselbach. Investments and varieties of the external

inguinal hernia, its relations to the epigastric artery, and its

position in the canal. Bubonocele, complete and scrotal varieties in the

male. Internal inguinal hernia considered in reference to the same

points. Corresponding varieties of both herniae in the female.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 35, 36, 37, & 38

THE DISTINCTIVE DIAGNOSIS BETWEEN EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL

INGUINAL HERNIAE, THE TAXIS, SEAT OF STRICTURE, AND THE OPERATION.

Both herniae compared as to position and structural characters. The

co-existence of both rendering diagnosis difficult. The oblique changing

to the direct hernia as to position, but not in relation to the

epigastric artery. The taxis performed in reference to the position of

both as regards the canal and abdominal rings. The seat of stricture

varying. The sac. The lines of incision required to avoid the epigastric

artery. Necessity for opening the sac.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 39 & 40

DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE NATURE OF CONGENITAL AND

INFANTILE INGUINAL HERNIAE, AND OF HYDROCELE.

Descent of the testicle. The testicle in the scrotum. Isolation of its

tunica vaginalis. The tunica vaginalis communicating with the abdomen.

Sacculated serous spermatic canal. Hydrocele of the isolated tunica

vaginalis. Congenital hernia and hydrocele. Infantile hernia. Oblique

inguinal hernia. How formed and characterized.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 41 & 42

DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS

OF INGUINAL HERNIAE IN GENERAL.

Formation of the serous sac. Formation of congenital hernia. Hernia in

the canal of Nuck. Formation of infantile hernia. Dilatation of the

serous sac. Funnel-shaped investments of the hernia. Descent of the

hernia like that of the testicle. Varieties of infantile hernia.

Sacculated cord. Oblique internal inguinal hernia--cannot be congenital.

Varieties of internal hernia. Direct external hernia. Varieties of the

inguinal canal.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 43 & 44

THE DISSECTION OF FEMORAL HERNIA AND THE SEAT OF STRICTURE.

Compared with the inguinal variety. Position and relations. Sheath of

the femoral vessels and of the hernia. Crural ring and canal. Formation

of the sac. Saphenous opening. Relations of the hernia. Varieties of the

obturator and epigastric arteries. Course of the hernia. Investments.

Causes and situations of the stricture.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 45 & 46

DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF FEMORAL

HERNIA; ITS DIAGNOSIS, THE TAXIS, AND THE OPERATION.

Its course compared with that of the inguinal hernia. Its investments

and relations. Its diagnosis from inguinal hernia, &c. Its varieties.

Mode of performing the taxis according to the course of the hernia. The

operation for the strangulated condition. Proper lines in which

incisions should be made. Necessity for and mode of opening the sac.

COMMENTARY ON PLATE 47

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE PRINCIPAL BLOODVESSELS

AND NERVES OF THE ILIAC AND FEMORAL REGIONS.

The femoral triangle. Eligible place for tying the femoral artery. The

operations of Scarpa and Hunter. Remarks on the common femoral artery.

Ligature of the external iliac artery according to the seat of aneurism.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 48 & 49

THE RELATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MALE PELVIC ORGANS.

Physiological remarks on the functions of the abdominal muscles. Effects

of spinal injuries on the processes of defecation and micturition.

Function of the bladder. Its change of form and position in various

states. Relation to the peritonaeum. Neck of the bladder. The prostate.

Puncturation of the bladder by the rectum. The pudic artery.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 50 & 51

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE SUPERFICIAL

STRUCTURES OF THE MALE PERINAEUM.

Remarks on the median line. Congenital malformations. Extravasation of

urine into the sac of the superficial fascia. Symmetry of the parts.

Surgical boundaries of the perinaeum. Median and lateral important parts

to be avoided in lithotomy, and the operation for fistula in ano.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 52 & 53

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE DEEP STRUCTURES OF THE MALE

PERINAEUM; THE LATERAL OPERATION OF LITHOTOMY.

Relative position of the parts at the base of the bladder. Puncture of

the bladder through the rectum and of the urethra in the perinaeum.

General rules for lithotomy.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 54, 55, & 56

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE MALE BLADDER AND URETHRA;

LATERAL AND BILATERAL LITHOTOMY COMPARED.

Lines of incision in both operations. Urethral muscles--their analogies

and significations. Direction, form, length, structure, &c., of the

urethra at different ages. Third lobe of the prostate. Physiological

remarks. Trigone vesical. Bas fond of the bladder. Natural form of the

prostate at different ages.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 57 & 58

CONGENITAL AND PATHOLOGICAL DEFORMITIES OF THE PREPUCE AND URETHRA;

STRICTURES AND MECHANICAL OBSTRUCTIONS OF THE URETHRA.

General remarks. Congenital phymosis. Gonorrhoeal paraphymosis and

phymosis. Effect of circumcision. Protrusion of the glans through an

ulcerated opening in the prepuce. Congenital hypospadias. Ulcerated

perforations of the urethra. Congenital epispadias. Urethral fistula,

stricture, and catheterism. Sacculated urethra. Stricture opposite the

bulb and the membranous portion of the urethra. Observations respecting

the frequency of stricture in these parts. Calculus at the bulb. Polypus

of the urethra. Calculus in its membranous portion. Stricture midway

between the meatus and bulb. Old callous stricture, its form, &c.

Spasmodic stricture of the urethra by the urethral muscles. Organic

stricture. Surgical observations.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 59 & 60

THE VARIOUS FORMS AND POSITIONS OF STRICTURES AND OTHER

OBSTRUCTIONS OF THE URETHRA; FALSE PASSAGES; ENLARGEMENTS

AND DEFORMITIES OF THE PROSTATE.

General remarks. Different forms of the organic stricture. Coexistence

of several. Prostatic abscess distorting and constricting the urethra.

Perforation of the prostate by catheters. Series of gradual enlargements

of the third lobe of the prostate. Distortion of the canal by the

enlarged third lobe--by the irregular enlargement of the three lobes--by

a nipple-shaped excrescence at the vesical orifice.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 61 & 62

DEFORMITIES OF THE PROSTATE; DISTORTIONS AND

OBSTRUCTIONS OF THE PROSTATIC URETHRA.

Observations on the nature of the prostate--its signification. Cases of

prostate and bulb pouched by catheters. Obstructions of the vesical

orifice. Sinuous prostatic canal. Distortions of the vesical orifice.

Large prostatic calculus. Sacculated prostate. Triple prostatic urethra.

Encrusted prostate. Fasciculated bladder. Prostatic sac distinct from

the bladder. Practical remarks. Impaction of a large calculus in the

prostate. Practical remarks.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 63 & 64

DEFORMITIES OF THE URINARY BLADDER; THE OPERATIONS OF SOUNDING FOR STONE;

OF CATHETERISM AND OF PUNCTURING THE BLADDER ABOVE THE PUBES.

General remarks on the causes of the various deformities, and of the

formation of stone. Lithic diathesis--its signification. The sacculated

bladder considered in reference to sounding, to catheterism, to

puncturation, and to lithotomy. Polypi in the bladder. Dilated ureters.

The operation of catheterism. General rules to be followed. Remarks on

the operation of puncturing the bladder above the pubes.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 65 & 66

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE POPLITEAL SPACE,

AND THE POSTERIOR CRURAL REGION.

Varieties of the popliteal and posterior crural vessels. Remarks on

popliteal aneurism, and the operation for tying the popliteal artery, in

wounds of this vessel. Wounds of the posterior crural arteries requiring

double ligatures. The operations necessary for reaching these vessels.

COMMENTARY ON PLATES 67 & 68

THE SURGICAL DISSECTION OF THE ANTERIOR CRURAL REGION;

THE ANKLES AND THE FOOT.

Varieties of the anterior and posterior tibial and the peronaeal

arteries. The operations for tying these vessels in several situations.

Practical observations on wounds of the arteries of the leg and foot.

CONCLUDING COMMENTARY

ON THE FORM AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM AS A

WHOLE; ANOMALIES; RAMIFICATION; ANASTOMOSIS.

The double heart. Universal systemic capillary anastomosis. Its

division, by the median line, into two great lateral fields--those

subdivided into two systems or provinces--viz., pulmonary and systemic.

Relation of pulmonary and systemic circulating vessels. Motions of the

heart. Circulation of the blood through the lungs and system. Symmetry

of the hearts and their vessels. Development of the heart and primary

vessels. Their stages of metamorphosis simulating the permanent

conditions of the parts in lower animals. The primitive branchial arches

undergoing metamorphosis. Completion of these changes. Interpretation of

the varieties of form in the heart and primary vessels. Signification of

their normal condition. The portal system no exception to the law of

vascular symmetry. Signification of the portal system. The liver and

spleen as homologous organs,--as parts of the same whole quantity.

Cardiac anastomosing vessels. Vasa vasorum. Anastomosing branches of the

systemic aorta considered in reference to the operations of arresting by

ligature the direct circulation through the arteries of the head, neck,

upper limbs, pelvis, and lower limbs. The collateral circulation.

Practical observations on the most eligible situations for tying each of

the principal vessels, as determined by the greatest number of their

anastomosing branches on either side of the ligature, and the largest

amount of the collateral circulation that may be thereby carried on for

the support of distal parts.

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