The Golden Bough: A Study in Comparative Religion (Vol. 2 of 2)
Date: 2012-11-12T00:00:00+00:00
Keywords: Religion; Magic; Superstition; Mythology

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Title: The Golden Bough: A Study in Comparative Religion (Vol. 2 of 2)

Author: James George Frazer

Release date: November 12, 2012 [eBook #41359]

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/41359

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH: A STUDY IN COMPARATIVE RELIGION (VOL. 2 OF 2) ***

The Golden Bough

A Study in Comparative Religion

By

James George Frazer, M.A.

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge

In Two Volumes.

Vol. II.

New York and London

MacMillan and Co.

1894

Contents

- Chapter III—(continued).

- § 10.—The corn-spirit as an animal.

- § 11.—Eating the god.

- § 12.—Killing the divine animal.

- § 13.—Transference of evil.

- § 14.—Expulsion of evils,

- § 15.—Scapegoats.

- § 16.—Killing the god in Mexico.

- Chapter IV—The Golden Bough.

- § 1.—Between heaven and earth.

- § 2.—Balder.

- § 3.—The external soul in folk-tales.

- § 4.—The external soul in folk-custom.

- § 5.—Conclusion.

- Note. Offerings of first-fruits.

- Index.

- Footnotes

[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter at Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.]

[pg 001]

Chapter III—(continued).

§ 10.—The corn-spirit as an animal.

In some of the examples cited above to establish the meaning of the term “neck” as applied to the last sheaf, the corn-spirit appears in animal form as a gander, a goat, a hare, a cat, and a fox. This introduces us to a new aspect of the corn-spirit, which we must now examine. By doing so we shall not only have fresh examples of killing the god, but may hope also to clear up some points which remain obscure in the myths and worship of Attis, Adonis, Osiris, Dionysus, Demeter, and Virbius.

Amongst the many animals whose forms the corn-spirit is supposed to take are the wolf, dog, hare, cock, goose, cat, goat, cow (ox, bull), pig, and horse. In one or other of these forms the corn-spirit is believed to be present in the corn, and to be caught or killed in the last sheaf. As the corn is being cut the animal flees before the reapers, and if a reaper is taken ill on the field, he is supposed to have stumbled unwittingly on the corn-spirit, who has thus punished the profane intruder. It is said “The Rye-wolf has got hold of him,” “the Harvest-goat has given him a push.” The person who cuts the last corn or binds the last sheaf gets the name of the animal, as the Rye-wolf, [pg 002] the Rye-sow, the Oats-goat, etc., and retains the name sometimes for a year. Also the animal is frequently represented by a puppet made out of the last sheaf or of wood, flowers, etc., which is carried home amid rejoicings on the last harvest waggon. Even where the last sheaf is not made up in animal shape, it is often called the Rye-wolf, the Hare, Goat, and so on. Generally each kind of crop is supposed to have its special animal, which is caught in the last sheaf, and called the Rye-wolf, the Barley-wolf, the Oats-wolf, the Pea-wolf, or the Potato-wolf, according to the crop; but sometimes the figure of the animal is only made up once for all at getting in the last crop of the whole harvest. Sometimes the animal is believed to be killed by the last stroke of the sickle or scythe. But oftener it is thought to live so long as there is corn still unthreshed, and to be caught in the last sheaf threshed. Hence the man who gives the last stroke with the flail is told that he has got the Corn-sow, the Threshing-dog, etc. When the threshing is finished, a puppet is made in the form of the animal, and this is carried by the thresher of the last sheaf to a neighbouring farm, where the threshing is still going on. This again shows that the corn-spirit is believed to live wherever the corn is still being threshed. Sometimes the thresher of the last sheaf himself represents the animal; and if the people of the next farm, who are still threshing, catch him, they treat him like the animal he represents, by shutting him up in the pig-sty, calling him with the cries commonly addressed to pigs, and so forth.1

These general statements will now be illustrated by examples. We begin with the corn-spirit conceived [pg 003] as a wolf or a dog. This conception is common in France, Germany, and Slavonic countries. Thus, when the wind sets the corn in wave-like motion, the peasants often say, “The Wolf is going over, or through, the corn,” “the Rye-wolf is rushing over the field,” “the Wolf is in the corn,” “the mad Dog is in the corn,” “the big Dog is there.”2 When children wish to go into the corn-fields to pluck ears or gather the blue corn-flowers, they are warned not to do so, for “the big Dog sits in the corn,” or “the Wolf sits in the corn, and will tear you in pieces,” “the Wolf will eat you.” The wolf against whom the children are warned is not a common wolf, for he is often spoken of as the Corn-wolf, Rye-wolf, etc.; thus they say, “The Rye-wolf will come and eat you up, children,” “the Rye-wolf will carry you off,” and so forth.3 Still he has all the outward appearance of a wolf. For in the neighbourhood of Feilenhof (East Prussia), when a wolf was seen running through a field, the peasants used to watch whether he carried his tail in the air or dragged it on the ground. If he dragged it on the ground, they went after him, and thanked him for bringing them a blessing, and even set tit-bits before him. But if he carried his tail high, they cursed him and tried to kill him. Here the wolf is the corn-spirit, whose fertilising power is in his tail.4

Both dog and wolf appear as embodiments of the corn-spirit in harvest-customs. Thus in some parts [pg 004] of Silesia the person who binds the last sheaf is called the Wheat-dog or the Peas-pug.5 But it is in the harvest-customs of the north-east of France that the idea of the Corn-dog comes out most clearly. Thus when a harvester, through sickness, weariness, or laziness, cannot or will not keep up with the reaper in front of him, they say, “The White Dog passed near him,” “he has the White Bitch,” or “the White Bitch has bitten him.”6 In the Vosges the Harvest-May is called the “Dog of the harvest.”7 About Lons-le-Saulnier, in the Jura, the last sheaf is called the Bitch. In the neighbourhood of Verdun the regular expression for finishing the reaping is, “They are going to kill the Dog;” and at Épinal they say, according to the crop, “We will kill the Wheat-dog, or the Rye-dog, or the Potato-dog.”8 In Lorraine it is said of the man who cuts the last corn, “He is killing the Dog of the harvest.”9 At Dux, in the Tyrol, the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is said to “strike down the Dog;”10 and at Ahnebergen, near Stade, he is called, according to the crop, Corn-pug, Rye-pug, Wheat-pug.11

So with the wolf. In Germany it is said that “The Wolf sits in the last sheaf.”12 In some places they call out to the reaper, “Beware of the Wolf;” or they say, “He is chasing the Wolf out of the corn.”13 The last bunch of standing corn is called the Wolf, and the man who cuts it “has the Wolf.” The last sheaf is also called the Wolf; and of the woman who binds it they say, “The Wolf is biting her,” “she has the [pg 005] Wolf,” “she must fetch the Wolf” (out of the corn).14 Moreover, she is herself called Wolf and has to bear the name for a whole year; sometimes, according to the crop, she is called the Rye-wolf or the Potato-wolf.15 In the island of Rügen they call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf, “You're Wolf;” and when she comes home she bites the lady of the house and the stewardess, for which she receives a large piece of meat. The same woman may be Rye-wolf, Wheat-wolf, and Oats-wolf, if she happens to bind the last sheaf of rye, wheat, and oats.16 At Buir, in the district of Cologne, it was formerly the custom to give to the last sheaf the shape of a wolf. It was kept in the barn till all the corn was threshed. Then it was brought to the farmer, and he had to sprinkle it with beer or brandy.17 In many places the sheaf called the Wolf is made up in human form and dressed in clothes. This indicates a confusion between the conceptions of the corn-spirit as theriomorphic (in animal form) and as anthropomorphic (in human form).18 Generally the Wolf is brought home on the last waggon, with joyful cries.19

Again, the Wolf is supposed to hide himself amongst the cut corn in the granary, until he is driven out of the last bundle by the strokes of the flail. Hence at Wanzleben, near Magdeburg, after the threshing the peasants go in procession, leading by a chain a man, who is enveloped in the threshed out straw and is called the Wolf.20 He represents the corn-spirit who has been caught escaping from the threshed corn. In Trier it is believed that the Corn-wolf [pg 006] is killed at threshing. The men thresh the last sheaf till it is reduced to chopped straw. In this way they think that the Corn-wolf who was lurking in the last sheaf, has been certainly killed.21

In France also the Corn-wolf appears at harvest. Thus they call out to the reaper of the last corn, “You will catch the Wolf.” Near Chambéry they form a ring round the last standing corn, and cry, “The Wolf is in there.” In Finisterre, when the reaping draws near an end, the harvesters cry, “There is the Wolf; we will catch him.” Each takes a swath to reap, and he who finishes first calls out, “I've caught the Wolf.”22 In Guyenne, when the last corn has been reaped, they lead a wether all round the field. It is called “the Wolf of the field.” Its horns are decked with a wreath of flowers and corn-ears, and its neck and body are also encircled with garlands and ribbons. All the reapers march, singing, behind it. Then it is killed on the field. In this part of France the last sheaf is called the coujoulage, which, in the patois, means a wether. Hence the killing of the wether represents the death of the corn-spirit, considered as present in the last sheaf; but two different conceptions of the corn-spirit—as a wolf and as a wether—are mixed up together.23

Sometimes it appears to be thought that the Wolf, caught in the last corn, lives during the winter in the farmhouse, ready to renew his activity as corn-spirit in the spring. Hence at midwinter, when the lengthening days begin to herald the approach of spring, the Wolf makes his appearance once more. In Poland a man, with a wolf's skin thrown over his head, is led about at Christmas; or a stuffed wolf is carried about by [pg 007] persons who collect money.24 There are facts which point to an old custom of leading about a man enveloped in leaves and called the Wolf, while his conductors collected money.25

Another form which the corn-spirit often assumes is that of a cock. In Austria children are warned against straying in the corn-fields, because the Corn-cock sits there, and will peck their eyes out.26 In North Germany they say that “the Cock sits in the last sheaf;” and at cutting the last corn the reapers cry, “Now we will chase out the Cock.” When it is cut they say, “We have caught the Cock.” Then a cock is made of flowers, fastened on a pole, and carried home by the reapers, singing as they go.27 At Braller, in Transylvania, when the reapers come to the last patch of corn, they cry, “Here we shall catch the Cock.”28 At Fürstenwalde, when the last sheaf is about to be bound, the master lets loose a cock, which he has brought in a basket, and lets it run over the field. All the harvesters chase it till they catch it. Elsewhere the harvesters all try to seize the last corn cut; he who succeeds in grasping it must crow, and is called Cock.29 The last sheaf is called Cock, Cock-sheaf, Harvest-cock, Harvest-hen, Autumn-hen. A distinction is made between a Wheat-cock, Bean-cock, etc., according to the crop.30 At Wünschensuhl, in Thüringen, the last sheaf is made into the shape of a cock, and called Harvest-cock.31 A figure of a cock, [pg 008] made of wood, pasteboard, or ears of corn, is borne in front of the harvest-waggon, especially in Westphalia, where the cock carries in his beak fruits of the earth of all kinds. Sometimes the image of the cock is fastened to the top of a May-tree on the last harvest-waggon. Elsewhere a live cock, or a figure of one, is attached to a harvest-crown and carried on a pole. In Galicia and elsewhere this live cock is fastened to the garland of corn-ears or flowers, which the leader of the women-reapers carries on her head as she marches in front of the harvest procession.32 In Silesia a live cock is presented to the master on a plate. The harvest supper is called Harvest-cock, Stubble-cock, etc., and a chief dish at it, at least in some places, is a cock.33 If a waggoner upsets a harvest-waggon, it is said that “he has spilt the Harvest-cock,” and he loses the cock—that is, the harvest supper.34 The harvest-waggon, with the figure of the cock on it, is driven round the farmhouse before it is taken to the barn. Then the cock is nailed over, or at the side of the house door, or on the gable, and remains there till next harvest.35 In East Friesland the person who gives the last stroke at threshing is called the Clucking-hen, and grain is strewed before him as if he were a hen.36

Again, the corn-spirit is killed in the form of [pg 009] a cock. In parts of Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Picardy, the reapers place a live cock in the corn which is to be cut last, and chase it over the field, or bury it up to the neck in the ground; afterwards they strike off its head with a sickle or scythe.37 In many parts of Westphalia, when the harvesters bring the wooden cock to the farmer, he gives them a live cock, which they kill with whips or sticks, or behead with an old sword, or throw it into the barn to the girls, or give it to the mistress to cook. If the Harvest-cock has not been spilt—that is, if no waggon has been upset—the harvesters have the right of killing the farmyard cock by throwing stones at it or beheading it. Where this custom has fallen into disuse, it is still common for the farmer's wife to make cockie-leekie for the harvesters, and to show them the head of the cock which has been killed for the soup.38 In the neighbourhood of Klausenburg, Transylvania, a cock is buried on the harvest-field in the earth, so that only its head appears. A young man then takes a scythe and cuts off the cock's head at a single stroke. If he fails to do this, he is called the Red Cock for a whole year, and people fear that next year's crop will be bad.39 In the neighbourhood of Udvarhely, Transylvania, a live cock is bound up in the last sheaf and killed with a spit. It is then skinned. The flesh is thrown away, but the skin and feathers are kept till next year; and in spring the grain from the last sheaf is mixed with the feathers of the cock and scattered on the field which is to be tilled.40 Nothing could set in a clearer [pg 010] light the identification of the cock with the spirit of the corn. By being tied up in the last sheaf and killed, the cock is identified with the corn, and its death with the cutting of the corn. By keeping its feathers till spring, then mixing them with the seed-corn taken from the very sheaf in which the bird had been bound, and scattering the feathers together with the seed over the field, the identity of the bird with the corn is again emphasised, and its quickening and fertilising power, as the corn-spirit, is intimated in the plainest manner. Thus the corn-spirit, in the form of a cock, is killed at harvest, but rises to fresh life and activity in spring. Again, the equivalence of the cock to the corn is expressed, hardly less plainly, in the custom of burying the bird in the ground, and cutting off its head (like the ears of corn) with the scythe.

Another common embodiment of the corn-spirit is the hare.41 In some parts of Ayrshire the cutting of the last corn is called “cutting the Hare;”42 and in Germany a name for the last sheaf is the Hare.43 In East Prussia they say that the Hare sits in the last patch of standing corn, and must be chased out by the last reaper. The reapers hurry with their work, each being anxious not to have “to chase out the Hare;” for the man who does so, that is, who cuts the last corn, is much laughed at.44 At Birk in Transylvania, when the reapers come to the last patch, they cry out, “We have the Hare.”45 At Aurich, as we have seen,46 an expression for cutting the last corn is “to cut off the Hare's tail.” “He is killing the Hare” is [pg 011] commonly said of the man who cuts the last corn in Germany, Sweden, Holland, France, and Italy.47 In Norway the man who is thus said to “kill the Hare” must give “hare's blood,” in the form of brandy, to his fellows to drink.48

Again, the corn-spirit sometimes takes the form of a cat.49 Near Kiel children are warned not to go into the corn-fields because “the Cat sits there.” In the Eisenach Oberland they are told “the Corn-cat will come and fetch you,” “the Corn-cat goes in the corn.” In some parts of Silesia at mowing the last corn they say, “the Cat is caught;” and at threshing, the man who gives the last stroke is called the Cat. In the neighbourhood of Lyons the last sheaf and the harvest supper are both called the Cat. About Vesoul when they cut the last corn they say, “We have the Cat by the tail.” At Briançon, in Dauphiné, at the beginning of reaping, a cat is decked out with ribbons, flowers, and ears of corn. It is called the Cat of the ball-skin (le chat de peau de balle). If a reaper is wounded at his work, they make the cat lick the wound. At the close of the reaping the cat is again decked out with ribbons and ears of corn; then there is dancing and merriment. When the dance is over, the cat is solemnly stripped of its ornaments by the girls. At Grüneberg in Silesia the reaper who cuts the last corn is called the Tom-cat. He is enveloped in rye-stalks and green withes, and is furnished with a long plaited tail. Sometimes as a companion he has a man similarly dressed, who is called the (female) Cat. Their duty is to run after people whom they see and beat them with a long stick. Near Amiens the [pg 012] expression for finishing the harvest is, “They are going to kill the Cat;” and when the last corn is cut a cat is killed in the farmyard. At threshing, in some parts of France, a live cat is placed under the last bundle of corn to be threshed, and is struck dead with the flails. Then on Sunday it is roasted and eaten as a holiday dish.

Further, the corn-spirit often appears in the form of a goat. In the province of Prussia, when the corn bends before the wind, they say, “The Goats are chasing each other,” “the wind is driving the Goats through the corn,” “the Goats are browsing there,” and they expect a very good harvest. Again they say, “the Oats-goat is sitting in the oats-field,” “the Corn-goat is sitting in the rye-field.”50 Children are warned not to go into the corn-fields to pluck the blue cornflowers, or amongst the beans to pluck pods, because the Rye-goat, the Corn-goat, the Oats-goat, or the Bean-goat is sitting or lying there, and will carry them away or kill them.51 When a harvester is taken sick or lags behind his fellows at their work, they call out, “The Harvest-goat has pushed him,” “he has been pushed by the Corn-goat.”52 In the neighbourhood of Braunsberg (East Prussia) at binding the oats every harvester makes haste “lest the Corn-goat push him.” At Oefoten in Norway each harvester has his allotted patch to reap. When a harvester in the middle has not finished reaping his piece after his neighbours have finished theirs, they say of him, “He remains on the island.” And if the laggard is a man, they imitate the cry with which they call a he-goat; if a woman, the cry with which they call a she-goat.53 Near Straubing [pg 013] in Lower Bavaria, it is said of the man who cuts the last corn that “he has the Corn-goat or the Wheat-goat, or the Oats-goat,” according to the crop. Moreover, two horns are set up on the last heap of corn, and it is called “the horned Goat.” At Kreutzburg, East Prussia, they call out to the woman who is binding the last sheaf, “The Goat is sitting in the sheaf.”54 At Gablingen in Swabia, when the last field of oats upon a farm is being reaped, the reapers carve a goat out of wood. Ears of oats are inserted in its nostrils and mouth, and it is adorned with garlands of flowers. It is set upon the field and called the Oats-goat. When the reaping approaches an end, each reaper hastens to finish his piece first; he who is the last to finish gets the Oats-goat.55 Again, the last sheaf is itself called the Goat. Thus, in the valley of the Wiesent, Bavaria, the last sheaf bound on the field is called the Goat, and they have a proverb, “The field must bear a goat.”56 At Spachbrücken in Hesse, the last handful of corn which is cut is called the Goat, and the man who cuts it is much ridiculed.57 Sometimes the last sheaf is made up in the form of a goat,58 and they say, “The Goat is sitting in it.” Again, the person who cuts or binds the last sheaf is called the Goat. Thus, in parts of Mecklenburg they call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf, “You are the Harvest-goat.” In the neighbourhood of Uelzen in Hanover, the harvest festival begins with “the bringing of the Harvest-goat;” that is, the woman who bound the last sheaf is wrapt in straw, crowned with a harvest-wreath, and brought in a wheelbarrow [pg 014] to the village, where a round dance takes place. About Lüneburg, also, the woman who binds the last corn is decked with a crown of corn-ears and is called the Corn-goat.59 In the Canton St. Gall, Switzerland, the person who cuts the last handful of corn on the field, or drives the last harvest-waggon to the barn, is called the Corn-goat or the Rye-goat, or simply the Goat.60 In the Canton Thurgau he is called Corn-goat; like a goat he has a bell hung round his neck, is led in triumph, and drenched with liquor. In parts of Styria, also, the man who cuts the last corn is called Corn-goat, Oats-goat, etc. As a rule, the man who thus gets the name of Corn-goat has to bear it a whole year till the next harvest.61

According to one view, the corn-spirit, who has been caught in the form of a goat or otherwise, lives in the farmhouse or barn over winter. Thus, each farm has its own embodiment of the corn-spirit. But, according to another view, the corn-spirit is the genius or deity, not of the corn of one farm only, but of all the corn. Hence when the corn on one farm is all cut, he flees to another where there is still corn left standing. This idea is brought out in a harvest-custom which was formerly observed in Skye. The farmer who first finished reaping sent a man or woman with a sheaf to a neighbouring farmer who had not finished; the latter in his turn, when he had finished, sent on the sheaf to his neighbour who was still reaping; and so the sheaf made the round of the farms till all the corn was cut. The sheaf was called the goabbir bhacagh, that is, the Cripple Goat.62 The corn-spirit was probably thus represented as lame because he had been [pg 015] crippled by the cutting of the corn. We have seen that sometimes the old woman who brings home the last sheaf must limp on one foot.63 In the Böhmer Wald mountains, between Bohemia and Bavaria, when two peasants are driving home their corn together, they race against each other to see who shall get home first. The village boys mark the loser in the race, and at night they come and erect on the roof of his house the Oats-goat, which is a colossal figure of a goat made of straw.64

But sometimes the corn-spirit, in the form of a goat, is believed to be slain on the harvest-field by the sickle or scythe. Thus, in the neighbourhood of Bernkastel, on the Moselle, the reapers determine by lot the order in which they shall follow each other. The first is called the fore-reaper, the last the tail-bearer. If a reaper overtakes the man in front he reaps past him, bending round so as to leave the slower reaper in a patch by himself. This patch is called the Goat; and the man for whom “the Goat is cut” in this way, is laughed and jeered at by his fellows for the rest of the day. When the tail-bearer cuts the last ears of corn, it is said “He is cutting the Goat's neck off.”65 In the neighbourhood of Grenoble, before the end of the reaping, a live goat is adorned with flowers and ribbons and allowed to run about the field. The reapers chase it and try to catch it. When it is caught, the farmer's wife holds it fast while the farmer cuts off its head. The goat's flesh serves to furnish the harvest supper. A piece of the flesh is pickled and kept till the next harvest, when another goat is killed. Then all the harvesters eat [pg 016] of the flesh. On the same day the skin of the goat is made into a cloak, which the farmer, who works with his men, must always wear at harvest-time if rain or bad weather sets in. But if a reaper gets pains in his back, the farmer gives him the goat-skin to wear.66 The reason for this seems to be that the pains in the back, being inflicted by the corn-spirit, can also be healed by it. Similarly we saw that elsewhere, when a reaper is wounded at reaping, a cat, as the representative of the corn-spirit, is made to lick the wound.67 Esthonian reapers in the island of Mon think that the man who cuts the first ears of corn at harvest will get pains in his back,68—probably because the corn-spirit is believed to resent especially the first wound; and, in order to escape pains in the back, Saxon reapers in Transylvania gird their loins with the first handful of ears which they cut.69 Here, again, the corn-spirit is applied to for healing or protection, but in his original vegetable form, not in the form of a goat or a cat.

Further, the corn-spirit under the form of a goat is sometimes conceived as lurking among the cut corn in the barn, till he is driven from it by the threshing-flail. For example, in the neighbourhood of Marktl in Upper Bavaria the sheaves are called Straw-goats or simply Goats. They are laid in a great heap on the open field and threshed by two rows of men standing opposite each other, who, as they ply their flails, sing a song in which they say that they see the Straw-goat amongst the corn-stalks. The last Goat, that is, the last sheaf, is adorned with a wreath of violets and other [pg 017] flowers and with cakes strung together. It is placed right in the middle of the heap. Some of the threshers rush at it and tear the best of it out; others lay on with their flails so recklessly that heads are sometimes broken. In threshing this last sheaf, each man casts up to the man opposite him the misdeeds of which he has been guilty throughout the year.70 At Oberinntal in Tyrol the last thresher is called Goat.71 At Tettnang in Würtemberg the thresher who gives the last stroke to the last bundle of corn before it is turned goes by the name of the He-goat, and it is said “he has driven the He-goat away.” The person who, after the bundle has been turned, gives the last stroke of all, is called the She-goat.72 In this custom it is implied that the corn is inhabited by a pair of corn-spirits, male and female. Further, the corn-spirit, captured in the form of a goat at threshing, is passed on to a neighbour whose threshing is not yet finished. In Franche Comté, as soon as the threshing is over, the young people set up a straw figure of a goat on the farmyard of a neighbour who is still threshing. He must give them wine or money in return. At Ellwangen in Würtemberg the effigy of a goat is made out of the last bundle of corn at threshing; four sticks form its legs, and two its horns. The man who gives the last stroke with the flail must carry the Goat to the barn of a neighbour who is still threshing and throw it down on the floor; if he is caught in the act, they tie the Goat on his back.73 A similar custom is observed at Indersdorf in Upper Bavaria; the man who throws the straw Goat into the neighbour's barn imitates the bleating of a goat; if they [pg 018] catch him they blacken his face and tie the Goat on his back.74 At Zabern in Elsass, when a farmer is a week or more behind his neighbours with his threshing, they set a real stuffed goat (or fox) before his door.75 Sometimes the spirit of the corn in goat form is believed to be killed at threshing. In the district of Traunstein, Upper Bavaria, it is thought that the Oats-goat is in the last sheaf of oats. He is represented by an old rake set up on end, with an old pot for a head. The children are then told to kill the Oats-goat.76 A stranger passing a harvest-field is sometimes taken for the Corn-goat escaping in human shape from the cut or threshed grain. Thus, when a stranger passes a harvest-field, all the labourers stop and shout as with one voice “He-goat! He-goat!” At rape-seed threshing in Schleswig, which generally takes place on the field, the same cry is raised if the stranger does not take off his hat.77

At sowing their winter corn the Prussian Slavs used to kill a goat, consume its flesh with many superstitious ceremonies, and hang the skin on a high pole near an oak and a large stone. Here it remained till harvest. Then, after a prayer had been offered by a peasant who acted as priest (Weidulut) the young folk joined hands and danced round the oak and the pole. Afterwards they scrambled for the bunch of corn, and the priest distributed the herbs with a sparing hand. Then he placed the goat-skin on the large stone, sat down on it and preached to the people about the history of their forefathers and their old heathen customs and beliefs.78 The goat-skin thus suspended [pg 019] on the field from sowing time to harvest represents the corn-spirit superintending the growth of the corn.

Another form which the corn-spirit often assumes is that of a bull, cow, or ox. When the wind sweeps over the corn they say at Conitz in West Prussia, “The Steer is running in the corn;”79 when the corn is thick and strong in one spot, they say in some parts of East Prussia, “The Bull is lying in the corn.” When a harvester has overstrained and lamed himself, they say in the Graudenz district (West Prussia), “The Bull pushed him;” in Lothringen they say, “He has the Bull.” The meaning of both expressions is that he has unwittingly lighted upon the divine corn-spirit, who has punished the profane intruder with lameness.80 So near Chambéry when a reaper wounds himself with his sickle, it is said that he has “the wound of the Ox.”81 In the district of Bunzlau the last sheaf is sometimes made into the shape of a horned ox, stuffed with tow and wrapt in corn-ears. This figure is called the Old Man (der Alte). In some parts of Bohemia the last sheaf is made up in human form and called the Buffalo-bull.82 These cases show a confusion between the anthropomorphic and the theriomorphic conception of the corn-spirit. The confusion is parallel to that of killing a wether under the name of a wolf.83 In the Canton of Thurgau, Switzerland, the last sheaf, if it is a large one, is called the Cow.84 All over Swabia the last bundle of corn on the field is called the Cow; the man who cuts the last ears “has the Cow,” and is himself called Cow or Barley-cow or Oats-cow, according to the crop; at the harvest supper he gets a nosegay of flowers and corn-ears and a more liberal allowance of drink than the rest. [pg 020] But he is teased and laughed at; so no one likes to be the Cow.85 The Cow was sometimes represented by the figure of a woman made out of ears of corn and corn-flowers. It was carried to the farmhouse by the man who had cut the last handful of corn. The children ran after him and the neighbours turned out to laugh at him, till the farmer took the Cow from him.86 Here again the confusion between the human and the animal form of the corn-spirit is apparent. In various parts of Switzerland the reaper who cuts the last ears of corn is called Wheat-cow, Corn-cow, Oats-cow, or Corn-steer, and is the butt of many a joke.87 In some parts of East Prussia, when a few ears of corn have been left standing by inadvertence on the last swath, the foremost reaper seizes them and cries, “Bull! Bull!”88 On the other hand, in the district of Rosenheim, in Upper Bavaria, when a farmer is later in getting in his harvest than his neighbours, they set up on his land a Straw-bull, as it is called. This is a gigantic figure of a bull made of stubble on a framework of wood and adorned with flowers and leaves. A label is attached to it containing doggerel verses in ridicule of the man on whose land the Straw-bull is placed.89

Again, the corn-spirit in the form of a bull or ox is killed on the harvest-field at the close of the reaping. At Pouilly near Dijon, when the last ears of corn are about to be cut, an ox adorned with ribbons, flowers, and ears of corn is led all round the field, followed by the whole troop of reapers dancing. Then a man [pg 021] disguised as the Devil cuts the last ears of corn and immediately kills the ox. Part of the flesh of the animal is eaten at the harvest supper; part is pickled and kept till the first day of sowing in spring. At Pont à Mousson and elsewhere on the evening of the last day of reaping a calf adorned with flowers and ears of corn is led three times round the farmyard, being allured by a bait or driven by men with sticks, or conducted by the farmer's wife with a rope. The calf selected for this ceremony is the calf which was born first on the farm in the spring of the year. It is followed by all the reapers with their implements. Then it is allowed to run free; the reapers chase it, and whoever catches it is called King of the Calf. Lastly, it is solemnly killed; at Lunéville the man who acts as butcher is the Jewish merchant of the village.90

Sometimes again the corn-spirit hides himself amongst the cut corn in the barn to reappear in bull or cow form at threshing. Thus at Wurmlingen in Thüringen the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is called the Cow, or rather the Barley-cow, Oats-cow, Peas-cow, etc., according to the crop. He is entirely enveloped in straw; his head is surmounted by sticks in imitation of horns, and two lads lead him by ropes to the well to drink. On the way thither he must low like a cow, and for a long time afterwards he goes by the name of the Cow.91 At Obermedlingen in Swabia, when the threshing draws near an end, each man is careful to avoid giving the last stroke. He who does give it “gets the Cow,” which is a straw figure dressed in an old ragged petticoat, hood, and [pg 022] stockings. It is tied on his back with a straw-rope; his face is blackened, he is tied with straw-ropes to a wheelbarrow, and wheeled round the village.92 Here, again, we are met with that confusion between the anthropomorphic and theriomorphic conception of the corn-spirit, which has been already signalised. In Canton Schaffhausen the man who threshes the last corn is called the Cow; in Canton Thurgau, the Corn-bull; in Canton Zurich, the Thresher-cow. In the last-mentioned district he is wrapt in straw and bound to one of the trees in the orchard.93 At Arad in Hungary the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is enveloped in straw and a cow's hide with the horns attached to it.94 At Pessnitz, in the district of Dresden, the man who gives the last stroke with the flail is called Bull. He must make a straw-man and set it up before a neighbour's window.95 Here, apparently, as in so many cases, the corn-spirit is passed on to a neighbour who has not finished threshing. So at Herbrechtingen in Thüringen the effigy of a ragged old woman is flung into the barn of the farmer who is last with his threshing. The man who throws it in cries, “There is the Cow for you.” If the threshers catch him they detain him over night and punish him by keeping him from the harvest supper.96 In these latter customs the confusion between the anthropomorphic and theriomorphic conception of the corn-spirit meets us again. Further, the corn-spirit in bull form is sometimes believed to be killed at threshing. At Auxerre in threshing the last bundle of corn they call out twelve times, “We are killing the Bull.” In [pg 023] the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, where a butcher kills an ox on the field immediately after the close of the reaping, it is said of the man who gives the last stroke at threshing that “he has killed the Bull.”97 At Chambéry the last sheaf is called the sheaf of the Young Ox and a race takes place to it, in which all the reapers join. When the last stroke is given at threshing they say that “the Ox is killed;” and immediately thereupon a real ox is slaughtered by the reaper who cut the last corn. The flesh of the ox is eaten by the threshers at supper.98

We have seen that sometimes the young corn-spirit, whose task it is to quicken the corn of the coming year, is believed to be born as a Corn-baby on the harvest-field.99 Similarly in Berry the young corn-spirit is sometimes believed to be born on the field in calf form. For when a binder has not rope enough to bind all the corn in sheaves, he puts aside the wheat that remains over and imitates the lowing of a cow. The meaning is that “the sheaf has given birth to a calf.”100 In Puy-de-Dôme when a binder cannot keep up with the reaper whom he or she follows, they say “He or she is giving birth to the Calf.”101 In some parts of Prussia, in similar circumstances, they call out to the woman, “The Bull is coming,” and imitate the bellowing of a bull.102 In these cases the woman is conceived as the Corn-cow or old corn-spirit, while the supposed calf is the Corn-calf or young corn-spirit. In some parts of Austria a mythical calf (Muhkälbchen) is believed to be seen amongst the sprouting corn in spring and to push the [pg 024] children; when the corn waves in the wind they say, “The Calf is going about.” Clearly, as Mannhardt observes, this calf of the spring-time is the same animal which is afterwards believed to be killed at reaping.103

Sometimes the corn-spirit appears in the shape of a horse or mare. Between Kalw and Stuttgart, when the corn bends before the wind, they say, “There runs the Horse.”104 In Hertfordshire, at the end of the reaping, there is or was a ceremony called “crying the Mare.” The last blades of corn left standing on the field are tied together and called the Mare. The reapers stand at a distance and throw their sickles at it; he who cuts it through “has the prize, with acclamations and good cheer.” After it is cut the reapers cry thrice with a loud voice, “I have her!” Others answer thrice, “What have you?”—“A Mare! a Mare! a Mare!”—“Whose is she?” is next asked thrice. “A. B.'s,” naming the owner thrice. “Whither will you send her?”—“To C. D.,” naming some neighbour who has not all his corn reaped.105 In this custom the corn-spirit in the form of a mare is passed on from a farm where the corn is all cut to another farm where it is still standing, and where therefore the corn-spirit may be supposed naturally to take refuge. In Shropshire the custom is similar. “Crying, calling, or shouting the mare is a ceremony performed by the men of that farm which is the first in any parish or district to finish the harvest. The object of it is to make known their own prowess, and to taunt the laggards by a pretended offer of the ‘owd mar’ [old mare] to help out their ‘chem’ [team]. All the men assemble (the wooden harvest-bottle being of course [pg 025] one of the company) in the stackyard, or, better, on the highest ground on the farm, and there shout the following dialogue, preceding it by a grand ‘Hip, hip, hip, hurrah!’

“ ‘I 'ave 'er, I 'ave 'er, I 'ave 'er!’

“ ‘Whad 'ast thee, whad 'ast thee, whad 'ast thee?’

“ ‘A mar'! a mar'! a mar'!’

“ ‘Whose is 'er, whose is 'er, whose is 'er?’

“ ‘Maister A.'s, Maister A.'s, Maister A.'s!’ (naming the farmer whose harvest is finished).

“ ‘W'eer sha't the' send 'er? w'eer sha't the' send 'er? w'eer sha't the' send 'er?’

“ ‘To Maister B.'s, to Maister B.'s, to Maister B.'s’ (naming one whose harvest is not finished).”

The farmer who finishes his harvest last, and who therefore cannot send the Mare to any one else, is said “to keep her all winter.” The mocking offer of the Mare was sometimes responded to by a mocking acceptance of her help. Thus an old man told an inquirer, “While we wun at supper, a mon cumm'd wi' a autar [halter] to fatch her away.” But at one place (Longnor, near Leebotwood), down to about 1850, the Mare used really to be sent. “The head man of the farmer who had finished harvest first was mounted on the best horse of the team—the leader—both horse and man being adorned with ribbons, streamers, etc. Thus arrayed, a boy on foot led the pair in triumph to the neighbouring farmhouses. Sometimes the man who took the ‘mare’ received, as well as plenty of harvest-ale, some rather rough, though good-humoured, treatment, coming back minus his decorations, and so on.”106 In the neighbourhood of Lille the idea of the corn-spirit [pg 026] in horse form is clearly preserved. When a harvester grows weary at his work, it is said, “He has the fatigue of the Horse.” The first sheaf, called the “Cross of the Horse,” is placed on a cross of box-wood in the barn, and the youngest horse on the farm must tread on it. The reapers dance round the last blades of corn, crying, “See the remains of the Horse.” The sheaf made out of these last blades is given to the youngest horse of the parish (commune) to eat. This youngest horse of the parish clearly represents, as Mannhardt says, the corn-spirit of the following year, the Corn-foal, which absorbs the spirit of the old Corn-horse by eating the last corn cut; for, as usual, the old corn-spirit takes his final refuge in the last sheaf. The thresher of the last sheaf is said to “beat the Horse.”107 Again, a trace of the horse-shaped corn-spirit is reported from Berry. The harvesters there are accustomed to take a noon-day sleep in the field. This is called “seeing the Horse.” The leader or “King” of the harvesters gives the signal for going to sleep. If he delays giving the signal, one of the harvesters will begin to neigh like a horse, the rest imitate him, and then they all go “to see the Horse.”108

The last animal embodiment of the corn-spirit which we shall notice is the pig (boar or sow). In Thüringen, when the wind sets the young corn in motion, they sometimes say, “The Boar is rushing through the corn.”109 Amongst the Esthonians of the island of Oesel the last sheaf is called the Rye-boar, and the man who gets it is saluted with a cry of, [pg 027] “You have the Rye-boar on your back!” In reply he strikes up a song, in which he prays for plenty.110 At Kohlerwinkel, near Augsburg, at the close of the harvest, the last bunch of standing corn is cut down, stalk by stalk, by all the reapers in turn. He who cuts the last stalk “gets the Sow,” and is laughed at.111 In other Swabian villages also the man who cuts the last corn “has the Sow,” or “has the Rye-sow.”112 In the Traunstein district, Upper Bavaria, the man who cuts the last handful of rye or wheat “has the Sow,” and is called Sow-driver.113 At Friedingen, in Swabia, the thresher who gives the last stroke is called Sow—Barley-sow, Corn-sow, etc., according to the crop. At Onstmettingen the man who gives the last stroke at threshing “has the Sow;” he is often bound up in a sheaf and dragged by a rope along the ground.114 And, generally, in Swabia the man who gives the last stroke with the flail is called Sow. He may, however, rid himself of this invidious distinction by passing on to a neighbour the straw-rope, which is the badge of his position as Sow. So he goes to a house and throws the straw-rope into it, crying, “There, I bring you the Sow.” All the inmates give chase; and if they catch him they beat him, shut him up for several hours in the pig-sty, and oblige him to take the “Sow” away again.115 In various parts of Upper Bavaria the man who gives the last stroke at threshing must “carry the Pig”—that is, either a straw effigy of a pig or merely a bundle of straw-ropes. This he [pg 028] carries to a neighbouring farm where the threshing is not finished, and throws it into the barn. If the threshers catch him they handle him roughly, beating him, blackening or dirtying his face, throwing him into filth, binding the Sow on his back, etc.; if the bearer of the Sow is a woman they cut off her hair. At the harvest supper or dinner the man who “carried the Pig” gets one or more dumplings made in the form of pigs; sometimes he gets a large dumpling and a number of small ones, all in pig form, the large one being called the sow and the small ones the sucking-pigs. Sometimes he has the right to be the first to put his hand into the dish and take out as many small dumplings (“sucking-pigs”) as he can, while the other threshers strike at his hand with spoons or sticks. When the dumplings are served up by the maid-servant, all the people at table cry, “Süz, süz, süz!” being the cry used in calling pigs. Sometimes after dinner the man who “carried the Pig” has his face blackened, and is set on a cart and drawn round the village by his fellows, followed by a crowd crying, “Süz, süz, süz!” as if they were calling swine. Sometimes, after being wheeled round the village, he is flung on the dunghill.116

Again, the corn-spirit in the form of a pig plays his part at sowing-time as well as at harvest. At Neuautz, in Courland, when barley is sown for the first time in the year, the farmer's wife boils the chine of a pig along with the tail, and brings it to the sower on the field. He eats of it, but cuts off the tail and sticks it in the field; it is believed that the ears of corn will then grow as long as the tail.117 Here the pig is the corn-spirit, [pg 029] whose fertilising power is sometimes supposed to lie especially in his tail.118 As a pig he is put in the ground at sowing-time, and as a pig he reappears amongst the ripe corn at harvest. For amongst the neighbouring Esthonians, as we have seen,119 the last sheaf is called the Rye-boar. Somewhat similar customs are observed in Germany. In the Salza district, near Meiningen, a certain bone in the pig is called “the Jew on the winnowing-fan” (der Jud' auf der Wanne). The flesh of this bone is boiled on Shrove Tuesday, but the bone is put amongst the ashes, which the neighbours exchange as presents on St. Peter's Day (22d February), and then mix with the seed-corn.120 In the whole of Hessen, Meiningen, etc., people eat pea-soup with dried pig-ribs on Ash Wednesday or Candlemas. The ribs are then collected and hung in the room till sowing-time, when they are inserted in the sown field or in the seed-bag amongst the flax seed. This is thought to be an infallible specific against earth-fleas and moles, and to cause the flax to grow well and tall.121 In many parts of White Russia people eat a roast lamb or sucking-pig at Easter, and then throw the bones backwards upon the fields, to preserve the corn from hail.122

But the conception of the corn-spirit as embodied in pig form is nowhere more clearly expressed than in the Scandinavian custom of the Yule Boar. In Sweden and Denmark at Yule (Christmas) it is the custom to bake a loaf in the form of a boar-pig. This is called [pg 030] the Yule Boar. The corn of the last sheaf is often used to make it. All through Yule the Yule Boar stands on the table. Often it is kept till the sowing-time in spring, when part of it is mixed with the seed-corn and part given to the ploughmen and plough-horses or plough-oxen to eat, in the expectation of a good harvest.123 In this custom the corn-spirit, immanent in the last sheaf, appears at midwinter in the form of a boar made from the corn of the last sheaf; and his quickening influence on the corn is shown by mixing part of the Yule Boar with the seed-corn, and giving part of it to the ploughman and his cattle to eat. Similarly we saw that the Corn-wolf makes his appearance at midwinter, the time when the year begins to verge towards spring.124 We may conjecture that the Yule straw, of which Swedish peasants make various superstitious uses, comes, in part at least, from the sheaf out of which the Yule Boar is made. The Yule straw is long rye-straw, a portion of which is always set apart for this season. It is strewn over the floor at Christmas, and the peasants attribute many virtues to it. For example, they think that some of it scattered on the ground will make a barren field productive. Again, the peasant at Christmas seats himself on a log; his eldest son or daughter, or the mother herself, if the children are not old enough, places a wisp of the Yule straw on his knee. From this he draws out single straws, and throws them, one by one, up to the ceiling; and as many as lodge in the rafters, so many will be the sheaves of rye he [pg 031] will have to thresh at harvest.125 Again, it is only the Yule straw which may be used in binding the fruit-trees as a charm to fertilise them.126 These uses of the Yule straw show that it is believed to possess fertilising virtues analogous to those ascribed to the Yule Boar; the conjecture is therefore legitimate that the Yule straw is made from the same sheaf as the Yule Boar. Formerly a real boar was sacrificed at Christmas,127 and apparently also a man in the character of the Yule Boar. This, at least, may perhaps be inferred from a Christmas custom still observed in Sweden. A man is wrapt up in a skin, and carries a wisp of straw in his mouth, so that the projecting straws look like the bristles of a boar. A knife is brought, and an old woman, with her face blackened, pretends to sacrifice the man.128

So much for the animal embodiments of the corn-spirit as they are presented to us in the folk-customs of Northern Europe. These customs bring out clearly the sacramental character of the harvest supper. The corn-spirit is conceived as embodied in an animal; this divine animal is slain, and its flesh and blood are partaken of by the harvesters. Thus, the cock, the goose, the hare, the cat, the goat, and the ox are eaten sacramentally by the harvesters, and the pig is eaten sacramentally by ploughmen in spring.129 Again, as a substitute for the real flesh of the divine being, bread or dumplings are made in his image and eaten sacramentally; thus, pig-shaped dumplings are eaten by the [pg 032] harvesters, and loaves made in boar-shape (the Yule Boar) are eaten in spring by the ploughman and his cattle.

The reader has probably remarked the complete parallelism between the anthropomorphic and the theriomorphic conceptions of the corn-spirit. The parallel may be here briefly resumed. When the corn waves in the wind it is said either that the Corn-mother or that the Corn-wolf, etc. is passing through the corn. Children are warned against straying in corn-fields either because the Corn-mother or because the Corn-wolf, etc. is there. In the last corn cut or the last sheaf threshed either the Corn-mother or the Corn-wolf, etc. is supposed to be present. The last sheaf is itself called either the Corn-mother or the Corn-wolf, etc., and is made up in the shape either of a woman or of a wolf, etc. The person who cuts, binds, or threshes the last sheaf is called either the Old Woman or the Wolf, etc., according to the name bestowed on the sheaf itself. As in some places a sheaf made in human form and called the Maiden, the Mother of the Maize, etc. is kept from one harvest to the next in order to secure a continuance of the corn-spirit's blessing; so in some places the Harvest-cock and in others the flesh of the goat is kept for a similar purpose from one harvest to the next. As in some places the grain taken from the Corn-mother is mixed with the seed-corn in spring to make the crop abundant; so in some places the feathers of the cock, and in Sweden the Yule Boar is kept till spring and mixed with the seed-corn for a like purpose. As part of the Corn-mother or Maiden is given to the cattle to eat in order that they may thrive, so part of the Yule Boar is given to the [pg 033] ploughing horses or oxen in spring. Lastly, the death of the corn-spirit is represented by killing (in reality or pretence) either his human or his animal representative; and the worshippers partake sacramentally either of the actual body and blood of the representative (human or animal) of the divinity, or of bread made in his likeness.

Other animal forms assumed by the corn-spirit are the stag, roe, sheep, bear, ass, fox, mouse, stork, swan, and kite.130 If it is asked why the corn-spirit should be thought to appear in the form of an animal and of so many different animals, we may reply that to primitive man the simple appearance of an animal or bird among the corn is probably sufficient of itself to suggest a mysterious connection between the animal or bird and the corn; and when we remember that in the old days, before fields were fenced in, all kinds of animals must have been free to roam over them, we need not wonder that the corn-spirit should have been identified even with large animals like the horse and cow, which nowadays could not, except by a rare accident, be found straying among the corn. This explanation applies with peculiar force to the very common case in which the animal embodiment of the corn-spirit is believed to lurk in the last standing corn. For at harvest a number of wild animals—hares, rabbits, partridges, etc.—are commonly driven by the progress of the reaping into the last patch of standing corn, and make their escape from it as it is being cut down. So regularly does this happen that reapers and others often stand round the last patch of corn armed with sticks or guns, with which they kill the animals as they dart out of their last refuge among the [pg 034] corn. Now, primitive man, to whom magical changes of shape seem perfectly credible, finds it most natural that the spirit of the corn, driven from his home amongst the corn, should make his escape in the form of the animal which is seen to rush out of the last patch of corn as it falls under the scythe of the reaper. Thus the identification of the corn-spirit with an animal is analogous to the identification of him with a passing stranger. As the sudden appearance of a stranger near the harvest-field or threshing-floor is, to the primitive mind, sufficient to identify him as the spirit of the corn escaping from the cut or threshed corn, so the sudden appearance of an animal issuing from the cut corn is enough to identify it with the corn-spirit escaping from his ruined home. The two identifications are so analogous that they can hardly be dissociated in any attempt to explain them. Those who look to some other principle than the one here suggested for the explanation of the latter identification are bound to show that their explanation covers the former identification also.

But however we may explain it, the fact remains that in peasant folk-lore the corn-spirit is very commonly conceived and represented in animal form. May not this fact explain the relation in which certain animals stood to the ancient deities of vegetation, Dionysus, Demeter, Adonis, Attis, and Osiris?

To begin with Dionysus. We have seen that he was represented sometimes as a goat and sometimes as a bull. As a goat he can hardly be separated from the minor divinities, the Pans, Satyrs, and Silenuses, all of whom are closely associated with him and are represented more or less completely in the form of goats. Thus, Pan was regularly represented in [pg 035] sculpture and painting with the face and legs of a goat.131 The Satyrs were depicted with pointed goat-ears, and sometimes with sprouting horns and short tails.132 They were sometimes spoken of simply as goats;133 and in the drama their parts were played by men dressed in goat-skins.134 Silenus is represented in art clad in a goat-skin.135 Further, the Fauns, the Italian counterpart of the Greek Pans and Satyrs, are described as being half goats, with goat-feet and goat-horns.136 Again, all these minor goat-formed divinities partake more or less clearly of the character of woodland deities. Thus, Pan was called by the Arcadians the Lord of the Wood.137 The Silenuses associated with the tree-nymphs.138 The Fauns are expressly designated as woodland deities;139 and their character as such is still further brought out by their association, or even identification, with Silvanus and the Silvanuses, who, as their name of itself indicates, are spirits of the woods.140 Lastly, the association of the Satyrs with the Silenuses, Fauns, and Silvanuses,141 proves that the Satyrs also were woodland deities. These goat-formed spirits of the woods have their counterparts in the folk-lore of Northern Europe. Thus, the Russian wood-spirits, called Ljeschie (from ljes, “wood,”) are believed to appear partly in human shape, but with the horns, ears, and legs of goats. The Ljeschi can alter his stature at pleasure; when he [pg 036] walks in the wood he is as tall as the trees; when he walks in the meadows he is no higher than the grass. Some of the Ljeschie are spirits of the corn as well as of the wood; before harvest they are as tall as the corn-stalks, but after it they shrink to the height of the stubble.142 This brings out—what we have remarked before—the close connection between tree-spirits and corn-spirits, and shows how easily the former may melt into the latter. Similarly the Fauns, though wood-spirits, were believed to foster the growth of the crops.143 We have already seen how often the corn-spirit is represented in folk-custom as a goat.144 On the whole, then, as Mannhardt argues,145 the Pans, Satyrs, and Fauns appear to belong to a widely diffused class of wood-spirits conceived in goat-form. The fondness of goats for straying in woods and nibbling the bark of trees—to which it is well known that they are most destructive—is an obvious and perhaps sufficient reason why wood-spirits should so often be supposed to take the form of goats. The inconsistency of a god of vegetation subsisting upon the vegetation which he personifies is not one to strike the primitive mind. Such inconsistencies arise when the deity, ceasing to be immanent in the vegetation, comes to be regarded as its owner or lord; for the idea of owning the vegetation naturally leads to that of subsisting on it. We have already seen that the corn-spirit, originally conceived as immanent in the corn, afterwards comes to be regarded as its owner, who lives on it and is reduced to poverty and want by being deprived of it.146

Thus the representation of wood-spirits in goat-form appears to be both widespread and, to the primitive [pg 037] mind, natural. Therefore when we find, as we have done, that Dionysus—a tree-god—is sometimes represented in goat form,147 we can hardly avoid concluding that this representation is simply a part of his proper character as a tree-god and is not to be explained by the fusion of two distinct and independent cults, in one of which he originally appeared as a tree-god and in the other as a goat. If such a fusion took place in the case of Dionysus, it must equally have taken place in the case of the Pans and Satyrs of Greece, the Fauns of Italy, and the Ljeschie of Russia. That such a fusion of two wholly disconnected cults should have occurred once is possible; that it should have occurred twice independently is improbable; that it should have occurred thrice independently is so unlikely as to be practically incredible.

Dionysus was also represented, as we have seen,148 in the form of a bull. After what has gone before we are naturally led to expect that his bull form must have been only another expression for his character as a deity of vegetation, especially as the bull is a common embodiment of the corn-spirit in Northern Europe;149 and the close association of Dionysus with Demeter and Proserpine in the mysteries of Eleusis shows that he had at least strong agricultural affinities. The other possible explanation of the bull-shaped Dionysus would be that the conception of him as a bull was originally entirely distinct from the conception of him as a deity of vegetation, and that the fusion of the two conceptions was due to some such circumstance as the union of two tribes, one of which had previously worshipped a bull-god and the other a tree-god. This appears to be the view taken by Mr. Andrew Lang, who suggests that [pg 038] the bull-formed Dionysus “had either been developed out of, or had succeeded to the worship of a bull-totem.”150 Of course this is possible. But it is not yet certain that the Aryans ever had totemism. On the other hand, it is quite certain that many Aryan peoples have conceived deities of vegetation as embodied in animal forms. Therefore when we find amongst an Aryan people like the Greeks a deity of vegetation represented as an animal, the presumption must be in favour of explaining this by a principle which is certainly known to have influenced the Aryan race rather than by one which is not certainly known to have done so. In the present state of our knowledge, therefore, it is safer to regard the bull form of Dionysus as being, like his goat form, an expression of his proper character as a deity of vegetation.

The probability of this view will be somewhat increased if it can be shown that in other rites than those of Dionysus the ancients slew an ox as a representative of the spirit of vegetation. This they appear to have done in the Athenian sacrifice known as “the murder of the ox” (bouphonia). It took place about the end of June or beginning of July, that is, about the time when the threshing is nearly over in Attica. According to tradition the sacrifice was instituted to procure a cessation of drought and barrenness which had afflicted the land. The ritual was as follows. Barley mixed with wheat, or cakes made of them, were laid upon the bronze altar of Zeus Polieus on the Acropolis. Oxen were driven round the altar, and the ox which went up to the altar and ate the offering on it was sacrificed. The axe and knife with which the beast was slain had been previously wetted with water brought [pg 039] by maidens called “water-carriers.” The weapons were then sharpened and handed to the butchers, one of whom felled the ox with the axe and another cut its throat with the knife. As soon as he had felled the ox, the former threw the axe from him and fled; and the man who cut the beast's throat apparently imitated his example. Meantime the ox was skinned and all present partook of its flesh. Then the hide was stuffed with straw and sewed up; next the stuffed animal was set on its feet and yoked to a plough as if it were ploughing. A trial then took place in an ancient law-court presided over by the King (as he was called) to determine who had murdered the ox. The maidens who had brought the water accused the men who had sharpened the axe and knife; the men who had sharpened the axe and knife blamed the men who had handed these implements to the butchers; the men who had handed the implements to the butchers blamed the butchers; and the butchers laid the blame on the axe and knife, which were accordingly found guilty, condemned, and cast into the sea.151

The name of this sacrifice,—“the murder of the ox,”152—the pains taken by each person who had a hand in the slaughter to lay the blame on some one else, [pg 040] together with the formal trial and punishment of the axe or knife or both, prove that the ox was here regarded not merely as a victim offered to a god, but as itself a sacred creature, the slaughter of which was sacrilege or murder. This is borne out by a statement of Varro that to kill an ox was formerly a capital crime in Attica.153 The mode of selecting the victim suggests that the ox which tasted the corn was viewed as the corn-deity taking possession of his own. This interpretation is supported by the following custom. In Beauce, in the district of Orleans, on the 24th or 25th of April they make a straw-man called “the great mondard.” For they say that the old mondard is now dead and it is necessary to make a new one. The straw-man is carried in solemn procession up and down the village and at last is placed upon the oldest apple-tree. There he remains till the apples are gathered, when he is taken down and thrown into the water, or he is burned and his ashes cast into water. But the person who plucks the first fruit from the tree succeeds to the title of “the great mondard.”154. Here the straw figure, called “the great mondard” and placed on the apple-tree in spring, represents the spirit of the tree, who, dead in winter, revives when the apple-blossoms appear in spring. The fact, therefore, that the person who plucks the first fruit from the apple-tree receives the name of “the great mondard” proves that he is regarded as a representative of the tree-spirit. Primitive peoples are, as a rule, reluctant to taste the annual first-fruits of any crop, until some ceremony has been performed which makes it safe and [pg 041] pious for them to do so. The reason of this reluctance appears to be that the first-fruits either are the property of, or actually contain, a divinity. Therefore when a man or animal is seen boldly to appropriate the sacred first-fruits, he or it is naturally regarded as the divinity himself in human or animal form taking possession of his own. The time of the Athenian sacrifice—about the close of the threshing—suggests that the wheat and barley laid upon the altar were a harvest offering; and the sacramental character of the subsequent repast—all partaking of the flesh of the divine animal—would make it parallel to the harvest suppers of modern Europe, in which, as we have seen, the flesh of the animal who represents the corn-spirit is eaten by the harvesters. Again, the tradition that the sacrifice was instituted in order to put an end to drought and famine is in favour of taking it as a harvest festival. The resurrection of the corn-spirit, represented by setting up the stuffed ox and yoking it to the plough, may be compared with the resurrection of the tree-spirit in the person of his representative, the Wild Man.155

The ox appears as a representative of the corn-spirit in other parts of the world. At Great Bassam, in Guinea, two oxen are slain annually to procure a good harvest. If the sacrifice is to be effectual, it is necessary that the oxen should weep. So all the women of the village sit in front of the beasts, chanting, “The ox will weep; yes, he will weep!” From time to time one of the women walks round the beasts, throwing manioc meal or palm wine upon them, especially into their eyes. When tears roll down from the eyes of the oxen, the people dance, singing, “The ox [pg 042] weeps! the ox weeps!” Then two men seize the tails of the beasts and cut them off at one blow. It is believed that a great misfortune will happen in the course of the year if the tails are not severed at one blow. The oxen are afterwards killed, and their flesh is eaten by the chiefs.156 Here the tears of the oxen, like those of the human victims amongst the Khonds, are probably a rain-charm. We have already seen that the virtue of the corn-spirit, embodied in animal form, is sometimes supposed to reside in the tail, and that the last handful of corn is sometimes conceived as the tail of the corn-spirit.157 Still more clearly does the ox appear as a personification of the corn-spirit in a ceremony which is observed in all the provinces and districts of China to welcome the approach of spring. On the first day of spring the governor or prefect of the city goes in procession to the east gate of the city, and sacrifices to the Divine Husbandman, who is represented with a bull's head on the body of a man. A large effigy of an ox, cow, or buffalo has been prepared for the occasion, and stands outside of the east gate, with agricultural implements beside it. It is made of differently-coloured pieces of paper pasted on a framework either by a blind man or according to the directions of a necromancer. The colours of the paper indicate the character of the coming year; if red prevails, there will be many fires; if white, there will be floods and rain, etc. The mandarins walk slowly round the ox, beating it severely at each step with rods of various colours. It is filled with five kinds of grain, which pour forth when the ox is broken by the blows of the rods. The paper fragments are then set on fire, [pg 043] and a scramble takes place for the burning fragments, as the people believe that whoever gets one of them is sure to be fortunate throughout the year. A live buffalo is then killed, and its flesh is divided among the mandarins. According to one account, the effigy of the ox is made of clay, and, after being beaten by the governor, is stoned by the people till they break it in pieces, “from which they expect an abundant year.”158 Here the corn-spirit appears to be plainly represented by the corn-filled ox, whose fragments may therefore be supposed to bring fertility with them. We may compare the Silesian spring custom of burning the effigy of Death, scrambling for the burning fragments, and burying them in the fields to secure a good crop, and the Florentine custom of sawing the Old Woman and scrambling for the dried fruits with which she was filled.159

On the whole, then, we may perhaps conclude that both as a goat and as a bull Dionysus was essentially a god of vegetation. The Chinese and European customs just referred to may perhaps shed light on the custom of rending a live bull or goat at the rites of Dionysus. The animal was torn in fragments, as the Khond victim was cut in pieces, in order that the worshippers might each secure a portion of the life-giving and fertilising influence of the god. The flesh was eaten raw as a sacrament, and we may conjecture that some of it was taken home to be buried in the fields, or otherwise employed so as to convey to the fruits of the earth the quickening influence of the god of vegetation. The resurrection of Dionysus, related [pg 044] in his myth, may have been represented in his rites by stuffing and setting up the slain ox, as was done at the Athenian bouphonia.

Passing next to the corn-goddess Demeter, and remembering that in European folk-lore the pig is a common embodiment of the corn-spirit,160 we may now ask, may not the pig, which was so closely associated with Demeter, be nothing but the goddess herself in animal form? The pig was sacred to her;161 in art she was represented carrying or accompanied by a pig;162 and the pig was regularly sacrificed in her mysteries, the reason assigned being that the pig injures the corn and is therefore an enemy of the goddess.163 But after an animal has been conceived as a god or a god as an animal, it sometimes happens, as we have seen, that the god sloughs off his animal form and becomes purely anthropomorphic; and that then the animal, which at first had been slain in the character of the god, comes to be regarded as a victim offered to the god on the ground of its hostility to the deity; in short, that the god is sacrificed to himself on the ground that he is his own enemy. This happened to Dionysus, and it may have happened to Demeter also. And in fact the rites of one of her festivals, the Thesmophoria, bear out the view that originally the pig was an embodiment of the corn-goddess herself, either Demeter or her daughter and double Proserpine. The Thesmophoria was an autumn festival, celebrated by women alone in October,164 and appears to have represented [pg 045] with mourning rites the descent of Proserpine (or Demeter)165 into the lower world, and with joy her return from the dead.166 Hence the name Descent or Ascent variously applied to the first, and the name Kalligeneia (fair-born) applied to the third day of the festival. Now from a scholion on Lucian, first edited in 1870,167 we learn some details about the mode of celebrating the Thesmophoria, which shed important light on the part of the festival called the Descent or the Ascent. The scholiast tells us that it was customary at the Thesmophoria to throw pigs, cakes of dough, and branches of pine-trees into “the chasms of Demeter and Proserpine,” which appear to have been sacred caverns or vaults.168 In these caverns or vaults there were said to be serpents, which guarded the caverns and consumed most of the flesh of the pigs and dough-cakes which were thrown in. Afterwards—apparently at the next annual festival169—the decayed [pg 046] remains of the pigs, the cakes, and the pine-branches were fetched by women called “drawers,” who, after observing rules of ceremonial purity for three days, descended into the caverns, and, frightening away the serpents by clapping their hands, brought up the remains and placed them on the altar. Whoever got a piece of the decayed flesh and cakes, and sowed it with the seed-corn in his field, was believed to be sure of a good crop.

To explain this rude and ancient rite the following legend was told. At the moment that Pluto carried off Proserpine, a swineherd called Eubuleus was herding his swine on the spot, and his herd was engulfed in the chasm down which Pluto vanished with Proserpine. Accordingly at the Thesmophoria pigs were annually thrown into caverns in order to commemorate the disappearance of the swine of Eubuleus. It follows from this that the casting of the pigs into the vaults at the Thesmophoria formed part of the dramatic representation of Proserpine's descent into the lower world; and as no image of Proserpine appears to have been thrown in, it follows that the descent of the pigs must have been, not an accompaniment of her descent, but the descent itself; in short, the pigs were Proserpine. Afterwards when Proserpine or Demeter (for the two are equivalent) became anthropomorphic, a reason had to be found for the custom of throwing pigs into caverns at her festival; and this was done by saying that when Proserpine was carried off, there happened to be some swine browsing near, which were swallowed up along with her. The story is obviously a forced and awkward attempt to bridge over the gulf between the old conception of the corn-spirit as a pig and the new conception of her as [pg 047] an anthropomorphic goddess. A trace of the older conception survived in the legend that when Demeter was looking for the lost Proserpine, the footprints of the latter were obliterated by the footprints of a pig;170 originally, no doubt, the footprints of the pig were the footprints of Proserpine and of Demeter herself. A consciousness of the intimate connection of the pig with the corn lurks in the tradition that the swineherd Eubuleus was a brother of Triptolemus, to whom Demeter first imparted the secret of the corn. Indeed, according to one version of the story, Eubuleus himself received, jointly with his brother Triptolemus, the gift of the corn from Demeter as a reward for revealing to her the fate of Proserpine.171 Further, it is to be noted that at the Thesmophoria the women appear to have eaten swine's flesh.172 The meal, if I am right, must have been a solemn sacrament or communion, the worshippers partaking of the body of the god.

As thus explained, the Thesmophoria has its analogies in the folk-customs of Northern Europe which have been already described. As at the Thesmophoria—an autumn festival in honour of the corn-goddess—swine's flesh was partly eaten, partly kept in caverns till the following year, when it was taken up to be sown with the seed-corn in the fields for the purpose of securing a good crop; so in the neighbourhood of Grenoble the goat killed on the harvest-field is partly eaten at the harvest supper, partly pickled and kept till the next harvest;173 so at Pouilly the ox killed on the harvest-field is partly eaten by the harvesters, partly pickled and kept till the first day of [pg 048] sowing in spring174—probably to be then mixed with the seed, or eaten by the ploughmen, or both; so at Udvarhely the feathers of the cock which is killed in the last sheaf at harvest are kept till spring, and then sown with the seed on the field;175 so in Hessen and Meiningen the flesh of pigs is eaten on Ash Wednesday or Candlemas, and the bones are kept till sowing-time, when they are put into the field sown or mixed with the seed in the bag;176 so, lastly, the corn from the last sheaf is kept till Christmas, made into the Yule Boar, and afterwards broken and mixed with the seed-corn at sowing in spring.177 Thus, to put it generally, the corn-spirit is killed in animal form in autumn; part of his flesh is eaten as a sacrament by his worshippers; and part of it is kept till next sowing-time or harvest as a pledge and security for the continuance or renewal of the corn-spirit's energies. Whether in the interval between autumn and spring he is conceived as dead, or whether, like the ox in the bouphonia, he is supposed to come to life again immediately after being killed, is not clear. At the Thesmophoria, according to Clement and Pausanias, as emended by Lobeck,178 the pigs were thrown in alive, and were supposed to reappear at the festival of the following year. Here, therefore, if we accept Lobeck's emendations, the corn-spirit is conceived as alive throughout the year; he lives and works under ground, but is brought up each autumn to be renewed and then replaced in his subterranean abode.179

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If it is objected that the Greeks never could have conceived Demeter and Proserpine to be embodied in the form of pigs, it may be answered that in the cave of Phigalia in Arcadia the Black Demeter was represented with the head and mane of a horse on the body of a woman.180 Between the representation of a goddess as a pig, and the representation of her as a woman with a horse's head, there is little to choose in respect of barbarism. The legend told of the Phigalian Demeter indicates that the horse was one of the animal forms assumed in ancient Greece, as in modern Europe,181 by the corn-spirit. It was said that in her search for her daughter, Demeter assumed the form of a mare to escape the addresses of Poseidon, and that, offended at his importunity, she withdrew to the cave of Phigalia. There, robed in black, she stayed so long that the fruits of the earth were perishing, and mankind would have died of famine if Pan had not soothed the angry goddess and persuaded her to quit the cave. In memory of this event, the Phigalians set up an image of the Black Demeter in the cave; it represented a woman dressed in a long robe, with the head and mane of a horse.182 The Black Demeter, in whose absence the fruits of the earth perish, is plainly a mythical expression for the state of vegetation in winter.

Passing now to Attis and Adonis, we may note a few facts which seem to show that these deities of vegetation had also, like other deities of vegetation, their animal embodiments. The worshippers of Attis abstained from eating the flesh of swine.183 This fact is [pg 050] certainly in favour of supposing that the pig was regarded as an embodiment of Attis. And the legend that Attis was killed by a boar184 points in the same direction. For after the examples of the goat Dionysus and the pig Demeter it may almost be laid down as a rule that an animal which is said to have injured a god was originally the god himself. Perhaps the cry of “Hyes Attes! Hyes Attes!”185 which was raised by the worshippers of Attis, may be neither more nor less than “Pig Attis! Pig Attis!”—hyes being possibly a Phrygian form of the Greek hȳs, “a pig.”

In regard to Adonis, his connection with the boar was not always explained by the story that he was killed by a boar. According to another story, a boar rent with his tusk the bark of the tree in which the infant Adonis was born.186 According to another story, he was killed by Hephaestus on Mount Lebanon while he was hunting wild boars.187 These variations in the legend serve to show that, while the connection of the boar with Adonis was certain, the reason of the connection was not understood, and that consequently different stories were devised to explain it. Certainly the pig was one of the sacred animals of the Syrians. At the great religious metropolis of Hierapolis pigs were neither sacrificed nor eaten, and if a man touched a pig he was unclean for the rest of the day. Some people said this was because the pigs were unclean; others said it was because the pigs were sacred.188 This difference of opinion points to a state of religious thought and feeling in which the ideas of sanctity and uncleanness are not yet differentiated, and which is best [pg 051] indicated by the word taboo. It is quite consistent with this that the pig should have been held to be an embodiment of the divine Adonis, and the analogies of Dionysus and Demeter make it probable that the story of the hostility of the animal to the god was only a modern misunderstanding of the old view of the god as embodied in a pig. The rule that pigs were not sacrificed or eaten by worshippers of Attis and presumably of Adonis, does not exclude the possibility that in these cults the pig was slain on solemn occasions as a representative of the god and consumed sacramentally by the worshippers. Indeed, the sacramental killing and eating of an animal, that is the killing and eating it as a god, implies that the animal is sacred, and is, as a general rule, not killed.189

The attitude of the Jews to the pig was as ambiguous as that of the heathen Syrians towards the same animal. The Greeks could not decide whether the Jews worshipped swine or abominated them. On the one hand they might not eat swine; but on the other hand they might not kill them.190 And if the former rule speaks for the uncleanness, the latter speaks still more strongly for the sanctity of the animal. For whereas both rules may, and one rule must, be explained on the supposition that the pig was sacred; neither rule must, and one rule cannot, be explained on the supposition that the pig was unclean. If, therefore, we prefer the former supposition, we must conclude [pg 052] that, originally at least, the pig was held to be sacred rather than unclean by the Israelites. This is confirmed by the fact that down to the time of Isaiah some of the Jews used to meet secretly in gardens to eat the flesh of swine and mice as a religious rite.191 Doubtless this was a very ancient rite, dating from a time when both the pig and the mouse were venerated as divine, and when their flesh was partaken of sacramentally on rare and solemn occasions as the body and blood of gods. And in general it may be said that all so-called unclean animals were originally sacred; the reason why they were not eaten was that they were divine.

In ancient Egypt, within historical times, the pig occupied the same dubious position as in Syria and Palestine, though at first sight its uncleanness is more prominent than its sanctity. The Egyptians are generally said by Greek writers to have abhorred the pig as a foul and loathsome animal.192 If a man so much as touched a pig in passing, he stepped into the river with all his clothes on, to wash off the taint.193 To drink pig's milk was believed to cause leprosy to the drinker.194 Swineherds, though natives of Egypt, were forbidden to enter any temple, and they were the only men who were thus excluded. No one would give his daughter in marriage to a swineherd, or marry a swineherd's daughter; the swineherds married among themselves.195 Yet once a year the Egyptians sacrificed pigs to the moon and to Osiris, and not only sacrificed them, but ate of their flesh, though on any other day of the year [pg 053] they would neither sacrifice them nor taste of their flesh. Those who were too poor to offer a pig on this day baked cakes of dough, and offered them instead.196 This can hardly be explained except by the supposition that the pig was a sacred animal which was eaten sacramentally by his worshippers once a year. The view that in Egypt the pig was a sacred animal is borne out by the very facts which, to moderns, might seem to prove the contrary. Thus the Egyptians thought, as we have seen, that to drink pig's milk produced leprosy. But exactly analogous views are held by savages about the animals and plants which they deem most sacred. Thus in the island of Wetar (between New Guinea and Celebes) people believe themselves to be variously descended from wild pigs, serpents, crocodiles, turtles, dogs, and eels; a man may not eat an animal of the kind from which he is descended; if he does so, he will become a leper, and go mad.197 Amongst the Omaha Indians of North America men whose totem (sacred animal or plant) is the elk, believe that if they ate the flesh of the male elk they would break out in boils and white spots in different parts of their bodies.198 In the same tribe men whose totem is the red maize, think that if they ate red maize they would have running sores all round their mouths.199 The Bush negroes of Surinam, who have totemism, believe that if they ate the capiaï [pg 054] (an animal like a pig) it would give them leprosy;200 probably the capiaï is one of their totems. In Samoa each man had generally his god in the shape of some species of animal; and if he ate one of these divine animals, it was supposed that the god avenged himself by taking up his abode in the eater's body, and there generating an animal of the kind he had eaten till it caused his death. For example, if a man whose god was the prickly sea-urchin, ate one of these creatures, a prickly sea-urchin grew in his stomach and killed him. If his god was an eel, and he ate an eel, he became very ill, and before he died the voice of the god was heard from his stomach saying, “I am killing this man; he ate my incarnation.”201 These examples prove that the eating of a sacred animal is often believed to produce skin-disease or even death; so far, therefore, they support the view that the pig must have been sacred in Egypt, since the effect of drinking its milk was believed to be leprosy.

Again, the rule that, after touching a pig, a man had to wash himself and his clothes, also favours the view of the sanctity of the pig. For it is a common belief that the effect of contact with a sacred object must be removed, by washing or otherwise, before a man is free to mingle with his fellows. Thus the Jews wash their hands after reading the sacred scriptures. Before coming forth from the tabernacle after the sin-offering, the high priest had to wash himself, and put off the garments which he had worn in the holy place.202 It was a rule of Greek ritual that, in offering an expiatory sacrifice, the sacrificer should not touch the sacrifice, and that, after the [pg 055] offering was made, he must wash his body and his clothes in a river or spring before he could enter a city or his own house.203 The Polynesians felt strongly the need of ridding themselves of the sacred contagion, if it may be so called, which they caught by touching sacred objects. Various ceremonies were performed for the purpose of removing this sacred contagion. For example, in Tonga a man who happened to touch a sacred chief, or anything personally belonging to him, as his clothes or his mat, was obliged to go through the ceremony of touching the soles of the chief's (or of any chief's) feet with his hands, first applying the palm and then the back of each hand; next he had to rinse his hands in water, or, if there was no water near, the sap of the plantain or banana-tree might be used as a substitute. If he were to feed himself with his hands before he performed this ceremony, it was believed that he would swell up and die, or at least be afflicted with scrofula or some other disease.204 We have already seen what fatal effects are supposed to follow, and do actually follow, from contact with a sacred object in New Zealand.205 In short, primitive man believes that what is sacred is dangerous; it is pervaded by a sort of electrical sanctity which communicates a shock to, even if it does not kill, whatever comes in contact with it. Hence the savage is unwilling to touch or even to see that which he deems peculiarly holy. Thus Bechuanas, of the Crocodile clan, think it “hateful and unlucky” to meet or see a crocodile; the sight is thought to cause inflammation of the [pg 056] eyes. Yet the crocodile is their most sacred object; they call it their father, swear by it, and celebrate it in their festivals.206 The goat is the sacred animal of the Madenassana Bushmen; yet “to look upon it would be to render the man for the time impure, as well as to cause him undefined uneasiness.”207 The Elk clan, among the Omaha Indians, believe that even to touch the male elk would be followed by an eruption of boils and white spots on the body.208 Members of the Reptile clan in the same tribe think that if one of them touches or smells a snake, it will make his hair white.209 In Samoa people whose god was a butterfly believed that if they caught a butterfly it would strike them dead.210 Again, in Samoa the reddish-seared leaves of the banana-tree were commonly used as plates for handing food; but if any member of the Wild Pigeon clan had used banana leaves for this purpose, it was believed that he would have suffered from rheumatic swellings or an eruption all over the body like chicken-pox.211

In the light of these parallels the beliefs and customs of the Egyptians touching the pig are probably to be explained as based upon an opinion of the extreme sanctity rather than of the extreme uncleanness of the animal; or rather, to put it more correctly, they imply that the animal was looked on, not simply as a filthy and disgusting creature, but as a being endowed with high supernatural powers, and that as such it was regarded with that primitive [pg 057] sentiment of religious awe and fear in which the feelings of reverence and abhorrence are almost equally blended. The ancients themselves seem to have been aware that there was another side to the horror with which swine seemed to inspire the Egyptians. For the Greek astronomer and mathematician Eudoxus, who resided fourteen months in Egypt and conversed with the priests,212 was of opinion that the Egyptians spared the pig, not out of abhorrence, but from a regard to its utility in agriculture; for, according to him, when the Nile had subsided, herds of swine were turned loose over the fields to tread the seed down into the moist earth.213 But when a being is thus the object of mixed and implicitly contradictory feelings, he may be said to occupy a position of unstable equilibrium. In course of time one of the contradictory feelings is likely to prevail over the other, and according as the feeling which finally predominates is that of reverence or abhorrence, the being who is the object of it will rise into a god or sink into a devil. The latter, on the whole, was the fate of the pig in Egypt. For in historical times the fear and horror of the pig seem certainly to have outweighed the reverence and worship of which he must once have been the object, and of which, even in his fallen state, he never quite lost trace. He came to be looked on as an embodiment of Set or Typhon, the Egyptian devil and enemy of Osiris. For it was in the shape of a boar that Typhon menaced the eye of the god Horus, who burned him and instituted the sacrifice of the pig, the sun-god Ra having declared the pig abominable.214 [pg 058] Again, the story that Typhon was hunting a boar when he discovered and mangled the body of Osiris, and that this was the reason why the pig was sacrificed once a year,215 is a transparent modernisation of an older story that Osiris, like Adonis and Attis, was slain or mangled by a boar, or by Typhon in the form of a boar. Thus, the annual sacrifice of a pig to Osiris might naturally be interpreted as vengeance inflicted on the hostile animal that had slain or mangled the god. But, in the first place, when an animal is thus killed as a solemn sacrifice once and once only in the year, it generally or always means that the animal is divine—that he is spared and respected the rest of the year as a god and slain, when he is slain, also in the character of a god.216 In the second place, the examples of Dionysus and Demeter, if not of Attis and Adonis, have taught us that the animal which is sacrificed to a god on the ground that he is the god's enemy may have been, and probably was, originally the god himself. Therefore, the fact that the pig was sacrificed once a year to Osiris, and the fact that he appears to have been sacrificed on the ground that he was the god's enemy, go to show, first, that originally the pig was a god, and, second, that he was Osiris. At a later age the pig was distinguished from Osiris when the latter became anthropomorphic and his original relation to the pig was forgotten; later still, the pig was opposed as an enemy to Osiris by mythologists who could think of no reason for killing an animal in connection with the worship of a god except that the animal was the god's [pg 059] enemy; or, as Plutarch puts it, not that which is dear to the gods, but that which is the contrary, is fit to be sacrificed.217 At this later stage the havoc which a wild boar notoriously makes amongst the corn would supply a plausible reason for regarding him as an enemy of the corn-spirit, though originally, if I am right, the very fact that the boar was found ranging at will through the corn was the reason for identifying him with the corn-spirit, to whom he was afterwards opposed as an enemy. The view which identifies the pig with Osiris derives not a little support from the fact that the day on which the pigs were sacrificed to him was the day on which, according to tradition, Osiris was killed;218 for thus the killing of the pig was the annual representation of the killing of Osiris, just as the throwing of the pigs into the caverns at the Thesmophoria was an annual representation of the descent of Proserpine into the lower world; and both customs are parallel to the European practice of killing a goat, cock, etc., at harvest as a representative of the corn-spirit.

Again, the view that the pig, originally Osiris himself, afterwards came to be regarded as an embodiment of his enemy Typhon, is supported by the similar relation of red-haired men and red oxen to Typhon. For in regard to the red-haired men who were burned and whose ashes were scattered with winnowing-fans, we have seen fair grounds for believing that originally, like the red-haired puppies killed at Rome in spring, they were representatives of the corn-spirit himself, that is, of Osiris, and were slain for the express purpose of making the corn turn red or golden.

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Yet at a later time these men were explained to be representatives, not of Osiris, but of his enemy Typhon,219 and the killing of them was regarded as an act of vengeance inflicted on the enemy of the god. Similarly, the red oxen sacrificed by the Egyptians were said to be sacrificed on the ground of their resemblance to Typhon;220 though it is more likely that originally they were slain on the ground of their resemblance to the corn-spirit Osiris. We have seen that the ox is a common representative of the corn-spirit and is slain as such on the harvest-field.

Osiris was regularly identified with the bull Apis of Memphis and the bull Mnevis of Heliopolis.221 But it is hard to say whether these bulls were embodiments of him as the corn-spirit, as the red oxen appear to have been, or whether they were not rather entirely distinct deities which got fused with Osiris by syncretism. The fact that these two bulls were worshipped by all the Egyptians,222 seems to put them on a different footing from the ordinary sacred animals whose cults were purely local. Hence, if the latter were evolved from totems, as they probably were, some other origin would have to be found for the worship of Apis and Mnevis. If these bulls were not originally embodiments of the corn-god Osiris, they may possibly be descendants of the sacred cattle [pg 061] worshipped by a pastoral people.223 If this were so, ancient Egypt would exhibit a stratification of the three great types of religion corresponding to the three great stages of society. Totemism or (roughly speaking) the worship of wild animals—the religion of society in the hunting stage—would be represented by the worship of the local sacred animals; the worship of cattle—the religion of society in the pastoral stage—would be represented by the cults of Apis and Mnevis; and the worship of cultivated plants, especially of corn—the religion of society in the agricultural stage—would be represented by the worship of Osiris and Isis. The Egyptian reverence for cows, which were never killed,224 might belong either to the second or third of these stages. The fact that cows were regarded as sacred to, that is, as embodiments of Isis, who was represented with cow's horns, would indicate that they, like the red oxen, were embodiments of the corn-spirit. However, this identification of Isis with the cow, like that of Osiris with the bulls Apis and Mnevis, may be only an effect of syncretism. But whatever the original relation of Apis to Osiris may have been, there is one fact about the former which ought not to be passed over in a chapter dealing with the custom of killing the god. Although the bull Apis was worshipped as a god with much pomp and profound reverence, he was not suffered to live beyond a certain length of time which was prescribed by the sacred books, and on the expiry of which he was drowned in a holy spring.225 The limit, according to Plutarch, was twenty-five [pg 062] years;226 but it cannot always have been enforced, for the tombs of the Apis bulls have been discovered in the present century, and from the inscriptions on them it appears that in the twenty-second dynasty two bulls lived more than twenty-six years.227

We are now in a position to hazard a conjecture—for it can be little more—as to the meaning of the tradition that Virbius, the first of the divine Kings of the Wood at Aricia, was killed by horses. Having found, first, that spirits of vegetation are not infrequently represented in the form of horses;228 and, second, that the animal which in later legends is said to have injured the god was sometimes originally the god himself, we may conjecture that the horses by which Virbius was said to have been slain were really embodiments of him as a deity of vegetation. The myth that Virbius had been killed by horses was probably invented to explain certain features in his cult, amongst others the custom of excluding horses from his sacred grove. For myth changes while custom remains constant; men continue to do what their fathers did before them, though the reasons on which their fathers acted have been long forgotten. The history of religion is a long attempt to reconcile old custom with new reason; to find a sound theory for an absurd practice. In the case before us we may be sure that the myth is more modern than the custom and by no means represents the original reason for excluding horses from the grove. From the fact that horses were so excluded it might be inferred that they could not be the sacred animals or embodiments of the [pg 063] god of the grove. But the inference would be rash. The goat was at one time a sacred animal or embodiment of Athene, as may be inferred from the practice of representing her clad in a goat-skin (aegis). Yet the goat was neither sacrificed to her as a rule, nor allowed to enter her great sanctuary, the Acropolis at Athens. The reason alleged for this was that the goat injured the olive, the sacred tree of Athene.229 So far, therefore, the relation of the goat to Athene is parallel to the relation of the horse to Virbius, both animals being excluded from the sanctuary on the ground of injury done by them to the god. But from Varro we learn that there was an exception to the rule which excluded the goat from the Acropolis. Once a year, he says, the goat was driven on to the Acropolis for a necessary sacrifice.230 Now, as has been remarked before, when an animal is sacrificed once and once only in the year, it is probably slain, not as a victim offered to the god, but as a representative of the god himself. Therefore we may infer that if a goat was sacrificed on the Acropolis once a year, it was sacrificed in the character of Athene herself; and it may be conjectured that the skin of the sacrificed animal was placed on the statue of the goddess and formed the aegis, which would thus be renewed annually. Similarly at Thebes in Egypt rams were sacred and were not sacrificed. But on one day in the year a ram was killed, and its skin was placed on the statue of the god Ammon.231 Now, if we knew the ritual of the Arician grove better, we might find the rule of excluding horses from it, like the rule of excluding goats from [pg 064] the Acropolis at Athens, was subject to an annual exception, a horse being once a year taken into the grove and sacrificed as an embodiment of the god Virbius. By the usual misunderstanding the horse thus killed would come in time to be regarded as an enemy offered up in sacrifice to the god whom he had injured, like the pig which was sacrificed to Demeter and Osiris or the goat which was sacrificed to Athene and Dionysus. It is so easy for a writer to record a rule without noticing an exception that we need not wonder at finding the rule of the Arician grove recorded without any mention of an exception such as I suppose. If we had had only the statements of Athenaeus and Pliny, we should have known only the rule which forbade the sacrifice of goats to Athene and excluded them from the Acropolis, without being aware of the important exception which the fortunate preservation of Varro's work has revealed to us.

The conjecture that once a year a horse may have been sacrificed in the Arician grove as a representative of the deity of the grove derives some support from the fact that a horse sacrifice of a similar character took place once a year at Rome. On the 15th of October in each year a chariot-race took place on the Field of Mars. The right-hand horse of the victorious team was sacrificed to Mars by being stabbed with a spear. The object of the sacrifice was to ensure good crops. The animal's head was cut off and adorned with a string of loaves. The inhabitants of two wards—the Sacred Way and the Subura—then contended with each other who should get the head. If the people of the Sacred Way got it, they fastened it to a wall of the king's house; if the people of the Subura got it, they fastened it to the Mamilian tower. The horse's [pg 065] tail was cut off and carried to the king's house with such speed that the blood dripped on the hearth of the house.232 Further, it appears that the blood of the horse was caught and preserved till the 21st of April, when it was mixed by the Vestal virgins with the blood of the unborn calves which had been sacrificed six days before. The mixture was then distributed to shepherds, and used by them for fumigating their flocks.233

In this ceremony the decoration of the horse's head with a string of loaves, and the alleged object of the sacrifice, namely, to procure a good harvest, clearly indicate that the horse was killed as one of those animal representatives of the corn-spirit of which we have seen so many examples. The custom of cutting off the horse's tail is like the African custom of cutting off the tails of the oxen and sacrificing them to obtain a good crop.234 In both the Roman and the African custom the animal represents the corn-spirit; and its fructifying power is supposed to reside especially in its tail. The latter idea occurs, as we have seen, in European folk-lore.235 Again, the custom of fumigating the cattle in spring with the blood of the horse may be compared with the custom of giving the Maiden as fodder to the cattle at Christmas, and giving the Yule Boar to the ploughing oxen or horses to eat in spring.236 All these customs aim at ensuring the blessing of the corn-spirit on the homestead and its inmates and storing it up for another year.

The Roman sacrifice of the October horse, as it [pg 066] was called, carries us back to the early days when the Subura, afterwards a low and crowded quarter of the great metropolis, was still a separate village, whose inhabitants engaged in a friendly contest on the harvest-field with their neighbours of Rome, then a little rural town. The Field of Mars on which the ceremony took place lay beside the Tiber, and formed part of the king's domain down to the abolition of the monarchy. For tradition ran that at the time when the last of the kings was driven from Rome, the corn stood ripe for the sickle on the crown lands beside the river; but no one would eat the accursed grain and it was flung into the river in such heaps that, the water being low with the summer heat, it formed the nucleus of an island.237 The horse sacrifice was thus an old autumn custom observed upon the king's corn-fields at the end of the harvest. The tail and blood of the horse, as the chief parts of the corn-spirit's representative, were taken to the king's house and kept there; just as in Germany the harvest-cock is nailed on the gable or over the door of the farmhouse; and as the last sheaf, in the form of the Maiden, is carried home and kept over the fireplace in the Highlands of Scotland. Thus the blessing of the corn-spirit was brought to the king's house and hearth and, through them, to the community of which he was the head. Similarly in the spring and autumn customs of Northern Europe the May-pole is sometimes set up in front of the house of the mayor or burgomaster, and the last sheaf at harvest is brought to him as the head of the village. But while the tail and blood fell to the king, the neighbouring village of the Subura, which no doubt once had a similar ceremony of its own, was gratified [pg 067] by being allowed to compete for the prize of the horse's head. The Mamilian tower to which the Suburans nailed the horse's head when they succeeded in carrying it off, appears to have been a peel-tower or keep of the old Mamilian family, the magnates of the village.238 The ceremony thus performed on the king's fields and at his house on behalf of the whole town and of the neighbouring village presupposes a time when each commune performed a similar ceremony on its own fields. In the rural districts of Latium the villages may have continued to observe the custom, each on its own land, long after the Roman hamlets had merged their separate harvest-homes in the common celebration on the king's lands.239 There is no intrinsic improbability in the supposition that the sacred grove of Aricia, like the Field of Mars at Rome, may have been the scene of a common harvest celebration, at which a horse was sacrificed with the same rude rites on behalf of the neighbouring villages. The horse would represent the fructifying spirit both of the tree and of the corn, for the two ideas melt into each other, as we see in customs like the Harvest-May.

§ 11.—Eating the god.

We have now seen that the corn-spirit is represented sometimes in human, sometimes in animal form, and that in both cases he is killed in the person of his representative and eaten sacramentally. To find examples of actually killing the human representative of the corn-spirit we had of course to go to savage [pg 068] races; but the harvest suppers of our European peasants have furnished unmistakable examples of the sacramental eating of animals as representatives of the corn-spirit. But further, as might have been anticipated, the new corn is itself eaten sacramentally, that is, as the body of the corn-spirit. In Wermland, Sweden, the farmer's wife uses the grain of the last sheaf to bake a loaf in the shape of a little girl; this loaf is divided amongst the whole household and eaten by them.240 Here the loaf represents the corn-spirit conceived as a maiden; just as in Scotland the corn-spirit is similarly conceived and represented by the last sheaf made up in the form of a woman and bearing the name of the Maiden. As usual, the corn-spirit is believed to reside in the last sheaf; and to eat a loaf made from the last sheaf is, therefore, to eat the corn-spirit itself. Similarly at La Palisse in France a man made of dough is hung upon the fir-tree which is carried on the last harvest-waggon. The tree and the dough-man are taken to the mayor's house and kept there till the vintage is over. Then the close of the harvest is celebrated by a feast at which the mayor breaks the dough-man in pieces and gives the pieces to the people to eat.241

In these examples the corn-spirit is represented and eaten in human shape. In other cases, though the new corn is not baked in loaves of human shape, still the solemn ceremonies with which it is eaten suffice to indicate that it is partaken of sacramentally, that is, as the body of the corn-spirit. For example, the following ceremonies used to be [pg 069] observed by Lithuanian peasants at eating the new corn. When the harvest and the sowing of the new corn were over, each farmer held a festival called Sabarios, that is, “the mixing or throwing together.” He took a handful of each kind of grain—wheat, barley, oats, flax, beans, lentils, etc.; and each handful he divided into three parts. The twenty-seven portions of each grain were then thrown on a heap and all mixed up together. The grain used had to be the grain which was first threshed and winnowed and which had been set aside and kept for this purpose. A part of the grain thus mixed was used to bake little loaves, one for each of the household; the rest was mixed with more barley or oats and made into beer. The first beer brewed from this mixture was for the drinking of the farmer, his wife, and children; the second brew was for the servants. The beer being ready, the farmer chose an evening when no stranger was expected. Then he knelt down before the barrel of beer, drew a jugful of the liquor and poured it on the bung of the barrel, saying, “O fruitful earth, make rye and barley and all kinds of corn to flourish.” Next he took the jug to the parlour, where his wife and children awaited him. On the floor of the parlour lay bound a black or white or speckled (not a red) cock and a hen of the same colour and of the same brood, which must have been hatched within the year. Then the farmer knelt down, with the jug in his hand, and thanked God for the harvest and prayed for a good crop next year. Then all lifted up their hands and said, “O God, and thou, O earth, we give you this cock and hen as a free-will offering.” With that the farmer killed the fowls with the blows of a wooden spoon, for he might not cut their heads off. After the first prayer [pg 070] and after killing each of the birds he poured out a third of the beer. Then his wife boiled the fowls in a new pot which had never been used before. A bushel was then set, bottom upwards, on the floor, and on it were placed the little loaves mentioned above and the boiled fowls. Next the new beer was fetched, together with a ladle and three mugs, none of which was used except on this occasion. When the farmer had ladled the beer into the mugs, the family knelt down round the bushel. The father then uttered a prayer and drank off the three mugs of beer. The rest followed his example. Then the loaves and the flesh of the fowls were eaten, after which the beer went round again, till every one had emptied each of the three mugs nine times. None of the food should remain over; but if anything did happen to be left, it was consumed next morning with the same ceremonies. The bones were then given to the dog to eat; if he did not eat them all up, the remains were buried under the dung in the cattle-stall. This ceremony was observed at the beginning of December. On the day on which it occurred no bad word might be spoken.242

Such was the custom about two hundred years ago. At the present day in Lithuania, when new potatoes or loaves made from the new corn are being eaten, all the people at table pull each other's hair.243 The meaning of the latter custom is obscure, but a similar custom was certainly observed by the heathen Lithuanians at their solemn sacrifices.244 Many of the Esthonians of the island of Oesel will not eat bread [pg 071] baked of the new corn till they have first taken a bite at a piece of iron.245 The iron is here plainly a charm, intended to render harmless the spirit that is in the corn.246 In Sutherlandshire at the present day, when the new potatoes are dug all the family must taste them, otherwise “the spirits in them [the potatoes] take offence, and the potatoes would not keep.”247 In one part of Yorkshire it is still the custom for the clergyman to cut the first corn; and my informant believes that the corn so cut is used to make the communion bread.248 If the latter part of the custom is correctly reported (and analogy is all in its favour), it shows how the Christian communion has absorbed within itself a sacrament which is doubtless far older than Christianity.

At the close of the rice harvest in Boeroe, East Indies, each clan (fenna) meets at a common sacramental meal, to which every member of the clan is bound to contribute a little of the new rice. This meal is called “eating the soul of the rice,” a name which clearly indicates the sacramental character of the repast. Some of the rice is also set apart and offered to the spirits.249 Amongst the Alfoers of Celebes the priest sows the first rice-seed and plucks the first ripe rice in each field. This rice he roasts and grinds into meal, and gives some of it to each of the household.250 Shortly before the rice harvest in Bolang Mongondo, Celebes, an offering is made [pg 072] of a small pig or a fowl. Then the priest plucks a little rice, first on his own field and then on those of his neighbours. All the rice thus plucked by him he dries along with his own, and then gives it back to the respective owners, who have it ground and boiled. When it is boiled the women take it back, with an egg, to the priest, who offers the egg in sacrifice and returns the rice to the women. Of this rice every member of the family, down to the youngest child, must partake. After this ceremony every one is free to get in his rice.251 Amongst the Burghers, a tribe of the Neilgherry Hills in Southern India, the first handful of seed is sown and the first sheaf reaped by a Curumbar—a man of a different tribe, whom the Burghers regard as sorcerers. The grain contained in the first sheaf “is that day reduced to meal, made into cakes, and, being offered as a first-fruit oblation, is, together with the remainder of the sacrificed animal, partaken of by the Burgher and the whole of his family as the meat of a federal offering and sacrifice.”252

Amongst the Coorgs of Southern India the man who is to cut the first sheaf of rice at harvest is chosen by an astrologer. At sunset the whole household takes a hot bath and then goes to the rice-field, where the chosen reaper cuts an armful of rice with a new sickle, and distributes two or more stalks to all present. Then all return to the threshing-floor. A bundle of leaves is adorned with a stalk of rice and fastened to the post in the centre of the threshing-floor. Enough of the new rice [pg 073] is now threshed, cleaned, and ground to provide flour for the dough cakes which each member of the household is to eat. Then they go to the door of the house, where the mistress washes the feet of the sheaf-cutter, and presents to him, and after him to all the rest, a brass vessel full of milk, honey, and sugar, from which each person takes a draught. Then the man who cut the sheaf kneads a cake of rice meal, plantains, milk, honey, seven new rice corns, seven pieces of cocoa-nut, etc. Every one receives a little of this cake on an Ashvatha leaf, and eats it. The ceremony is then over and the sheaf-cutter mixes with the company. When he was engaged in cutting the rice no one might touch him.253 Among the Hindoos of Southern India the eating of the new rice is the occasion of a family festival called Pongol. The new rice is boiled in a new pot on a fire which is kindled at noon on the day when, according to Hindoo astrologers, the sun enters the tropic of Capricorn. The boiling of the pot is watched with great anxiety by the whole family, for as the milk boils, so will the coming year be. If the milk boils rapidly, the year will be prosperous; but it will be the reverse if the milk boils slowly. Some of the new boiled rice is offered to the image of Ganesa; then every one partakes of it.254 At Gilgit, in the Hindoo Koosh, before wheat-harvest begins, a member of every household gathers a handful of ears of corn secretly at dusk. A few of the ears are hung up over the door of the house, and the rest are roasted next morning, [pg 074] and eaten steeped in milk. The day is spent in rejoicings, and next morning the harvest begins.255

The ceremony of eating the new yams at Onitsha, on the Quorra River, Guinea, is thus described: “Each headman brought out six yams, and cut down young branches of palm-leaves and placed them before his gate, roasted three of the yams, and got some kola-nuts and fish. After the yam is roasted, the Libia, or country doctor, takes the yam, scrapes it with a sort of meal, and divides it into halves; he then takes one piece, and places it on the lips of the person who is going to eat the new yam. The eater then blows up the steam from the hot yam, and afterwards pokes the whole into his mouth, and says, ‘I thank God for being permitted to eat the new yam;’ he then begins to chew it heartily, with fish likewise.”256 Amongst the Kafirs of Natal and Zululand, no one may eat of the new fruits till after a festival which marks the beginning of the Kafir year. All the people assemble at the king's kraal, where they feast and dance. Before they separate the “dedication of the people” takes place. Various fruits of the earth, as corn, mealies, and pumpkins, mixed with the flesh of a sacrificed animal and with “medicine,” are boiled in great pots, and a little of this food is placed in each man's mouth by the king himself. After thus partaking of the sanctified fruits, a man is himself sanctified for the whole year, and may immediately get in his crops.257

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Amongst the Creek Indians of North America, the busk or festival of first-fruits was the chief ceremony of the year.258 It was held in July or August, when the corn was ripe, and marked the end of the old year and the beginning of the new one. Before it took place none of the Indians would eat or even handle any part of the new harvest. Sometimes each town had its own busk; sometimes several towns united to hold one in common. Before celebrating the busk, the people provided themselves with new clothes and new household utensils and furniture; they collected their old clothes and rubbish, together with all the remaining grain and other old provisions, cast them together in one common heap, and consumed them with fire.259 As a preparation for the ceremony, all the fires in the village were extinguished, and the ashes swept clean away. In particular, the hearth or altar of the temple was dug up and the [pg 076] ashes carried out. Then the chief priest put some roots of the button-snake plant, with some green tobacco leaves and a little of the new fruits, at the bottom of the fireplace, which he afterwards ordered to be covered up with white clay, and wetted over with clean water. A thick arbour of green branches of young trees was then made over the altar.260 Meanwhile the women at home were cleaning out their houses, renewing the old hearths, and scouring all the cooking vessels that they might be ready to receive the new fire and the new fruits.261 The public or sacred square was carefully swept of even the smallest crumbs of previous feasts, “for fear of polluting the first-fruit offerings.” Also every vessel that had contained or had been used about any food during the expiring year was removed from the temple before sunset. Then all the men who were not known to have violated the law of the first-fruit offering and that of marriage during the year were summoned by a crier to enter the holy square and observe a solemn fast. But the women (except six old ones), the children, and all who had not attained the rank of warriors were forbidden to enter the square. Sentinels were also posted at the corners of the square to keep out all persons deemed impure and all animals. A strict fast was then observed for two nights and a day, the devotees drinking a bitter decoction of button-snake root “in order to vomit and purge their sinful bodies.” That the people outside the square might also be purified, one of the old men laid down a [pg 077] quantity of green tobacco at a corner of the square; this was carried off by an old woman and distributed to the people without, who chewed and swallowed it “in order to afflict their souls.” During this general fast, the women, children, and men of weak constitution were allowed to eat after mid-day, but not before. On the morning when the fast ended, the women brought a quantity of the old year's food to the outside of the sacred square. These provisions were then brought in and set before the famished multitude, but all traces of them had to be removed before noon. When the sun was declining from the meridian, all the people were commanded by the voice of a crier to stay within doors, to do no bad act, and to be sure to extinguish and throw away every spark of the old fire. Universal silence now reigned. Then the high priest made the new fire by the friction of two pieces of wood, and placed it on the altar under the green arbour. This new fire was believed to atone for all past crimes except murder. Then a basket of new fruits was brought; the high priest took out a little of each sort of fruit, rubbed it with bear's oil, and offered it, together with some flesh, “to the bountiful holy spirit of fire, as a first-fruit offering, and an annual oblation for sin.” He also consecrated the sacred emetics (the button-snake root and the cassina or black-drink) by pouring a little of them into the fire. The persons who had remained outside now approached, without entering, the sacred square; and the chief priest thereupon made a speech, exhorting the people to observe their old rites and customs, announcing that the new divine fire had purged away the sins of the past year, and earnestly warning the women that, if any of them had not extinguished the old fire, or had contracted any impurity, [pg 078] they must forthwith depart, “lest the divine fire should spoil both them and the people.” Some of the new fire was then laid down outside the holy square; the women carried it home joyfully, and laid it on their unpolluted hearths. When several towns had united to celebrate the festival, the new fire might thus be carried for several miles. The new fruits were then dressed on the new fires and eaten with bear's oil, which was deemed indispensable. At one point of the festival the men rubbed the new corn between their hands, then on their faces and breasts.262 During the festival which followed, the warriors, dressed in their wild martial array, their heads covered with white down and carrying white feathers in their hands, danced round the sacred arbour, under which burned the new fire. The ceremonies lasted eight days, during which the strictest continence was practised. Towards the conclusion of the festival the warriors fought a mock battle; then the men and women together, in three circles, danced round the sacred fire. Lastly, all the people smeared themselves with white clay and bathed in running water. They came out of the water “believing themselves out of the reach of temporal evil for their past vicious conduct.” So they departed in joy and peace.

The solemn preparations thus made for eating the new corn prove that it was eaten as a sacrament. In the Boeroe and Creek customs, this sacrament is combined with a sacrifice, and in course of time the sacrifice of first-fruits tends to throw the sacrament into the shade, if not to supersede it. The mere fact of having offered the first-fruits to the gods or ancestral spirits comes now to be thought a sufficient preparation [pg 079] for eating the new corn; the gods having received their share, man is free to enjoy the rest. This mode of viewing the new fruits implies that they are regarded no longer as themselves instinct with divine life, but merely as a gift bestowed by the gods upon man, who is bound to express his gratitude and homage to his divine benefactors by presenting them with a portion of the fruits of the earth. But with sacrifice, as distinct from sacrament, we are not here concerned.263

The custom of eating bread sacramentally as the body of a god was practised by the Aztecs before the discovery and conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards. Twice a year, in May and December, an image of the great Mexican god Huitzilopochtli or Vitzilipuztli was made of dough, then broken in pieces, and solemnly eaten by his worshippers. The May ceremony is thus described by the historian Acosta. “Two daies before this feast, the virgins whereof I have spoken (the which were shut up and secluded in the same temple and were as it were religious women) did mingle a quantitie of the seede of beetes with roasted Mays [maize], and then they did mould it with honie, making an idol of that paste in bignesse like to that of wood, putting insteede of eyes graines of greene glasse, of blue or white; and for teeth graines of Mays set forth with all the ornament and furniture that I have said. This being finished, all the Noblemen came and brought it an exquisite and rich garment, like unto that of the idol, wherewith they did attyre it. Being thus clad and deckt, they did set it in an azured chaire and in a litter to carry it on their shoulders. The morning of this feast being come, an houre before day all the maidens came forth attired in white, with new ornaments, [pg 080] the which that day were called the Sisters of their god Vitzilipuztli, they came crowned with garlands of Mays rosted and parched, being like unto azahar or the flower of orange; and about their neckes they had great chaines of the same, which went bauldricke-wise under their left arme. Their cheekes were died with vermillion, their armes from the elbow to the wrist were covered with red parrots' feathers.” Young men, crowned like the virgins with maize, then carried the idol in its litter to the foot of the great pyramid-shaped temple, up the steep and narrow steps of which it was drawn to the music of flutes, trumpets, cornets, and drums. “While they mounted up the idoll all the people stoode in the Court with much reverence and feare. Being mounted to the top, and that they had placed it in a little lodge of roses which they held readie, presently came the yong men, which strawed many flowers of sundrie kindes, wherewith they filled the temple both within and without. This done, all the virgins came out of their convent, bringing peeces of paste compounded of beetes and rosted Mays, which was of the same paste whereof their idol was made and compounded, and they were of the fashion of great bones. They delivered them to the yong men, who carried them up and laide them at the idoll's feete, wherewith they filled the whole place that it could receive no more. They called these morcells of paste the flesh and bones of Vitzilipuztli.” Then the priests came in their robes of office, “and putting themselves in order about these morsells and peeces of paste, they used certaine ceremonies with singing and dauncing. By means whereof they were blessed and consecrated for the flesh and bones of this idoll.... The ceremonies, dauncing, and sacrifice ended, they went [pg 081] to unclothe themselves, and the priests and superiors of the temple tooke the idoll of paste, which they spoyled of all the ornaments it had, and made many peeces, as well of the idoll itselfe as of the tronchons which were consecrated, and then they gave them to the people in maner of a communion, beginning with the greater, and continuing unto the rest, both men, women, and little children, who received it with such teares, feare, and reverence as it was an admirable thing, saying that they did eate the flesh and bones of God, wherewith they were grieved. Such as had any sicke folkes demaunded thereof for them, and carried it with great reverence and veneration.”264

Before the festival in December, which took place at the winter solstice, an image of the god Huitzilopochtli was made of seeds of various sorts kneaded into a dough with the blood of children. The bones of the god were represented by pieces of acacia wood, This image was placed on the chief altar of the temple, and on the day of the festival the king offered incense to it. Early next day it was taken down and set on its feet in a great hall. Then a priest took a flint-tipped dart and hurled it into the breast of the dough-image, piercing it through and through. This was called “killing the god Huitzilopochtli so that his body might be eaten.” One of the priests cut out the heart of the image and gave it to the king to eat. The rest of the image was divided into minute pieces, of which every man great and small, down to the male children in the cradle, received one to eat. But no woman might taste a morsel. The ceremony was called teoqualo, that is, “god is eaten.”265

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At another festival the Mexicans made little images in human shape to represent the cloud-capped mountains. These images were made of paste of various seeds and were dressed in paper ornaments. Some people made five, others ten, others as many as fifteen of these paste images. They were placed in the oratory of each house and worshipped. Four times in the course of the night offerings of food were made to them in tiny vessels; and people sang and played the flute before them all night. At break of day the priests stabbed the images with a weaver's instrument, cut off their heads, and tore out their hearts, which they presented to the master of the house on a green saucer. The bodies of the images were then eaten by all the family, especially by the servants, “in order that by eating them they might be preserved from certain distempers, to which those persons who were negligent of worship to those deities conceived themselves to be subject.” 266

We are now able to suggest an explanation of the proverb “there are many Manii at Aricia.”267 Certain loaves made in the shape of men were called by the Romans maniae, and it appears that this kind of loaf was especially made at Aricia.268 Now, Mania, the name of one of these loaves, was also the name of the Mother or Grandmother of Ghosts,269 to whom woollen [pg 083] effigies of men and women were dedicated at the festival of the Compitalia. These effigies were hung at the doors of all the houses in Rome; one effigy was hung up for every free person in the house, and one effigy, of a different kind, for every slave. The reason was that on this day the ghosts of the dead were believed to be going about, and it was hoped that they would carry off the effigies at the door instead of the living people in the house. According to tradition, these woollen figures were substitutes for a former custom of sacrificing human beings.270 Upon data so fragmentary and uncertain, it is of course impossible to build with certainty; but it seems worth suggesting that the loaves in human form, which appear to have been baked at Aricia, were sacramental bread, and that in the old days, when the divine King of the Wood was annually slain, loaves were made in his image, like the paste figures of the gods in Mexico, and were eaten sacramentally by his worshippers.271 [pg 084] The Mexican sacraments in honour of Huitzilopochtli were also accompanied by the sacrifice of human victims. The tradition that the founder of the sacred grove at Aricia was a man named Manius, from whom many Manii were descended, would thus be an etymological myth invented to explain the name maniae as applied to these sacramental loaves. A dim recollection of the original connection of these loaves with human sacrifices may perhaps be traced in the story that the effigies dedicated to Mania at the Compitalia were substitutes for human victims. The story itself, however, is probably devoid of foundation, since the practice of putting up dummies to divert the attention of demons from living people is not uncommon. For example, when an epidemic is raging, some of the Dyaks of Borneo set up wooden images at their doors, in the hope that the demons of the plague will be deceived into carrying off the images instead of the people.272 The Minahassa of Celebes will sometimes transport a sick man to another house, leaving on his bed a dummy made up of a pillow and clothes. This dummy the demon is supposed to take by mistake for the sick man, who consequently recovers.273 Similarly in Burma it is thought that a patient will recover if an effigy be buried in a small coffin.274

The custom of killing the god has now been traced [pg 085] amongst peoples who have reached the agricultural stage of society. We have seen that the spirit of the corn, or of other cultivated plants, is commonly represented either in human or in animal form, and that a custom has prevailed of killing annually either the human or the animal representative of the god. The reason for thus killing the corn-spirit in the person of his representative has been given implicitly in the earlier part of this chapter. But, further, we have found a widespread custom of eating the god sacramentally, either in the shape of the man or animal who represents the god, or in the shape of bread made in human or animal form. The reasons for thus partaking of the body of the god are, from the primitive standpoint, simple enough. The savage commonly believes that by eating the flesh of an animal or man he acquires not only the physical, but even the moral and intellectual qualities which were characteristic of that animal or man. To take examples. The Creeks, Cherokees, and kindred tribes of North American Indians “believe that nature is possessed of such a property, as to transfuse into men and animals the qualities, either of the food they use, or of those objects that are presented to their senses; he who feeds on venison is, according to their physical system, swifter and more sagacious than the man who lives on the flesh of the clumsy bear, or helpless dunghill fowls, the slow-footed tame cattle, or the heavy wallowing swine. This is the reason that several of their old men recommend, and say, that formerly their greatest chieftains observed a constant rule in their diet, and seldom ate of any animal of a gross quality, or heavy motion of body, fancying it conveyed a dulness through the whole system, and disabled them from exerting themselves [pg 086] with proper vigour in their martial, civil, and religious duties.”275 The Zaparo Indians of South America “will, unless from necessity, in most cases not eat any heavy meats, such as tapir and peccary, but confine themselves to birds, monkeys, deer, fish, etc., principally because they argue that the heavier meats make them unwieldy, like the animals who supply the flesh, impeding their agility, and unfitting them for the chase.”276 The Namaquas abstain from eating the flesh of hares, because they think it would make them faint-hearted as a hare. But they eat the flesh of the lion, or drink the blood of the leopard or lion to get the courage and strength of these beasts.277 The Arabs of Eastern Africa believe that an unguent of lion's fat inspires a man with boldness, and makes the wild beasts flee in terror before him.278 When a serious disease has attacked a Zulu kraal, the medicine-man takes the bone of a very old dog, which has died a natural death from mere old age, or the bone of an old cow, bull, or other very old animal, and administers it to the healthy as well as to the sick people, in order that they may live to be as old as the animal of whose bone they have partaken.279 The Miris of Northern India prize tiger's flesh as food for men; it gives them strength and courage. But “it is not suited for women; it would make them too strong-minded.”280 Amongst the Dyaks of North-west Borneo young men and warriors may [pg 087] not eat venison, because it would make them as timid as deer; but the women and very old men are free to eat it.281 Men of the Buro and Aru Islands, East Indies, eat the flesh of dogs in order to be bold and nimble in war.282 Amongst the Papuans of the Port Moresby and Motumotu districts, New Guinea, young lads eat strong pig, wallaby, and large fish, in order to acquire the strength of the animal or fish.283 In Corea the bones of tigers fetch a higher price than those of leopards as a means of inspiring courage. A Chinaman in Soul bought and ate a whole tiger to make himself brave and fierce.284 The special seat of courage, according to the Chinese, is the gall-bladder; so they sometimes procure the gall-bladders of tigers and bears, and eat the bile in the belief that it will give them courage.285 In Norse history, Ingiald, son of King Aunund, was timid in his youth, but after eating the heart of a wolf he became very bold; and Hialto gained strength and courage by eating the heart of a bear and drinking its blood.286 In Morocco lethargic patients are given ants to swallow; and to eat lion's flesh will make a coward brave.287 When a child is late in learning to speak, the Turks of Central Asia will give it the tongues of certain birds to eat.288 A North American Indian thought that brandy must be a decoction of hearts and tongues, “Because,” said he, “after drinking it I fear nothing, and I talk wonderfully.”289 The people of Darfur, [pg 088] in Central Africa, think that the liver is the seat of the soul, and that a man may enlarge his soul by eating the liver of an animal. “Whenever an animal is killed its liver is taken out and eaten, but the people are most careful not to touch it with their hands, as it is considered sacred; it is cut up in small pieces and eaten raw, the bits being conveyed to the mouth on the point of a knife, or the sharp point of a stick. Any one who may accidentally touch the liver is strictly forbidden to partake of it, which prohibition is regarded as a great misfortune for him.” Women are not allowed to eat liver, because they have no soul.290

Again, the flesh and blood of brave men are commonly eaten and drunk to inspire bravery. The Australian Kamilaroi eat the heart and liver of a brave man to get his courage.291 It is a common practice with the Australian blacks to kill a man, cut out his caul-fat, and rub themselves with it, “the belief being that all the qualifications, both physical and mental, of the previous owner of the fat were thus communicated to him who used it.”292 The Italones of the Philippine Islands drink the blood of their slain enemies, and eat part of the back of their heads and of their entrails raw, in order to acquire their courage. For the same reason the Efugaos, another tribe of the Philippines, suck the brains of their foes.293 Amongst the Kimbunda of Western Africa, when a new king succeeds to the throne, a brave prisoner of war is killed in order that the king and nobles may eat his flesh, and so acquire [pg 089] his strength and courage.294 The Basutos cut off pieces of their slain enemies and make them into a powder, “which is supposed to communicate to them the courage, skill, and good fortune of their adversaries.”295 The Zulus think that by eating the centre of the forehead and the eyebrow of an enemy they acquire the power of looking steadfastly at a foe.296 In the Shire Highlands of Africa those who kill a brave man eat his heart to get his courage.297 For the same purpose the Chinese eat the bile of notorious bandits who have been executed.298 In New Zealand “the chief was an atua [god], but there were powerful and powerless gods; each naturally sought to make himself one of the former; the plan therefore adopted was to incorporate the spirits of others with their own; thus, when a warrior slew a chief he immediately gouged out his eyes and swallowed them, the atua tonga, or divinity, being supposed to reside in that organ; thus he not only killed the body, but also possessed himself of the soul of his enemy, and consequently the more chiefs he slew the greater did his divinity become.”299

It is now easy to understand why a savage should desire to partake of the flesh of an animal or man whom he regards as divine. By eating the body of the god he shares in the god's attributes and powers. And when the god is a corn-god, the corn is his proper body; when he is a vine-god, the juice of the grape is his blood; and so by eating the bread and drinking [pg 090] the wine the worshipper partakes of the real body and blood of his god. Thus the drinking of wine in the rites of a vine-god like Dionysus is not an act of revelry, it is a solemn sacrament.300

§ 12.—Killing the divine animal.

It remains to show that hunting and pastoral tribes, as well as agricultural peoples, have been in the habit of killing their gods. The gods whom hunters and shepherds adore and kill are animals pure and simple, not animals regarded as embodiments of other supernatural beings. Our first example is drawn from the Indians of California, who, living in a fertile country301 under a serene and temperate sky, nevertheless rank near the bottom of the savage scale. The Acagchemen tribe of San Juan Capistrano adored the great buzzard. Once a year, at a great festival called Panes or bird-feast, they carried one of these birds in procession to their chief temple, which seems to have been merely an unroofed enclosure of stakes. Here they killed the bird without losing a drop of its blood. The skin was removed entire and preserved with the feathers as a relic or for the purpose of making the festal garment or paelt. The carcass was buried in a hole in the temple, and the old women gathered round the grave weeping and moaning bitterly, while they threw various kinds of seeds or pieces of food on it, crying out, “Why [pg 091] did you run away? Would you not have been better with us?” and so on. They said that the Panes was a woman who had run off to the mountains and there been changed into a bird by the god Chinigchinich. They believed that though they sacrificed the bird annually, she came to life again and returned to her home in the mountains. Moreover they thought that “as often as the bird was killed, it became multiplied; because every year all the different Capitanes celebrated the same feast of the Panes, and were firm in the opinion that the birds sacrificed were but one and the same female.”302

The unity in multiplicity thus postulated by the Californians is very noticeable and helps to explain their motive for killing the divine bird. The notion of the life of a species as distinct from that of an individual, easy and obvious as it seems to us, appears to be one which the Californian savage cannot grasp. He is unable to conceive the life of the species otherwise than as an individual life, and therefore as exposed to the same dangers and calamities which menace and finally destroy the life of the individual. Apparently he thinks that a species left to itself will grow old and die like an individual, and that therefore some step must be taken to save from extinction the particular species which he regards as divine. The only means he can think of to avert the catastrophe is to kill a member of the species in whose veins the tide of life is still running strong and has not yet stagnated among the fens of old age. The life thus diverted from one channel will flow, he fancies, more freshly and freely in a new one; in other words, the slain animal will [pg 092] revive and enter on a new term of life with all the spring and energy of youth. To us this reasoning is transparently absurd, but so too is the custom. If a better explanation, that is, one more consonant with the facts and with the principles of savage thought, can be given of the custom, I will willingly withdraw the one here proposed. A similar confusion, it may be noted, between the individual life and the life of the species was made by the Samoans. Each family had for its god a particular species of animal; yet the death of one of these animals, for example an owl, was not the death of the god, “he was supposed to be yet alive, and incarnate in all the owls in existence.”303

The rude Californian rite which we have just considered has a close parallel in the religion of ancient Egypt. The Thebans and all other Egyptians who worshipped the Theban god Ammon held rams to be sacred and would not sacrifice them. But once a year at the festival of Ammon they killed a ram, skinned it, and clothed the image of the god in the skin. Then they mourned over the ram and buried it in a sacred tomb. The custom was explained by a story that Zeus had once exhibited himself to Hercules clad in the fleece and wearing the head of a ram.304 Of course the ram in this case was simply the beast-god of Thebes, as the wolf was the beast-god of Lycopolis, and the goat was the beast-god of Mendes. In other words, the ram was Ammon himself. On the monuments, it is true, Ammon appears in semi-human form with the body of a man and the head of a ram.305 But this only shows that he was in the usual [pg 093] chrysalis state through which beast-gods regularly pass before they emerge as full-fledged anthropomorphic gods. The ram, therefore, was killed, not as a sacrifice to Ammon, but as the god himself, whose identity with the beast is plainly shown by the custom of clothing his image in the skin of the slain ram. The reason for thus killing the ram-god annually may have been that which I have assigned for the general custom of killing the god and for the special Californian custom of killing the divine buzzard. As applied to Egypt, this explanation is supported by the analogy of the bull-god Apis, who was not suffered to outlive a certain term of years.306 The intention of thus putting a limit to the life of the god was, as I have argued, to secure him from the weakness and frailty of age. The same reasoning would explain the custom—probably an older one—of putting the beast-god to death annually, as was done with the ram of Thebes.

One point in the Theban ritual—the application of the skin to the image of the god—deserves special attention. If the god was at first the living ram, his representation by an image must have originated later. But how did it originate? The answer to this question is perhaps furnished by the practice of preserving the skin of the animal which is slain as divine. The Californians, as we have seen, preserved the skin of the buzzard; and the skin of the goat, which is killed on the harvest-field as a representative of the corn-spirit, is kept for various superstitious purposes.307 The skin in fact was kept as a token or memorial of the god, or rather as containing in it a part of the divine life, and it had only to be [pg 094] stuffed or stretched upon a frame to become a regular image of him. At first an image of this kind would be renewed annually,308 the new image being provided by the skin of the slain animal. But from annual images to permanent images the transition is easy. We have seen that the older custom of cutting a new May-tree every year was superseded by the practice of maintaining a permanent May-pole, which was, however, annually decked with fresh leaves and flowers and even surmounted each year by a fresh young tree.309 Similarly when the stuffed skin, as a representative of the god, was replaced by a permanent image of him in wood, stone, or metal, the permanent image was annually clad in the fresh skin of the slain animal. When this stage had been reached, the custom of killing the ram came naturally to be interpreted as a sacrifice offered to the image, and was explained by a story like that of Ammon and Hercules.

West Africa furnishes another example of the annual killing of a sacred animal and the preservation of its skin. The negroes of Issapoo, in the island of Fernando Po, regard the cobra-capella as their guardian deity, who can do them good or ill, bestow riches or inflict disease and death. The skin of one of these reptiles is hung tail downwards from a branch of the highest tree in the public square, and the placing of it on the tree is an annual ceremony. As soon as [pg 095] the ceremony is over, all children born within the past year are carried out and their hands made to touch the tail of the serpent's skin.310 The latter custom is clearly a way of placing the infants under the protection of the tribal god. Similarly in Senegambia a python is expected to visit every child of the Python clan within eight days after birth;311 and the Psylli, a Snake clan of ancient Africa, used to expose their infants to snakes in the belief that the snakes would not harm true-born children of the clan.312

In the Californian, Egyptian, and Fernando Po customs the animal slain probably is, or once was, a totem. At all events, in all three cases the worship of the animal seems to have no relation to agriculture, and may therefore be presumed to date from the hunter or pastoral stage of society. The same may be said of the following custom, though the people who practise it—the Zuni Indians of New Mexico—are now settled in walled villages or towns of a peculiar type, and practise agriculture and the arts of pottery and weaving. But the Zuni custom is marked by certain features which appear to place it in a somewhat different category from the preceding cases. It may be well therefore to describe it at full length in the words of an eye-witness.

“With midsummer the heat became intense. My brother [i.e. adopted Indian brother] and I sat, day after day, in the cool under-rooms of our house,—the latter [sic] busy with his quaint forge and crude appliances, working Mexican coins over into bangles, [pg 096] girdles, ear-rings, buttons, and what not for savage ornament.... One day as I sat watching him, a procession of fifty men went hastily down the hill, and off westward over the plain. They were solemnly led by a painted and shell-bedecked priest, and followed by the torch-bearing Shu-lu-wit-si, or God of Fire. After they had vanished, I asked old brother what it all meant.

“ ‘They are going,’ said he, ‘to the city of the Ka-ka and the home of our others.’

“Four days after, toward sunset, costumed and masked in the beautiful paraphernalia of the Ka-k'ok-shi, or ‘Good Dance,’ they returned in file up the same pathway, each bearing in his arms a basket filled with living, squirming turtles, which he regarded and carried as tenderly as a mother would her infant. Some of the wretched reptiles were carefully wrapped in soft blankets, their heads and forefeet protruding,—and, mounted on the backs of the plume-bedecked pilgrims, made ludicrous but solemn caricatures of little children in the same position. While I was at supper upstairs that evening, the governor's brother-in-law came in. He was welcomed by the family as if a messenger from heaven. He bore in his tremulous fingers one of the much abused and rebellious turtles. Paint still adhered to his hands and bare feet, which led me to infer that he had formed one of the sacred embassy.

“ ‘So you went to Ka-thlu-el-lon, did you?’ I asked.

“ ‘E'e,’ replied the weary man, in a voice husky with long chanting, as he sank, almost exhausted, on a roll of skins which had been placed for him, and tenderly laid the turtle on the floor. No sooner did [pg 097] the creature find itself at liberty than it made off as fast as its lame legs would take it. Of one accord the family forsook dish, spoon, and drinking-cup, and grabbing from a sacred meal-bowl whole handfuls of the contents, hurriedly followed the turtle about the room, into dark corners, around water-jars, behind the grinding-troughs, and out into the middle of the floor again, praying and scattering meal on its back as they went. At last, strange to say, it approached the footsore man who had brought it.

“ ‘Ha!’ he exclaimed, with emotion; ‘see, it comes to me again; ah, what great favours the fathers of all grant me this day,’ and passing his hand gently over the sprawling animal, he inhaled from his palm deeply and long, at the same time invoking the favour of the gods. Then he leaned his chin upon his hand, and with large wistful eyes regarded his ugly captive as it sprawled about, blinking its meal-bedimmed eyes, and clawing the smooth floor in memory of its native element. At this juncture I ventured a question:

“ ‘Why do you not let him go, or give him some water?’

“Slowly the man turned his eyes toward me, an odd mixture of pain, indignation, and pity on his face, while the worshipful family stared at me with holy horror.

“ ‘Poor younger brother!’ he said at last, ‘know you not how precious it is? It die? It will not die; I tell you, it cannot die.’

“ ‘But it will die if you don't feed it and give it water.’

“ ‘I tell you it cannot die; it will only change houses to-morrow, and go back to the home of its brothers. Ah, well! How should you know?’ he [pg 098] mused. Turning to the blinded turtle again: ‘Ah! my poor dear lost child or parent, my sister or brother to have been! Who knows which? Maybe my own great-grandfather or mother!’ And with this he fell to weeping most pathetically, and, tremulous with sobs, which were echoed by the women and children, he buried his face in his hands. Filled with sympathy for his grief, however mistaken, I raised the turtle to my lips and kissed its cold shell; then depositing it on the floor, hastily left the grief-stricken family to their sorrows. Next day, with prayers and tender beseechings, plumes, and offerings, the poor turtle was killed, and its flesh and bones were removed and deposited in the little river, that it might ‘return once more to eternal life among its comrades in the dark waters of the lake of the dead.’ The shell, carefully scraped and dried, was made into a dance-rattle, and, covered by a piece of buckskin, it still hangs from the smoke-stained rafters of my brother's house. Once a Navajo tried to buy it for a ladle; loaded with indignant reproaches, he was turned out of the house. Were any one to venture the suggestion that the turtle no longer lived, his remark would cause a flood of tears, and he would be reminded that it had only ‘changed houses and gone to live for ever in the home of “our lost others.” ’ ”313

In this custom we find expressed in the clearest way a belief in the transmigration of human souls into the bodies of turtles.314 The same belief in transmigration [pg 099] is held by the Moqui Indians, who belong to the same race as the Zunis. The Moquis are divided into totem clans—the Bear clan, Deer clan, Wolf clan, Hare clan, etc.; they believe that the ancestors of the clans were bears, deer, wolves, hares, etc.; and that at death the members of each clan become bears, deer, etc.315 The Zuni are also divided into clans, the totems of which agree closely with those of the Moquis, and one of their totems is the turtle.316 Thus their belief in transmigration into the turtle is probably one of the regular articles of their totem faith. What then is the meaning of killing a turtle in which the soul of a kinsman is believed to be present? Apparently the object is to keep up a communication with the other world in which the souls of the departed are believed to be assembled in the form of turtles. It is a common belief that the spirits of the dead return occasionally to their old homes; and accordingly the unseen visitors are welcomed and feasted by the living, and then sent upon their way.317 In the Zuni ceremony the dead are fetched back in the form of turtles, and the killing of the turtles is the way of sending back the souls to the spirit-land. Thus the general explanation given above of the custom of killing a god seems inapplicable to the Zuni custom, the true meaning of which is somewhat obscure.

Doubt also hangs over the meaning of the bear-sacrifice offered by the Ainos, a primitive people [pg 100] who are found in the Japanese islands of Yesso and Saghalien, and also in the southern of the Kurile Islands. It is not quite easy to make out the attitude of the Ainos towards the bear. On the one hand they give it the name of Kamui or “god”; but as they apply the same word to strangers,318 it probably means no more than a being supposed to be endowed with superhuman powers. Again, it is said “the bear is their chief divinity;”319 “in the religion of the Ainos the bear plays a chief part;”320 “amongst the animals it is especially the bear which receives an idolatrous veneration;”321 “they worship it after their fashion.... There is no doubt that this wild beast inspires more of the feeling which prompts worship than the inanimate forces of nature, and the Ainos may be distinguished as bear-worshippers.”322 Yet, on the other hand, they kill the bear whenever they can;323 “the men spend the autumn, winter, and spring in hunting deer and bears. Part of their tribute or taxes is paid in skins, and they subsist on the dried meat;”324 bear's flesh is indeed one of their staple foods; they eat it both fresh and salted;325 and the skins of bears furnish them with clothing.326 In fact, the “worship” of which writers on this subject speak appears to be paid only to the dead animal. Thus, although they kill a bear whenever they can, “in the process of dissecting the carcass they [pg 101] endeavour to conciliate the deity, whose representative they have slain, by making elaborate obeisances and deprecatory salutations;”327 “when a bear is trapped or wounded by an arrow, the hunters go through an apologetic or propitiatory ceremony.”328 The skulls of slain bears receive a place of honour in their huts, or are set up on sacred posts outside the huts, and are treated with much respect; libations of sake, an intoxicating liquor, are offered to them.329 The skulls of foxes are also fastened to the sacred posts outside the huts; they are regarded as charms against evil spirits, and are consulted as oracles.330 Yet it is expressly said, “The live fox is revered just as little as the bear; rather they avoid it as much as possible, considering it a wily animal.”331 The bear cannot, therefore, be described as a sacred animal of the Ainos, and it certainly is not a totem; for they do not call themselves bears, they appear to have no legend of their descent from a bear,332 and they kill and eat the animal freely.

But it is the bear-festival of the Ainos which concerns us here. Towards the end of winter a young bear is caught and brought into the village. At first he is suckled by an Aino woman; afterwards he is fed on fish. When he grows so strong that he threatens to break out of the wooden cage in which he is confined, the feast is held. But “it is a peculiarly [pg 102] striking fact that the young bear is not kept merely to furnish a good meal; rather he is regarded and honoured as a fetish, or even as a sort of higher being.”333 The festival is generally celebrated in September or October. Before it takes place the Ainos apologise to their gods, alleging that they have treated the bear kindly as long as they could, now they can feed him no longer, and are obliged to kill him. A man who gives a bear-feast invites his relations and friends; in a small village nearly the whole community takes part in the feast. One of these festivals has been described by an eyewitness, Dr. Scheube.334 On entering the hut he found about thirty Ainos present, men, women, and children, all dressed in their best. The master of the house first offered a libation on the fireplace to the god of the fire, and the guests followed his example. Then a libation was offered to the house-god in his sacred corner of the hut. Meanwhile the housewife, who had nursed the bear, sat by herself, silent and sad, bursting now and then into tears. Her grief was obviously unaffected, and it deepened as the festival went on. Next, the master of the house and some of the guests went out of the hut and offered libations before the bear's cage. A few drops were presented to the bear in a saucer, which he at once upset. Then the women and girls danced round the cage, their faces turned towards it, their knees slightly bent, rising and hopping on their toes. As they danced they clapped their hands and sang a monotonous song. The housewife and a few old women, who might have nursed many bears, danced tearfully, stretching out their arms to [pg 103] the bear, and addressing it in terms of endearment. The young folks were less affected; they laughed as well as sang. Disturbed by the noise, the bear began to rush about his cage and howl lamentably. Next libations were offered to the inabos or sacred wands which stand outside of an Aino hut. These wands are about a couple of feet high, and are whittled at the top into spiral shavings.335 Five new wands with bamboo leaves attached to them had been set up for the festival. This is regularly done when a bear is killed; the leaves mean that the bear may come to life again. Then the bear was let out of his cage, a rope was thrown round his neck, and he was led about in the neighbourhood of the hut. While this was being done the men, headed by a chief, shot at the bear with arrows tipped with wooden buttons. Dr. Scheube had to do so also. Then the bear was taken before the sacred wands, a stick was put in his mouth, nine men knelt on him and pressed his neck against a beam. In five minutes the bear had expired without uttering a sound. Meantime the women and girls had taken post behind the men, where they danced, lamenting, and beating the men who were killing the bear. The bear's carcass was next placed on a mat before the sacred wands; and a sword and quiver, taken from the wands, were hung round the beast's neck. Being a she-bear, it was also adorned with a necklace and ear-rings. Then food and drink were offered to it, in the shape of millet-broth, millet-cakes, and a pot of sake. The men now sat down on mats before the dead bear, offered libations to [pg 104] it, and drank deep. Meanwhile the women and girls had laid aside all marks of sorrow, and danced merrily, none more merrily than the old women. When the mirth was at its height two young Ainos, who had let the bear out of his cage, mounted the roof of the hut and threw cakes of millet among the company, who all scrambled for them without distinction of age or sex. The bear was next skinned and disembowelled, and the trunk severed from the head, to which the skin was left hanging. The blood, caught in cups, was eagerly swallowed by the men. None of the women or children appeared to drink the blood, though custom did not forbid them to do so. The liver was cut in small pieces and eaten raw, with salt, the women and children getting their share. The flesh and the rest of the vitals were taken into the house to be kept till the next day but one, and then to be divided among the persons who had been present at the feast. Blood and liver were offered to Dr. Scheube. While the bear was being disembowelled, the women and girls danced the same dance which they had danced at the beginning—not, however, round the cage, but in front of the sacred wands. At this dance the old women, who had been merry a moment before, again shed tears freely. After the brain had been extracted from the bear's head and swallowed with salt, the skull, detached from the skin, was hung on a pole beside the sacred wands. The stick with which the bear had been gagged was also fastened to the pole, and so were the sword and quiver which had been hung on the carcass. The latter were removed in about an hour, but the rest remained standing. The whole company, men and women, danced noisily [pg 105] before the pole; and another drinking-bout, in which the women joined, closed the festival.

The mode of killing the bear is described somewhat differently by Miss Bird, who, however, did not witness the ceremony. She says: “Yells and shouts are used to excite the bear; and when he becomes much agitated a chief shoots him with an arrow, inflicting a slight wound which maddens him, on which the bars of the cage are raised, and he springs forth, very furious. At this stage the Ainos run upon him with various weapons, each one striving to inflict a wound, as it brings good luck to draw his blood. As soon as he falls down exhausted his head is cut off, and the weapons with which he has been wounded are offered to it, and he is asked to avenge himself upon them.” At Usu, on Volcano Bay, when the bear is being killed, the Ainos shout, “We kill you, O bear! come back soon into an Aino.”336 A very respectable authority, Dr. Siebold, states that the bear's own heart is frequently offered to the dead animal, in order to assure him that he is still in life.337 This, however, is denied by Dr. Scheube, who says the heart is eaten.338 Perhaps the custom may be observed in some places, though not in others.

The Gilyaks, a Tunguzian people of Eastern Siberia,339 hold a bear festival of the same sort. “The bear is the object of the most refined solicitude of an entire village and plays the chief part in their religious [pg 106] ceremonies.”340 An old she-bear is shot and her cub is reared, but not suckled in the village. When the bear is big enough he is taken from his cage and dragged through the village. But first he is led to the bank of the river, for this is believed to ensure abundance of fish to each family. He is then taken into every house in the village, where fish, brandy, etc. are offered to him. Some people prostrate themselves before the beast. His entrance into a house is supposed to bring a blessing; and if he snuffs at the food offered to him, this also is a blessing. Nevertheless they tease and worry, poke and tickle the animal continually, so that he is surly and snappish.341 After being thus taken to every house, he is tied to a peg and shot dead with arrows. His head is then cut off, decked with shavings, and placed on the table where the feast is set out. Here they beg pardon of the beast and worship him. Then his flesh is roasted and eaten in special vessels of wood finely carved. They do not eat the flesh raw nor drink the blood, as the Ainos do. The brain and entrails are eaten last; and the skull, still decked with shavings, is placed on a tree near the house. Then the people sing and both sexes dance in ranks, as bears.342

[pg 107]

The Goldi, neighbours of the Gilyaks, treat the bear in much the same way. They hunt and kill it; but sometimes they capture a live bear and keep him in a cage, feeding him well and calling him their son and brother. Then at a great festival he is taken from his cage, paraded about with marked consideration, and afterwards killed and eaten. “The skull, jaw-bones, and ears are then suspended on a tree, as an antidote against evil spirits; but the flesh is eaten and much relished, for they believe that all who partake of it acquire a zest for the chase, and become courageous.”343

In the treatment of the captive bear by these tribes there are features which can hardly be distinguished from worship. Such in particular is the Gilyak custom of leading him from house to house, that every family may receive his blessing—a custom parallel to the European one of taking a May-tree or a personal representative of the tree-spirit from door to door in spring, in order that all may share the fresh energies of reviving nature. Again the expected resurrection of the bear is avowedly indicated by the bamboo leaves and by the prayer addressed to him to “come back soon into an Aino.” And that the eating of his flesh is regarded as a sacrament is made probable by the Gilyak custom of reserving special vessels to hold the bear's flesh on this solemn occasion. How is the reverence thus paid to particular bears to be reconciled with the fact that bears in general are habitually hunted and killed by these tribes for the sake of their flesh and skins? On the one hand, the [pg 108] bear is treated as a god; on the other hand, as a creature wholly subservient to human needs. The apparent contradiction vanishes when we place ourselves at the savage point of view. The savage, we must remember, believes that animals are endowed with feelings and intelligence like those of men, and that, like men, they possess souls which survive the death of their bodies either to wander about as disembodied spirits or to be born again in animal form. To the savage, therefore, who regards all living creatures as practically on a footing of equality with man,344 the act of killing and eating an animal must wear a very different aspect from that which the same act presents to us who regard the intelligence of animals as far inferior to our own and deny them the possession of immortal souls. Thus on the principles of his rude philosophy the savage who slays an animal believes himself exposed to the vengeance either of its disembodied spirit or of all the other animals of the same species, whom he considers as knit together, like men, by the ties of kin and the obligations of the blood feud, and therefore as bound to resent the injury done to one of their number. Accordingly the savage makes it a rule to spare the life of those animals which he has no pressing motive for killing, at least such fierce and dangerous animals as are likely to exact a bloody vengeance for the slaughter of one of their kind. Crocodiles are animals of this sort. They are only found in hot countries where, as a rule, food is [pg 109] abundant and primitive man has therefore no reason to kill them for the sake of their tough and unpalatable flesh. Hence it is a general rule among savages to spare crocodiles, or rather only to kill them in obedience to the law of blood feud, that is, as a retaliation for the slaughter of men by crocodiles. For example, the Dyaks of Borneo will not kill a crocodile unless a crocodile has first killed a man. “For why, say they, should they commit an act of aggression, when he and his kindred can so easily repay them? But should the alligator take a human life, revenge becomes a sacred duty of the living relatives, who will trap the man-eater in the spirit of an officer of justice pursuing a criminal. Others, even then, hang back, reluctant to embroil themselves in a quarrel which does not concern them. The man-eating alligator is supposed to be pursued by a righteous Nemesis; and whenever one is caught they have a profound conviction that it must be the guilty one, or his accomplice.”345 So the natives of Madagascar never kill a crocodile “except in retaliation for one of their friends who has been destroyed by a crocodile. They believe that the wanton destruction of one of these reptiles will be followed by the loss of human life, in accordance with the principle of lex talionis.” The people who live near the lake Itasy in Madagascar make a yearly proclamation to the crocodiles, announcing that they will revenge the death of some of their friends by killing as many crocodiles in return and warning all [pg 110] well-disposed crocodiles to keep out of the way, as they have no quarrel with them, but only with their evil-minded relations who have taken human life.346 The Foulahs of Senegambia respect crocodiles on similar grounds.347 The Seminoles, Sioux, and Iowa Indians of North America spare the rattle-snake because they fear that the ghost of the dead rattle-snake would incite its kinsfolk to take vengeance.348 No consideration will induce a Sumatran to catch or wound a tiger except in self-defence or immediately after the tiger has destroyed a friend or relation. When a European has set traps for tigers, the people of the neighbourhood have been known to go by night to the place and explain to the tiger that the traps are not set by them nor with their consent.349

But the savage clearly cannot afford to spare all animals. He must either eat some of them or starve, and when the question thus comes to be whether he or the animal must perish, he is forced to overcome his superstitious scruples and take the life of the beast. At the same time he does all he can to appease his victims and their kinsfolk. Even in the act of killing them he testifies his respect for them, endeavours to excuse or even conceal his share in procuring their death, and promises that their remains will be honourably treated. By thus robbing death of its terrors he hopes to reconcile his victims to their fate and to induce their fellows to come and be killed also. For example, it was a principle with the Kamtchatkans never to kill a land or sea animal without first making excuses to it and begging that the animal would not [pg 111] take it ill. Also they offered it cedar-nuts, etc. to make it think that it was not a victim but a guest at a feast. They believed that this prevented other animals of the same species from growing shy. For instance, after they had killed a bear and feasted on its flesh, the host would bring the bear's head before the company, wrap it in grass, and present it with a variety of trifles. Then he would lay the blame of the bear's death on the Russians, and bid the beast wreak his wrath upon them. Also he would ask the bear to tell the other bears how well he had been treated, that they too might come without fear. Seals, sea-lions, and other animals were treated by the Kamtchatkans with the same ceremonious respect.350 When the Ostiaks have hunted and killed a bear, they cut off its head and hang it on a tree. Then they gather round in a circle and pay it divine honours. Next they run towards the carcass uttering lamentations and saying, “Who killed you? It was the Russians. Who cut off your head? It was a Russian axe. Who skinned you? It was a knife made by a Russian.” They explain, too, that the feathers which sped the arrow on its flight came from the wing of a strange bird, and that they did nothing but let the arrow go. They do all this because they believe that the wandering ghost of the slain bear would attack them on the first opportunity, if they did not thus appease it.351 Or they stuff the skin of the slain bear with hay; and after celebrating their victory with songs of mockery and insult, after spitting on and kicking it, they set it up on its hind legs, “and then, for a considerable time, they [pg 112] bestow on it all the veneration due to a guardian god.”352 When a party of Koriaks have killed a bear or a wolf, they skin the beast and dress one of themselves in the skin. Then they dance round the skin-clad man, saying that it was not they who killed the animal, but some one else, generally a Russian. When they kill a fox they skin it, wrap the body in grass, and bid him go tell his companions how hospitably he has been received, and how he has received a new cloak instead of his old one.353 The Finns used to try to persuade a slain bear that he had not been killed by them, but had fallen from a tree, etc.354 When the Lapps had succeeded in killing a bear with impunity, they thanked him for not hurting them and for not breaking the clubs and spears which had given him his death wounds; and they prayed that he would not visit his death upon them by sending storms or in any other way.355 His flesh then furnished a feast.

The reverence of hunters for the bear whom they regularly kill and eat may thus be traced all along the northern region of the Old World, from Behring's Straits to Lappland. It reappears in similar forms in North America. With the American Indians a bear hunt was an important event for which they prepared by long fasts and purgations. Before setting out they offered expiatory sacrifices to the souls of bears slain in previous hunts, and besought them to be favourable to the hunters. When a bear was killed the hunter [pg 113] lit his pipe, and putting the mouth of it between the bear's lips, blew into the bowl, filling the beast's mouth with smoke. Then he begged the bear not to be angry at having been killed, and not to thwart him afterwards in the chase. The carcass was roasted whole and eaten; not a morsel of the flesh might be left over. The head, painted red and blue, was hung on a post and addressed by orators, who heaped praise on the dead beast.356 When men of the Bear clan in the Otawa tribe killed a bear, they made him a feast of his own flesh, and addressed him thus: “Cherish us no grudge because we have killed you. You have sense; you see that our children are hungry. They love you and wish to take you into their bodies. Is it not glorious to be eaten by the children of a chief?”357 Amongst the Nootka Indians of British Columbia, when a bear had been killed, it was brought in and seated before the head chief in an upright posture, with a chief's bonnet, wrought in figures, on its head, and its fur powdered over with white down. A tray of provisions was then set before it, and it was invited by words and gestures to eat. The animal was then skinned, boiled, and eaten.358

A like respect is testified for other dangerous animals by the hunters who regularly trap and kill them. When Kafir hunters are in the act of showering spears on an elephant, they call out, “Don't kill us, [pg 114] great captain; don't strike or tread upon us, mighty chief.”359 When he is dead they make their excuses to him, pretending that his death was a pure accident. As a mark of respect they bury his trunk with much solemn ceremony; for they say that “The elephant is a great lord; his trunk is his hand.”360 Amongst some tribes of Eastern Africa, when a lion is killed, the carcass is brought before the king, who does homage to it by prostrating himself on the ground and rubbing his face on the muzzle of the beast.361 In some parts of Western Africa if a negro kills a leopard he is bound fast and brought before the chiefs for having killed one of their peers. The man defends himself on the plea that the leopard is chief of the forest and therefore a stranger. He is then set at liberty and rewarded. But the dead leopard, adorned with a chief's bonnet, is set up in the village, where nightly dances are held in its honour.362 “Before leaving a temporary camp in the forest, where they have killed a tapir and dried the meat on a babracot, Indians [of Guiana] invariably destroy this babracot, saying that should a tapir passing that way find traces of the slaughter of one of his kind, he would come by night on the next occasion when Indians slept at that place, and, taking a man, would babracot him in revenge.”363

But it is not merely dangerous animals with whom the savage desires to keep on good terms. It is true that the respect which he pays to wild beasts is in some [pg 115] measure proportioned to their strength and ferocity. Thus the savage Stiens of Cambodia, believing that all animals have souls which roam about after their death, beg an animal's pardon when they kill it, lest its soul should come and torment them. Also they offer it sacrifices, but these sacrifices are proportioned to the size and strength of the animal. The ceremonies observed at the death of an elephant are conducted with much pomp and last seven days.364 Similar distinctions are drawn by North American Indians. “The bear, the buffalo, and the beaver are manidos [divinities] which furnish food. The bear is formidable, and good to eat. They render ceremonies to him, begging him to allow himself to be eaten, although they know he has no fancy for it. We kill you, but you are not annihilated. His head and paws are objects of homage.... Other animals are treated similarly from similar reasons.... Many of the animal manidos, not being dangerous, are often treated with contempt—the terrapin, the weasel, polecat, etc.”365 The distinction is instructive. Animals which are feared, or are good to eat, or both, are treated with ceremonious respect; those which are neither formidable nor good to eat are despised. We have had examples of reverence paid to animals which are both feared and eaten. It remains to prove that similar respect is shown for animals which, without being feared, are either eaten or valued for their skins.

When Siberian sable-hunters have caught a sable, no one is allowed to see it, and they think that if good or evil be spoken of the captured sable, no more sables [pg 116] will be caught. A hunter has been known to express his belief that the sables could hear what was said of them as far off as Moscow. He said that the chief reason why the sable hunt was now so unproductive was that some live sables had been sent to Moscow. There they had been viewed with astonishment as strange animals, and the sables cannot abide that. Another, though minor, cause of the diminished take of sable was, he alleged, that the world is now much worse than it used to be, so that nowadays a hunter will sometimes hide the sable which he has got instead of putting it into the common stock. This also, said he, the sables cannot abide.366 Alaskan hunters preserve the bones of sables and beavers out of reach of the dogs for a year and then bury them carefully, “lest the spirits who look after the beavers and sables should consider that they are regarded with contempt, and hence no more should be killed or trapped.”367 The Canadian Indians were equally particular not to let their dogs gnaw the bones, or at least certain of the bones, of beavers. They took the greatest pains to collect and preserve these bones and, when the beaver had been caught in a net, they threw them into the river. To a Jesuit who argued that the beavers could not possibly know what became of their bones, the Indians replied, “You know nothing about catching beavers and yet you will be talking about it. Before the beaver is stone dead, his soul takes a turn in the hut of the man who is killing him and makes a careful note of what is done with his bones. If the bones are given to the dogs, the other beavers would get word of it and would not let themselves be caught. Whereas, [pg 117] if their bones are thrown into the fire or a river, they are quite satisfied; and it is particularly gratifying to the net which caught them.”368 Before hunting the beaver they offered a solemn prayer to the Great Beaver, and presented him with tobacco; and when the chase was over, an orator pronounced a funeral oration over the dead beavers. He praised their spirit and wisdom. “You will hear no more,” said he, “the voice of the chieftains who commanded you and whom you chose from among all the warrior beavers to give you laws. Your language, which the medicine-men understand perfectly, will be heard no more at the bottom of the lake. You will fight no more battles with the otters, your cruel foes. No, beavers! But your skins shall serve to buy arms; we will carry your smoked hams to our children; we will keep the dogs from eating your bones, which are so hard.”369

The elan, deer, and elk were treated by the North American Indians with the same punctilious respect, and for the same reason. Their bones might not be given to the dogs nor thrown into the fire, nor might their fat be dropped upon the fire, because the souls of the dead animals were believed to see what was done to their bodies and to tell it to the other beasts, living and dead. Hence, if their bodies were ill used, the animals of that species would not allow [pg 118] themselves to be taken, neither in this world nor in the world to come.370 A sick man would be asked by the medicine-man whether he had not thrown away some of the flesh of the deer or turtle, and if he answered yes, the medicine-man would say, “That is what is killing you. The soul of the deer or turtle has entered into your body to avenge the wrong you did it.”371 The Sioux will not stick an awl or needle into a turtle, for they are sure that, if they were to do so, the turtle would punish them at some future time.372 The Canadian Indians would not eat the embryos of the elk, unless at the close of the hunting season; otherwise the mother-elks would be shy and refuse to be caught.373 Some of the Indians believed that each sort of animal had its patron or genius who watched over and preserved it. An Indian girl having once picked up a dead mouse, her father snatched the little creature from her and tenderly caressed and fondled it. Being asked why he did so, he said that it was to appease the genius of mice, in order that he might not torment his daughter for eating the mouse. With that he handed the mouse to the girl and she ate it.374

For like reasons, a tribe which depends for its subsistence, chiefly or in part, upon fishing is careful to treat the fish with every mark of honour and respect. The Indians of Peru “adored the fish that they caught in greatest abundance; for they said that the first fish that was made in the world above (for so they [pg 119] named Heaven) gave birth to all other fish of that species, and took care to send them plenty of its children to sustain their tribe. For this reason they worshipped sardines in one region, where they killed more of them than of any other fish; in others, the skate; in others, the dogfish; in others, the golden fish for its beauty; in others, the crawfish; in others, for want of larger gods, the crabs, where they had no other fish, or where they knew not how to catch and kill them. In short, they had whatever fish was most serviceable to them as their gods.”375 The Otawa Indians of Canada, believing that the souls of dead fish passed into other bodies of fish, never burned fish bones, for fear of displeasing the souls of the fish, who would come no more to the nets.376 The Hurons also refrained from throwing fish bones into the fire, lest the souls of the fish should go and warn the other fish not to let themselves be caught, since the Hurons would burn their bones. Moreover, they had men who preached to the fish and persuaded them to come and be caught. A good preacher was much sought after, for they thought that the exhortations of a clever man had a great effect in drawing the fish to the nets. In the Huron fishing village where the French missionary Sagard stayed, the preacher to the fish prided himself very much on his eloquence, which was of a florid order. Every evening after supper, having seen that all the people were in their places and that a strict silence was observed, he preached to the fish. His text was that the Hurons did not burn fish bones. “Then enlarging on his theme [pg 120] with extraordinary unction, he exhorted and conjured and invited and implored the fish to come and be caught and to be of good courage and to fear nothing, for it was all to serve their friends who honoured them and did not burn their bones.”377 The disappearance of herring from the sea about Heligoland in 1530 was attributed by the fishermen to the fact that two lads had whipped a freshly-caught herring and then flung it back into the sea.378 The natives of the Duke of York Island annually decorate a canoe with flowers and ferns, lade it, or are supposed to lade it, with shell-money, and set it adrift to pay the fish for those they lose by being caught.379 It is especially necessary to treat the first fish caught with consideration in order to conciliate the rest of the fish, for their conduct may be supposed to be influenced by the reception given to the first of their kind which is taken. Accordingly the Maoris always put back into the sea the first fish caught, “with a prayer that it may tempt other fish to come and be caught.”380

Still more stringent are the precautions taken when the fish are the first of the season. On salmon rivers, when the fish begin to run up the stream in spring, they are received with much deference by tribes who, like the Indians of the Pacific Coast of North America, subsist largely upon a fish diet. In British Columbia the Indians used to go out to meet the first fish as they came up the river. “They paid [pg 121] court to them, and would address them thus. ‘You fish, you fish; you are all chiefs, you are; you are all chiefs.’ ”381 Amongst the Thlinket of Alaska the first halibut of the season is carefully handled, addressed as a chief, and a festival is given in his honour, after which the fishing goes on.382 In spring, when the winds blow soft from the south and the salmon begin to run up the Klamath river, the Karoks of California dance for salmon, to ensure a good catch. One of the Indians, called the Kareya or God-man, retires to the mountains and fasts for ten days. On his return the people flee, while he goes to the river, takes the first salmon of the catch, eats some of it, and with the rest kindles the sacred fire in the sweating-house. “No Indian may take a salmon before this dance is held, nor for ten days after it, even if his family are starving.” The Karoks also believe that a fisherman will take no salmon if the poles of which his spearing-booth is made were gathered on the river-side, where the salmon might have seen them. The poles must be brought from the top of the highest mountain. The fisherman will also labour in vain if he uses the same poles a second year in booths or weirs, “because the old salmon will have told the young ones about them.”383 Among the Indians of the Columbia River, “when the salmon make their first appearance in the river, they are never allowed to be cut crosswise, nor boiled, but roasted; nor are they allowed to be sold without the heart being first taken out, nor to be kept over night, but must be all consumed or eaten the day they are taken out of the water. All these [pg 122] rules are observed for about ten days.”384 They think that if the heart of a fish were eaten by a stranger at the beginning of the season, they would catch no more fish. Hence, they roast and eat the hearts themselves.385 There is a favourite fish of the Ainos which appears in their rivers about May and June. They prepare for the fishing by observing rules of ceremonial purity, and when they have gone out to fish, the women at home must keep strict silence or the fish would hear them and disappear. When the first fish is caught he is brought home and passed through a small opening at the end of the hut, but not through the door; for if he were passed through the door, “the other fish would certainly see him and disappear.”386 This explains the custom observed by other savages of bringing game into their huts, not by the door, but by the window, the smoke-hole, or by a special opening at the back of the hut.387

With some savages a special reason for respecting the bones of game, and generally of the animals which they eat, is a belief that, if the bones are preserved, they will in course of time be reclothed with flesh, and thus the animal will come to life again. It is, therefore, clearly for the interest of the hunter to leave the bones intact, since to destroy them would be to diminish the future supply of game. Many of the Minnetaree Indians “believe that the bones of those bisons which they have slain and divested of flesh rise again [pg 123] clothed with renewed flesh, and quickened with life, and become fat, and fit for slaughter the succeeding June.”388 Hence on the western prairies of America, the skulls of buffalos may be seen arranged in circles and symmetrical piles, awaiting the resurrection.389 After feasting on a dog, the Dacotas carefully collect the bones, scrape, wash, and bury them, “partly, as it is said, to testify to the dog-species, that in feasting upon one of their number no disrespect was meant to the species itself, and partly also from a belief that the bones of the animal will rise and reproduce another.”390 In sacrificing an animal the Lapps regularly put aside the bones, eyes, ears, heart, lungs, sexual parts (if the animal was a male), and a morsel of flesh from each limb. Then, after eating the rest of the flesh, they laid the bones etc. in anatomical order in a coffin and buried them with the usual rites, believing that the god to whom the animal was sacrificed would reclothe the bones with flesh and restore the animal to life in Jabme-Aimo, the subterranean world of the dead. Sometimes, as after feasting on a bear, they seem to have contented themselves with thus burying the bones.391 Thus the Lapps expected the resurrection of the slain animal to take place in another world, resembling in this respect the Kamtchatkans, who believed that every creature, down to the smallest fly, would rise from the dead and live underground.392 On the [pg 124] other hand, the North American Indians looked for the resurrection of the animals in the present world. The habit, observed especially by Mongolian peoples, of stuffing the skin of a sacrificed animal, or stretching it on a framework,393 points rather to a belief in a resurrection of the latter sort. The objection commonly entertained by primitive peoples to break the bones of the animals which they have eaten or sacrificed394 may be based either on a belief in the resurrection of the animals, or on a fear of intimidating the other creatures [pg 125] of the same species and offending the ghosts of the slain animals. The reluctance of North American Indians to let dogs gnaw the bones of animals395 is perhaps only a precaution to prevent the bones from being broken. There are traces in folk-tales of the same primitive belief that animals or men may come to life again, if only their bones are preserved; not uncommonly the animal or man in the story comes to life lame of a limb, because one of his bones has been eaten, broken, or lost.396 In a Magyar tale, the hero is cut in pieces, but the serpent-king lays the bones together in their proper order, and washes them with water, whereupon the hero comes to life again. His shoulder-blade, however, had been lost, so the serpent-king supplied its place with one of gold and ivory.397 Such stories, as Mannhardt has seen, explain why Pythagoras, who claimed to have lived many lives, one after the other, was said to have exhibited his golden leg as a proof of his supernatural pretensions.398 Doubtless he was reported to have explained that at one of his resurrections a leg had been broken or mislaid, [pg 126] and that it had been replaced with one of gold. Similarly, when the murdered Pelops was restored to life, the shoulder which Demeter had eaten was replaced with one of ivory.399 The story that one of the members of the mangled Osiris was eaten by fish, and that, when Isis collected his scattered limbs, she replaced the missing member with one of wood,400 may perhaps belong to the same circle of beliefs.

There is a certain rule observed by savage hunters and fishers which, obscure at first sight, may be explained by this savage belief in resurrection. A traveller in America in the early part of this century was told by a half-breed Choctaw that the Indians “had an obscure story, somewhat resembling that of Jacob wrestling with an angel; and that the full-blooded Indians always separate the sinew which shrank, and that it is never seen in the venison exposed for sale; he did not know what they did with it. His elder brother, whom I afterwards met, told me that they eat it as a rarity; but I have also heard, though on less respectable authority, that they refrain from it, like the ancient Jews. A gentleman, who had lived on the Indian frontier, or in the nation, for ten or fifteen years, told me that he had often been surprised that the Indians always detached the sinew; but it had never occurred to him to inquire the reason.”401 James Adair, who knew the Indians of the South Eastern States intimately, and whose theories appear not to have distorted his view of the facts, observes that “when in the woods, the Indians cut a small piece out of the lower part of the thighs of the deer they kill, lengthways [pg 127] and pretty deep. Among the great number of venison-hams they bring to our trading houses, I do not remember to have observed one without it.... And I have been assured by a gentleman of character, who is now an inhabitant of South Carolina, and well acquainted with the customs of the Northern Indians, that they also cut a piece out of the thigh of every deer they kill, and throw it away; and reckon it such a dangerous pollution to eat it as to occasion sickness and other misfortunes of sundry kinds, especially by spoiling their guns from shooting with proper force and direction.”402 In recent years the statement of Adair's informant has been confirmed by the French missionary Petitot, who has also published the “obscure story” to which Hodgson refers. The Loucheux and Hare-skin Indians who roam the bleak steppes and forests that stretch from Hudson's Bay to the Rocky Mountains, and northward to the frozen sea, are forbidden by custom to eat the sinew of the legs of animals. To explain this custom they tell the following “sacred story.” Once upon a time a man found a burrow of porcupines, and going down into it after the porcupines he lost his way in the darkness, till a kind giant called “He who sees before and behind” released him by cleaving open the earth. So the man, whose name was “Fireless and Homeless,” lived with the kind giant, and the giant hunted elans and beavers for him, and carried him about in the sheath of his flint knife. “But know, my son,” said the giant, “that he who uses the sky as his head is angry with me, and has sworn my destruction. If he slays me the clouds will be tinged with my blood; they will be red with it, probably.” Then he gave the man an axe made of the [pg 128] tooth of a gigantic beaver, and went forth to meet his enemy. But from under the ice the man heard a dull muffled sound. It was a whale which was making this noise because it was naked and cold. Warned by the man, the giant went toward the whale, which took human shape, and rushed upon the giant. It was the wicked giant, the kind giant's enemy. The two struggled together for a long time, till the kind giant cried, “Oh, my son! cut, cut the sinew of the leg.” The man cut the sinew, and the wicked giant fell down and was slain. That is why the Indians do not eat the sinew of the leg. Afterwards, one day the sky suddenly grew red, so Fireless and Homeless knew that the kind giant was dead, and he wept.403 This myth, it is almost needless to observe, does not really explain the custom. No people ever observed a custom because a mythical being was said to have once acted in a certain way. But, on the contrary, all peoples have invented myths to explain why they observed certain customs. Dismissing, therefore, the story of Fireless and Homeless as a myth invented to explain why the Indians abstain from eating a particular sinew, it may be suggested404 that the original reason for observing the custom was a belief that the sinew in question was necessary to reproduction, and that deprived of it the slain animals could not come to life again and stock the steppes and prairies either of the present world or of the spirit land. We have seen that the resurrection [pg 129] of animals is a common article of savage faith, and that when the Lapps bury the skeleton of the male bear in the hope of its resurrection they are careful to bury the genital parts along with it.405

Besides the animals which primitive man dreads for their strength and ferocity, and those which he reveres on account of the benefits which he expects from them, there is another class of creatures which he sometimes deems it necessary to conciliate by worship and sacrifice. These are the vermin that infest the crops. To rid himself of these deadly foes the farmer has recourse to a thousand superstitious devices, of which, though many are meant to destroy or intimidate the vermin, others aim at propitiating them and persuading them by fair means to spare the fruits of the earth. Thus Esthonian peasants, in the Island of Oesel, stand in great awe of the weevil, an insect which is exceedingly destructive to the grain. They give it a euphemistic title, and if a child is about to kill a [pg 130] weevil they say, “Don't do it; the more we hurt him, the more he hurts us.” If they find a weevil they bury it in the earth instead of killing it. Some even put the weevil under a stone in the field and offer corn to it. They think that thus it is appeased and does less harm.406 Amongst the Saxons of Transylvania, in order to keep sparrows from the corn, the sower begins by throwing the first handful of seed backwards over his head, saying, “That is for you, sparrows.” To guard the corn against the attacks of leaf-flies (Erdflöhe) he shuts his eyes and scatters three handfuls of oats in different directions. Having made this offering to the leaf-flies he feels sure that they will spare the corn. A Transylvanian way of securing the crops against all birds, beasts, and insects, is this: After he has finished sowing, the sower goes once more from end to end of the field imitating the gesture of sowing, but with an empty hand. As he does so he says, “I sow this for the animals; I sow it for everything that flies and creeps, that walks and stands, that sings and springs, in the name of God the Father, etc.”407 The following is a German way of freeing a garden from caterpillars. After sunset or at midnight the mistress of the house, or another female member of the family, walks all round the garden dragging a broom after her. She must not look behind her, and must keep murmuring, “Good evening, Mother Caterpillar, you shall come with your husband to church.” The garden gate is left open till the following morning.408

Sometimes in dealing with vermin the farmer [pg 131] resorts neither to unmitigated severity nor to unbounded indulgence, but aims at adopting a judicious compromise between the two; kind but firm, he tempers severity with mercy. An ancient Greek treatise on farming advises the husbandman who would rid his lands of mice to act thus: “Take a sheet of paper and write on it as follows: ‘I adjure you, ye mice here present, that ye neither injure me nor suffer another mouse to do so. I give you yonder field’ (here you specify the field); ‘but if ever I catch you here again, by the Mother of the Gods I will rend you in seven pieces.’ Write this, and stick the paper on an unhewn stone in the field before sunrise, taking care to keep the written side uppermost.”409 Sometimes the desired object is supposed to be attained by treating with high distinction one or two chosen individuals of the obnoxious species, while the rest are pursued with relentless rigour. In the East Indian island of Bali, the mice which ravage the rice-fields are caught in great numbers, and burned in the same way that corpses are burned. But two of the captured mice are allowed to live, and receive a little packet of white linen. Then the people bow down before them, as before gods, and let them go.410 In some parts of Bohemia the peasant, though he kills field mice and gray mice without scruple, always spares white mice. If he finds a white mouse he takes it up carefully, and makes a comfortable bed for it in the window; for if it died the luck of the house would be gone, and the gray mice would [pg 132] multiply fearfully in the house.411 When caterpillars invaded a vineyard or field in Syria, the virgins were gathered, and one of the caterpillars was taken and a girl made its mother. Then they bewailed and buried it. Thereafter they conducted the “mother” to the place where the caterpillars were, consoling her, in order that all the caterpillars might leave the garden.412 On the 1st of September, Russian girls “make small coffins of turnips and other vegetables, enclose flies and other insects in them, and then bury them with a great show of mourning.”413

In these latter examples the deference shown to a few chosen individuals of the species is apparently regarded as entitling a person to exterminate with impunity all the rest of the species upon which he can lay hands. This principle perhaps explains the attitude, at first sight puzzling and contradictory, of the Ainos towards the bear. The flesh and skin of the bear regularly afford them food and clothing; but since the bear is an intelligent and powerful animal, it is necessary to offer some satisfaction or atonement to the bear species for the loss which it sustains in the death of so many of its members. This satisfaction or atonement is made by rearing young bears, treating them, so long as they live, with respect, and killing them with extraordinary marks of sorrow and devotion. Thus the other bears are appeased, and do not resent the slaughter of their kind by attacking the slayers or deserting the country, and thus depriving the Ainos of one of their means of subsistence.

[pg 133]

Thus the primitive worship of animals assumes two forms, which are in some respects the converse of each other. On the one hand animals are respected, and are therefore neither killed nor eaten. Totemism is a form of this worship, if worship it can be called; but it is not the only form, for we have seen that dangerous and useless animals, like the crocodile, are commonly revered and spared by men who do not regard the animal in question as their totem. On the other hand animals are worshipped because they are habitually killed and eaten. In both forms of worship the animal is revered on account of some benefit, positive or negative, which the savage hopes to receive from it. In the former worship the benefit comes either in the positive form of protection, advice, and help which the animal affords the man, or in the negative one of abstinence from injuries which it is in the power of the animal to inflict. In the latter worship the benefit takes the material form of the animal's flesh and skin. The two forms of worship are in some measure antithetical: in the one, the animal is not eaten because it is revered; in the other, it is revered because it is eaten. But both may be practised by the same people, as we see in the case of the North American Indians, who, while they revere and spare their totem animals, also revere the animals and fish upon which they subsist. The aborigines of Australia have totemism in the most primitive form known to us, but, so far as I am aware, there is no evidence that they attempt, like the North American Indians, to conciliate the animals which they kill and eat. The means which the Australians adopt to secure a plentiful supply of game appear to be based not on [pg 134] conciliation, but on sympathetic magic,414 a principle to which the North American Indians also resort for the same purpose.415 If this is so, it would appear that the totemistic respect for animals is older than the other, and that, before hunters think of worshipping the game as a means of ensuring an abundant supply of it, they seek to attain the same end by sympathetic magic. This, again, would show—what there is good reason for believing—that sympathetic magic is one of the earliest means by which man endeavours to adapt the agencies of nature to his needs.

Corresponding to the two distinct types of animal worship, there are two distinct types of the custom of killing the animal god. On the one hand, when the revered animal is habitually spared, it is nevertheless killed—and sometimes eaten—on rare and solemn occasions. Examples of this custom have been already given and an explanation of them offered. On the other hand, when the revered animal is habitually killed, the slaughter of any one of the species involves the killing of the god, and is atoned for on the spot by apologies and sacrifices, especially when the animal is a powerful and dangerous one; and, in addition to this ordinary and everyday atonement, there is a special annual atonement, at which a select individual of the species is slain with extraordinary marks of respect and devotion. Clearly the two types of sacramental killing—the Egyptian and the Aino types, as we may call them for distinction—are liable to be confounded by an observer; and, [pg 135] before we can say to which type any particular example belongs, it is necessary to ascertain whether the animal sacramentally slain belongs to a species which is habitually spared, or to one which is habitually killed by the tribe. In the former case the example belongs to the Egyptian type of sacrament, in the latter to the Aino type.

The practice of pastoral tribes appears to furnish examples of both types of sacrament. “Pastoral tribes,” says the most learned ethnologist of the day, “being sometimes obliged to sell their herds to strangers who may handle the bones disrespectfully, seek to avert the danger which such a sacrilege would entail by consecrating one of the herd as an object of worship, eating it sacramentally in the family circle with closed doors, and afterwards treating the bones with all the ceremonious respect which, strictly speaking, should be accorded to every head of cattle, but which, being punctually paid to the representative animal, is deemed to be paid to all. Such family meals are found among various peoples, especially those of the Caucasus. When amongst the Abchases the shepherds in spring eat their common meal with their loins girt and their staffs in their hands, this may be looked upon both as a sacrament and as an oath of mutual help and support. For the strongest of all oaths is that which is accompanied with the eating of a sacred substance, since the perjured person cannot possibly escape the avenging god whom he has taken into his body and assimilated.”416 This kind of sacrament [pg 136] is of the Aino or expiatory type, since it is meant to atone to the species for the possible ill-usage of individuals. An expiation, similar in principle but different in details, is offered by the Kalmucks to the sheep whose flesh is one of their staple foods. Rich Kalmucks are in the habit of consecrating a white ram under the title of “the ram of heaven” or “the ram of the spirit.” The animal is never shorn and never sold; but when it grows old and its owner wishes to consecrate a new one, the old ram must be killed and eaten at a feast to which the neighbours are invited. On a lucky day, generally in autumn when the sheep are fat, a sorcerer kills the old ram, after sprinkling it with milk. Its flesh is eaten; the skeleton, with a portion of the fat, is burned on a turf altar; and the skin, with the head and feet, is hung up.417

An example of a sacrament of the Egyptian type is furnished by the Todas, a pastoral people of Southern India, who subsist largely upon the milk of their buffaloes. Amongst them “the buffalo is to a certain degree held sacred” and “is treated with great kindness, even with a degree of adoration, by the people.”418 They never eat the flesh of the cow buffalo, and as a rule abstain from the flesh of the male. But [pg 137] to the latter rule there is a single exception. Once a year all the adult males of the village join in the ceremony of killing and eating a very young male calf,—seemingly under a month old. They take the animal into the dark recesses of the village wood, where it is killed with a club made from the sacred tree of the Todas (the tûde or Millingtonia). A sacred fire having been made by the rubbing of sticks, the flesh of the calf is roasted on the embers of certain trees, and is eaten by the men alone, women being excluded from the assembly. This is the only occasion on which the Todas eat buffalo flesh.419 The Madi or Moru tribe of Central Africa, whose chief wealth is their cattle, though they also practice agriculture, appear to kill a lamb sacramentally on certain solemn occasions. The custom is thus described by Dr. Felkin. “A remarkable custom is observed at stated times—once a year, I am led to believe. I have not been able to ascertain what exact meaning is attached to it. It appears, however, to relieve the people's minds, for beforehand they evince much sadness, and seem very joyful when the ceremony is duly accomplished. The following is what takes place: A large concourse of people of all ages assemble, and sit down round a circle of stones, which is erected by the side of a road (really a narrow path). A very choice lamb is then fetched by a boy, who leads it four times round the assembled people. As it passes they pluck off little bits of its fleece and place them in their hair, or on to some other part of their body. The lamb is then led up to the stones, and there killed by a man belonging to a kind of priestly order, who takes some of the blood and sprinkles it four times over the people. He [pg 138] then applies it individually. On the children he makes a small ring of blood over the lower end of the breast bone, on women and girls he makes a mark above the breasts, and the men he touches on each shoulder. He then proceeds to explain the ceremony, and to exhort the people to show kindness.... When this discourse, which is at times of great length, is over, the people rise, each places a leaf on or by the circle of stones, and then they depart with signs of great joy. The lamb's skull is hung on a tree near the stones, and its flesh is eaten by the poor. This ceremony is observed on a small scale at other times. If a family is in any great trouble, through illness or bereavement, their friends and neighbours come together and a lamb is killed: this is thought to avert further evil. The same custom prevails at the grave of departed friends, and also on joyful occasions, such as the return of a son home after a very prolonged absence.”420 The sorrow thus manifested by the people at the annual slaughter of the lamb clearly indicates that the lamb slain is a divine animal, whose death is mourned by his worshippers,421 just as the death of the sacred buzzard was mourned by the Californians and the death of the Theban ram by the Egyptians. The smearing each of the worshippers with the blood of the lamb is a form of communion with the divinity;422 the vehicle of the divine life is applied externally instead of being taken internally, as when the blood is drunk or the flesh eaten.

[pg 139]

The form of communion in which the sacred animal is taken from house to house, that all may enjoy a share of its divine influence, has been exemplified by the Gilyak custom of promenading the bear through the village before it is slain. A similar form of communion with the sacred snake is observed by a Snake tribe in the Punjaub. Once a year in the month of September the snake is worshipped by all castes and religions for nine days only. At the end of August the Mirasans, especially those of the Snake tribe, make a snake of dough which they paint black and red, and place on a winnowing basket. This basket they carry round the village, and on entering any house they say—

“God be with you all!

May every ill be far!

May our patron's (Gugga's) word thrive!”

They then present the basket with the snake, saying—

“A small cake of flour:

A little bit of butter:

If you obey the snake,

You and yours shall thrive!”

Strictly speaking, a cake and butter should be given, but it is seldom done. Every one, however, gives something, generally a handful of dough or some corn. In houses where there is a new bride or whence a bride has gone, or where a son has been born, it is usual to give a rupee and a quarter, or some cloth. Sometimes the bearers of the snake also sing—

“Give the snake a piece of cloth,

And he will send a lively bride.”

When every house has been thus visited, the dough snake is buried and a small grave is erected over it. Hither during the nine days of September the women [pg 140] come to worship. They bring a basin of curds, a small portion of which they offer at the snake's grave, kneeling on the ground and touching the earth with their foreheads. Then they go home and divide the rest of the curds among the children. Here the dough snake is clearly a substitute for a real snake. This is proved by the fact that in districts where snakes abound the worship is offered, not at the grave of the dough snake, but in the jungles where snakes are known to be. Besides this yearly worship performed by all the people, the members of the Snake tribe worship in the same way every morning after a new moon. The Snake tribe is not uncommon in the Punjaub. Members of it will not kill a snake and they say that its bite does not hurt them. If they find a dead snake, they put clothes on it and give it a regular funeral.423

Ceremonies closely analogous to this Indian worship of the snake have survived in Europe into recent times, and doubtless date from a very primitive paganism. The best-known example is the “hunting of the wren.” By many European peoples—the ancient Greeks and Romans, the modern Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, Dutch, Danes, Swedes, English, and Welsh—the wren has been designated the king, the little king, the king of birds, the hedge king, etc.,424 and has been reckoned amongst those birds which it is extremely unlucky to kill. In England it is thought that if any one kills a wren or harries its nest, he will infallibly break a bone or [pg 141] meet with some dreadful misfortune within the year;425 sometimes it is thought that the cows will give bloody milk.426 In Scotland the wren is called “the Lady of Heaven's hen,” and boys say—

“Malisons, malisons, mair than ten,

That harry the Ladye of Heaven's hen!”427

At Saint Donan, in Brittany, people believe that if children touch the young wrens in the nest, they will suffer from the fire of St. Lawrence, that is, from pimples on the face, legs, etc.428 In other parts of France it is believed that if a person kills a wren or harries its nest, his house will be struck by lightning, or that the fingers with which he did the deed will shrivel up and drop off, or at least be maimed, or that his cattle will suffer in their feet.429 Notwithstanding such beliefs, the custom of annually killing the wren has prevailed widely both in this country and in France. In the Isle of Man last century the custom was observed on Christmas Eve or rather Christmas morning. On the 24th of December, towards evening, all the servants got a holiday; they did not go to bed all night, but rambled about till the bells rang in all the churches at midnight. When prayers were over, they went to hunt the wren, and having found one of these birds they killed it and fastened it to the top of a long pole with its wings extended. Thus they carried it in procession to every house chanting the following rhyme—

“We hunted the wren for Robin the Bobbin,
We hunted the wren for Jack of the Can,
We hunted the wren for Robin the Bobbin,
We hunted the wren for every one.”

[pg 142]

After going from house to house and collecting all the money they could, they laid the wren on a bier “with the utmost solemnity, singing dirges over her in the Manks language, which they call her knell; after which Christmas begins.” After the burial the company outside the churchyard formed a circle and danced to music. About the middle of the present century the burial of the wren took place in the Isle of Man on St. Stephen's Day (December 26th). Boys went from door to door with a wren suspended by the legs in the centre of two hoops which crossed each other at right angles and were decorated with evergreens and ribbons. The bearers sang certain lines in which reference was made to boiling and eating the bird. If at the close of the song they received a small coin, they gave in return a feather of the wren; so that before the end of the day the bird often hung almost featherless. The wren was then buried, no longer in the churchyard, but on the sea-shore or in some waste place. The feathers distributed were preserved with religious care, it being believed that every feather was an effectual preservative from shipwreck for a year, and a fisherman would have been thought very foolhardy who had not one of them.430

In Ireland the “hunting of the wren” still takes place in parts of Leinster and Connaught. On Christmas Day or St. Stephen's Day the boys hunt and kill the wren, fasten it in the middle of a mass of holly and ivy on the top of a broomstick, and on St. Stephen's Day go about with it from house to house, singing—

[pg 143]

“The wren, the wren, the king of all birds,
St. Stephen's Day was caught in the furze;
Although he is little, his family's great,
I pray you, good landlady, give us a treat.”

Money or food (bread, butter, eggs, etc.) were given them, upon which they feasted in the evening. Sometimes in Ireland, as in the Isle of Man, the bird was hung by the leg in the centre of two hoops crossing each other at right angles.431 In Essex a similar custom used to be observed at Christmas, and the verses sung by the boys were almost identical with those sung in Ireland.432 In Pembrokeshire a wren, called the King, used to be carried about on Twelfth Day in a box with glass windows surmounted by a wheel, from which hung various coloured ribbons. The men and boys who carried it from house to house sang songs, in one of which they wished “joy, health, love, and peace” to the inmates of the house.433

In the first half of this century similar customs were still observed in various parts of the south of France. Thus at Carcassone, every year on the first Sunday of December the young people of the street Saint Jean used to go out of the town armed with sticks, with which they beat the bushes, looking for wrens. The first to strike down one of these birds was proclaimed King. Then they returned to the town in procession, headed by the King, who carried the wren on a pole. On the evening of the last day of the year the King and all who had hunted the wren marched through the streets of the town with torches and music. At the door of every house they stopped, [pg 144] and one of them wrote with chalk on the door vive le roi! with the number of the year which was about to begin. On the morning of Twelfth Day the King again marched in procession with great pomp, wearing a crown and a blue mantle and carrying a sceptre. In front of him was borne the wren fastened to the top of a pole, which was adorned with a wreath of olive, oak, and mistletoe. After hearing high mass in the church, surrounded by his officers and guards, he visited the bishop, mayor, magistrates, and the chief inhabitants, collecting money to defray the expenses of the royal banquet which took place in the evening.434 At Entraigues men and boys used to hunt the wren on Christmas Eve. When they caught one alive they presented it to the priest, who, after the midnight mass, set the bird free in the church. At Mirabeau the priest blessed the bird. If the men failed to catch a wren and the women succeeded in doing so, the women had the right to mock and insult the men, and to blacken their faces with mud and soot, if they caught them.435 At La Ciotat, near Marseilles, a large body of men armed with swords and pistols used to hunt the wren every year about the end of December. When a wren was caught it was hung on the middle of a pole which two men carried, as if it were a heavy burden. Thus they paraded round the town; the bird was weighed in a great pair of scales; and then the company sat down to table and made merry.436

[pg 145]

The parallelism between this custom of “hunting the wren” and some of those we have considered, especially the Gilyak procession with the bear, and the Indian one with the snake, seems too close to allow us to doubt that they all belong to the same circle of ideas. The worshipful animal is killed with special solemnity once a year; and before or immediately after death, he is promenaded from door to door, that each of his worshippers may receive a portion of the divine virtues that are supposed to emanate from the dead or dying god. Religious processions of this sort must have had a great place in the ritual of European peoples in prehistoric times, if we may judge from the numerous traces of them which have survived in folk-custom. A well-preserved specimen is the following, which survived in the Highlands of Scotland and in St. Kilda down to the latter half of last century. “On the evening before New Year's Day, it is usual for the cowherd and the young people to meet together, and one of them is covered with a cow's hide. The rest of the company are provided with staves, to the end of which bits of raw hide are tied. The person covered with the hide runs thrice round the dwelling-house, deiseil—i.e. according to the course of the sun; the rest pursue, beating the hide with their staves, and crying [here follows the Gaelic], ‘Let us raise the noise louder and louder; let us beat the hide.’ They then come to the door of each [pg 146] dwelling-house, and one of them repeats some verses composed for the purpose. When admission is granted, one of them pronounces within the threshold the beannachadthurlair, or verses by which he pretends to draw down a blessing upon the whole family [here follows the Gaelic], ‘May God bless this house and all that belongs to it, cattle, stones, and timber! In plenty of meat, of bed and body-clothes, and health of men, may it ever abound!’ Then each burns in the fire a little bit of hide which is tied to the end of the staff. It is applied to the nose of every person and domestic animal that belongs to the house. This, they imagine, will tend much to secure them from diseases and other misfortunes during the ensuing year. The whole of the ceremony is called colluinn, from the great noise which the hide makes.”437 From another authority,438 we learn that the hide of which pieces were burned in each house and applied to the inmates was the breast part of a sheep-skin. Formerly, perhaps, pieces of the cow-hide in which the man was clad were detached for this purpose, just as in the Isle of Man a feather of the wren used to be given to each household. Similarly, as we have seen, the human victim whom the Khonds slew as a divinity was taken from house to house, and every one strove to obtain a relic of his sacred person. Such customs are only another form of that communion with the deity which is attained most completely by eating the body and drinking the blood of the god.

[pg 147]

In the “hunting of the wren,” and the procession with the man clad in a cow-skin, there is nothing to show that the customs in question have any relation to agriculture. So far as appears, they may date from the pre-agricultural era when animals were revered as divine in themselves, not merely as divine because they embodied the corn-spirit; and the analogy of the Gilyak procession of the bear, and the Indian procession of the snake is in favour of assigning the corresponding European customs to this very early date. On the other hand, there are certain European processions of animals, or of men disguised as animals, which may possibly be purely agricultural in their origin;439 in other words, the animals which figure in them may have been from the first nothing but representatives of the corn-spirit conceived in animal shape. But it is at least equally possible that these processions originated in the pre-agricultural era, and have only received an agricultural tinge from the environment in which they have so long survived. But the question is an obscure and difficult one, and cannot be here discussed.

[pg 148]

§ 13.—Transference of evil.

The custom of killing the god has now been proved to have been practised by peoples in the hunting, pastoral, and agricultural stages of society, and the various reasons for observing the custom have been explained. One aspect of the custom still remains to be noticed. The accumulated misfortunes and sins of the whole people are sometimes laid upon the dying god, who is supposed to bear them away for ever, leaving the people innocent and happy. The notion that we can transfer our pains and griefs to some other being who will bear them in our stead is familiar to the savage mind. It arises from a very obvious confusion between the physical and the mental. Because it is possible to transfer a load of wood, stones, or what not, from our own back to the back of another, the savage fancies that it is equally possible to transfer the burden of his pains and sorrows to another, who will suffer them in his stead. Upon this idea he acts, and the result is an endless number of often very unamiable devices for putting off upon some one else the trouble which a man shrinks from bearing himself. Such devices are amongst the most familiar facts in folk-lore; but for the benefit of readers who are not professed students of folk-lore, a few illustrations may be given.

It is not necessary that the pain or trouble should be transferred from the sufferer to a person; it may equally well be transferred to an animal or a thing, though in the last case the thing is often only a vehicle to convey the trouble to the first person who touches it. In some of the East Indian islands [pg 149] epilepsy is believed to be cured by striking the patient on the face with the leaves of certain trees and then throwing the leaves away. The epilepsy is believed to have passed into the leaves, and to have been thrown away with them.440 To cure toothache some of the Australian blacks apply a heated spear-thrower to the cheek. The spear-thrower is then cast away, and the toothache goes with it, in the shape of a black stone called karriitch. Stones of this kind are found in old mounds and sandhills. They are carefully collected and thrown in the direction of enemies, in order to give them toothache.441 When a Moor has a headache, he will sometimes take a lamb or a goat and beat it till it falls down, believing that the headache will thus be transferred to the animal.442 After an illness, a Bechuana king seated himself upon an ox which lay stretched on the ground. The native doctor next poured water on the king's head till it ran down over his body. Then the head of the ox was held in a vessel of water till the animal expired; whereupon the doctor declared, and the people believed, that the ox died of the king's disease, which had been transferred to it from the king.443 Amongst the Malagasy the vehicle for carrying away evils is called a faditra. “The faditra is anything selected by the sikidy [divining-board] for the purpose of taking away any hurtful evils or diseases that might prove injurious to an individual's happiness, peace, or prosperity. The faditra may be either ashes, cut money, a sheep, a [pg 150] pumpkin, or anything else the sikidy may choose to direct. After the particular article is appointed, the priest counts upon it all the evils that may prove injurious to the person for whom it is made, and which he then charges the faditra to take away for ever. If the faditra be ashes, it is blown, to be carried away by the wind. If it be cut money, it is thrown to the bottom of deep water, or where it can never be found. If it be a sheep, it is carried away to a distance on the shoulders of a man, who runs with all his might, mumbling as he goes, as if in the greatest rage against the faditra for the evils it is bearing away. If it be a pumpkin, it is carried on the shoulders to a little distance, and there dashed upon the ground with every appearance of fury and indignation.”444 A Malagasy was informed by a diviner that he was doomed to a bloody death, but that possibly he might avert his fate by performing a certain rite. Carrying a small vessel full of blood upon his head, he was to mount upon the back of a bullock; while thus mounted, he was to spill the blood upon the bullock's head, and then send the animal away into the wilderness, whence it might never return.445

The Battas of Sumatra have a ceremony which they call “making the curse to fly away.” When a woman is childless, a sacrifice is offered to the gods of three grasshoppers, representing a head of cattle, a buffalo, and a horse. Then a swallow is set free, with a prayer that the curse may fall [pg 151] upon the bird and fly away with it.446 At the cleansing of a leper and of a house suspected of being tainted with leprosy, the Jews let a bird fly away.447 Amongst the Miaotse of China, when the eldest son of the house attains the age of seven years, a ceremony called “driving away the devil” takes place. The father makes a kite of straw and lets it fly away in the desert, bearing away all evil with it.448 In Morocco most wealthy Moors keep a wild boar in their stables, in order that the jinn and evil spirits may be diverted from the horses and enter into the boar.449 The Dyaks believe that certain men possess in themselves the power of neutralising bad omens. So, when evil omens have alarmed a farmer for the safety of his crops, he takes a small portion of his farm produce to one of these wise men, who eats it raw for a small consideration, “and thereby appropriates to himself the evil omen, which in him becomes innocuous, and thus delivers the other from the ban of the pemali or taboo.”450 In Travancore, when a Rajah is dangerously ill and his life is despaired of, a holy Brahman is brought, who closely embraces the King, and says, “O King! I undertake to bear all your sins and diseases. May your Highness live long and reign happily.” Then the sin-bearer is sent away from the country, and never allowed to return.451 Amongst the Burghers or Badagas of the Neilgherry Hills in Southern India, when a death has taken place, the [pg 152] sins of the deceased are laid upon a buffalo calf. A set form of confession of sins, the same for every one, is recited aloud, then the calf is set free, and is never afterwards used for common purposes. “The idea of this ceremony is that the sins of the deceased enter the calf, or that the task of his absolution is laid on it. They say that the calf very soon disappears, and that it is never after heard of.”452

Similar attempts to shift the burden of disease and sin from one's self to another person, or to an animal or thing, have been common in ancient and modern Europe. Grave writers of antiquity recommended that, if a man be stung by a scorpion, he should sit upon an ass with his face to the tail, or whisper in the ear of the ass, “A scorpion has stung me”; in either case, they thought, the pain would be transferred from the man to the ass.453 A Roman cure for fever was to pare the patient's nails, and stick the parings with wax upon a neighbour's door before sunrise; the fever then passed from the sick man to his neighbour.454 Similar devices must have been practised by the Greeks; for in laying down laws for his ideal state, Plato thinks it too much to expect that men should not be alarmed at finding certain wax figures adhering to their doors or to the tombstones [pg 153] of their parents, or lying at cross-roads.455 In modern Europe there is no end to such devices. Thus the Orkney Islanders will wash a sick person and then throw the water down at a gateway, in the belief that the sickness will leave the patient and be transferred to the first person who passes through the gate.456 A Bavarian cure for the fever is to write upon a piece of paper, “Fever, stay away, I am not at home,” and to put the paper in some person's pocket. The latter then catches the fever and the patient is rid of it.457 Another cure is for the patient to stick a twig of the elder-tree in the ground without speaking. The fever then adheres to the twig, and whoever pulls up the twig will catch the disease.458 To get rid of warts, take a string and make as many knots in it as you have warts. Then lay the string under a stone. Whoever treads upon the stone will get the warts, and you will be rid of them.459 Gout may be transferred from a man to a tree thus. Pare the nails of the sufferer's fingers and clip some hairs from his legs. Bore a hole in an oak, stuff the nails and hair in the hole, stop up the hole again, and smear it with cow's dung. If, for three months afterwards, the patient is free of gout, then the oak has it in his stead.460 A Flemish cure for the ague is to go early in the morning to an old willow, tie three knots in one of its branches, say, “Good-morrow, Old One, I give thee the cold, good-morrow, Old One,” then turn and run away without looking round.461 A cure [pg 154] current in Sunderland for a cough is to shave the patient's head and hang the hair on a bush. When the birds carry the hair to their nests, they will carry the cough with it. A Northamptonshire and Devonshire cure is to put a hair of the patient's head between two slices of buttered bread and give it to a dog. The dog will get the cough and the patient will lose it.462 In the Greek island of Carpathus the priest ties a red thread round the neck of a sick person. Next morning the friends of the patient remove the thread and go out to the hillside, where they tie the thread to a tree, thinking that they thus transfer the sickness to the tree.463

The old Welsh custom known as “sin-eating” is another example of the supposed transference of evil from one person to another. According to Aubrey, “In the County of Hereford was an old Custome at funeralls to hire poor people, who were to take upon them all the sinnes of the party deceased. One of them, I remember, lived in a cottage on Rosse-high way (he was a long, leane, ugly, lamentable poor raskal). The manner was that when the Corps was brought out of the house and layd on the Biere; a Loafe of bread was brought out, and delivered to the Sinne-eater over the corps, as also a Mazar-bowle of maple (Gossips bowle) full of beer, which he was to drinke up, and sixpence in money, in consideration whereof he took upon him (ipso facto) all the Sinnes of the Defunct, and freed him (or her) from walking after they were dead.... I believe this custom was heretofore used over all [pg 155] Wales.... In North Wales the Sinne-eaters are frequently made use of; but there, instead of a Bowle of Beere, they have a bowle of Milke.”464 According to a letter dated February 1, 1714-5, “within the memory of our fathers, in Shropshire, in those villages adjoyning to Wales, when a person dyed, there was notice given to an old sire (for so they called him), who presently repaired to the place where the deceased lay, and stood before the door of the house, when some of the family came out and furnished him with a cricket, on which he sat down facing the door. Then they gave him a groat, which he put in his pocket; a crust of bread, which he eat; and a full bowle of ale, which he drank off at a draught. After this he got up from the cricket and pronounced, with a composed gesture, the ease and rest of the soul departed for which he would pawn his own soul. This I had from the ingenious John Aubrey, Esq.”465 In recent years some doubt has been thrown on Aubrey's account of the custom.466 The practice, however, is reported to have prevailed in a valley not far from Llandebie to a recent period. An instance was said to have occurred about forty years ago.467 Aubrey's statement is supported by the analogy of similar customs in India. When the Rajah [pg 156] of Tanjore died in 1801, some of his bones and the bones of the two wives, who were burned with his corpse, were ground to powder and eaten, mixed with boiled rice, by twelve Brahmans. It was believed that the sins of the deceased passed into the bodies of the Brahmans, who were paid for the service.468 A Brahman, resident in a village near Raipúr, stated that he had eaten food (rice and milk) out of the hand of the dead Rajah of Biláspúr, and that in consequence he had been placed on the throne for the space of a year. At the end of the year he had been given presents and then turned out of the territory and forbidden apparently to return. He was an outcast among his fellows for having eaten out of a dead man's hand.469 A similar custom is believed to obtain among the hill states about Kángrá, and to have given rise to a caste of “outcaste” Brahmans. At the funeral of a Rání of Chambá rice and ghí were eaten out of the hands of the corpse by a Brahman paid for the purpose. Afterwards a stranger, who had been caught outside the Chambá territory, was given the costly wrappings of the corpse, then told to depart and never show his face in the country again.470 In Oude when an infant was killed it used to be buried in the room in which it had been born. On the thirteenth day afterwards the priest had to cook and eat his food in that room. By doing so he was supposed to take the whole sin upon himself and to cleanse the family from it.471 At Utch Kurgan in Turkistan Mr. Schuyler saw an old man who was said [pg 157] to get his living by taking on himself the sins of the dead and thenceforth devoting his life to prayer for their souls.472

§ 14.—Expulsion of evils,

These examples illustrate the primitive principle of the transference of ills to another person, animal, or thing. In the instances cited the principle is applied for the benefit of individuals only. But analogous proceedings are employed by barbarous peoples to rid a whole community of all their troubles at a blow. The frame of mind which prompts such wholesale clearances of evil may be described in the language of Mr. Im Thurn, for though he wrote of the Indians of Guiana in particular, his description is capable of a much wider application. He says: “Thus the whole world of the Indian swarms with these [spiritual] beings. If by a mighty mental effort we could for a moment revert to a similar mental position we should find ourselves surrounded by a host of possibly hurtful beings, so many in number that to describe them as innumerable would fall ridiculously short of the truth. It is not therefore wonderful that the Indian fears to move beyond the light of his camp-fire after dark, or, if he is obliged to do so, carries a firebrand with him that he may at least see among what enemies he walks; nor is it wonderful that occasionally the air round the settlement seems to the Indian to grow so full of beings that a peaiman [sorcerer], who is supposed to have the power of temporarily driving them away, is employed to effect a [pg 158] general clearance of these beings, if only for a time.”473 Such general clearances of evil influences may be divided into two classes, according as the expelled evils are immaterial and invisible or are embodied in a material vehicle or scapegoat. The former may be called the direct or immediate expulsion of evils; the latter the indirect or mediate expulsion, or the expulsion by scapegoat. We begin with examples of the former.

In the island of Rook, between New Guinea and New Britain, when any misfortune has happened, all the people run together, scream, curse, howl, and beat the air with sticks to drive away the devil (Marsába), who is supposed to be the author of the mishap. From the spot where the mishap took place they drive him step by step to the sea, and on reaching the shore they redouble their shouts and blows in order to expel him from the island. He generally retires to the sea or to the island of Lottin.474 The natives of New Britain ascribe sickness, drought, the failure of crops, and in short all misfortunes, to the influence of wicked spirits. So at times when many people sicken and die, as at the beginning of the rainy season, all the inhabitants of a district, armed with branches and clubs, go out by moonlight to the fields, where they beat and stamp on the ground with wild howls till morning, believing that this drives away the devils.475 When a village has been visited by a series of disasters or a severe epidemic, the Minahassa of Celebes lay the blame upon the devils who are infesting the village and must be expelled from it. Accordingly, early one [pg 159] morning all the people, men, women, and children, quit their homes, carrying their household goods with them, and take up their quarters in temporary huts which have been erected outside the village. Here they spend several days, offering sacrifices and preparing for the final ceremony. At last the men, some wearing masks, others with their faces blackened, and so on, but all armed with swords, guns, pikes, or brooms, steal cautiously and silently back to the deserted village. Then, at a signal from the priest, they rush furiously up and down the streets and into and under the houses (which are raised on piles above the ground), yelling and striking on walls, doors, and windows, to drive away the devils. Next, the priests and the rest of the people come with the holy fire and march nine times round each house and thrice round the ladder that leads up to it, carrying the fire with them. Then they take the fire into the kitchen, where it must burn for three days continuously. The devils are now driven away, and great and general is the joy.476 The Alfoers of Halmahera attribute epidemics to the devil who comes from other villages to carry them off. So, in order to rid the village of the disease, the sorcerer drives away the devil. From all the villagers he receives a costly garment and places it on four vessels, which he takes to the forest and leaves at the spot where the devil is supposed to be. Then with mocking words he bids the demon abandon the place.477 [pg 160] In the Key Islands, south of New Guinea, when sickness prevails, the people erect a stage on the shore and load it with meat and drink. Then the priest in presence of the people bans the spirits which are causing the disease, whereupon the people run back to the village at full speed, like fugitives.478

In the island of Nias, when a man is seriously ill and other remedies have been tried in vain, the sorcerer proceeds to exorcise the devil who is causing the illness. A pole is set up in front of the house, and from the top of the pole a rope of palm-leaves is stretched to the roof of the house. Then the sorcerer mounts the roof with a pig, which he kills and allows to roll from the roof to the ground. The devil, anxious to get the pig, lets himself down hastily from the roof by the rope of palm-leaves, and a good spirit, invoked by the sorcerer, prevents him from climbing up again. If this remedy fails, it is believed that other devils must still be lurking in the house. So a general hunt is made after them. All the doors and windows in the house are closed, except a single dormer-window in the roof. The men, shut up in the house, hew and slash with their swords right and left to the clash of gongs and the rub-a-dub of drums. Terrified at this onslaught the devils escape by the dormer-window, and sliding down the rope of palm-leaves take themselves off. As all the doors and windows, except the one in the roof, are shut, the devils cannot get into the house again. In the case of an epidemic the proceedings are similar. All the gates of the village, except one, are closed; every voice is raised, every gong and drum beaten, [pg 161] every sword brandished. Thus the devils are driven out and the last gate is shut behind them. For eight days thereafter the village is in a state of siege, no one being allowed to enter it.479 When cholera has broken out in a Burmese village the able-bodied men scramble on the roofs and lay about them with bamboos and billets of wood, while all the rest of the population, old and young, stand below and thump drums, blow trumpets, yell, scream, beat floors, walls, tin-pans, everything to make a din. This uproar, repeated on three successive nights, is thought to be very effective in driving away the cholera demons.480 When small-pox first appeared amongst the Kumis of South-Eastern India, they thought it was a devil come from Arracan. The villages were placed in a state of siege, no one being allowed to leave or enter them. A monkey was killed by being dashed on the ground, and its body was hung at the village gate. Its blood, mixed with small river pebbles, was sprinkled on the houses, the threshold of every house was swept with the monkey's tail, and the fiend was adjured to depart.481 At Great Bassam, in Guinea, the French traveller Hecquard witnessed the exorcism of the evil spirit who was believed to make women barren. The women who wished to become mothers offered to the fetish wine-vessels or statuettes representing women suckling children. Then being assembled in the fetish hut, they were sprinkled with [pg 162] rum by the priest, while young men fired guns and brandished swords to drive away the demon.482 When sickness was prevalent in a Huron village, and all other remedies had been tried in vain, the Indians had recourse to the ceremony called Lonouyroya, “which is the principal invention and most proper means, so they say, to expel from the town or village the devils and evil spirits which cause, induce, and import all the maladies and infirmities which they suffer in body and mind.” Accordingly, one evening the men would begin to rush like madmen about the village, breaking and upsetting whatever they came across in the wigwams. They threw fire and burning brands about the streets, and all night long they ran howling and singing without cessation. Then they all dreamed of something, a knife, dog, skin, or whatever it might be, and when morning came they went from wigwam to wigwam asking for presents. These they received silently, till the particular thing was given them which they had dreamed about. On receiving it they uttered a cry of joy and rushed from the hut, amid the congratulations of all present. The health of those who received what they had dreamed of was believed to be assured; whereas those who did not get what they had set their hearts upon regarded their fate as sealed.483

The observance of such ceremonies, from being [pg 163] occasional, tends to become periodic. It comes to be thought desirable to have a general riddance of evil spirits at fixed times, usually once a year, in order that the people may make a fresh start in life, freed from all the malignant influences which have been long accumulating about them. Some of the Australian blacks annually expelled the ghosts of the dead from their territory. The ceremony was witnessed by the Rev. W. Ridley on the banks of the river Barwan. “A chorus of twenty, old and young, were singing and beating time with boomerangs.... Suddenly, from under a sheet of bark darted a man with his body whitened by pipeclay, his head and face coloured with lines of red and yellow, and a tuft of feathers fixed by means of a stick two feet above the crown of his head. He stood twenty minutes perfectly still, gazing upwards. An aboriginal who stood by told me he was looking for the ghosts of dead men. At last he began to move very slowly, and soon rushed to and fro at full speed, flourishing a branch as if to drive away some foes invisible to us. When I thought this pantomime must be almost over, ten more, similarly adorned, suddenly appeared from behind the trees, and the whole party joined in a brisk conflict with their mysterious assailants.... At last, after some rapid evolutions in which they put forth all their strength, they rested from the exciting toil which they had kept up all night and for some hours after sunrise: they seemed satisfied that the ghosts were driven away for twelve months. They were performing the same ceremony at every station along the river, and I am told it is an annual custom.”484

[pg 164]

Certain seasons of the year mark themselves naturally out as appropriate moments for a general expulsion of devils. Such a moment occurs towards the close of an Arctic winter, when the sun reappears on the horizon after an absence of weeks or months. Accordingly, at Point Barrow, the most northerly extremity of Alaska, and nearly of America, the Eskimo choose the moment of the sun's reappearance to hunt the mischievous spirit Tuña from every house. The ceremony was witnessed a few years ago by the members of the United States Polar Expedition, who wintered at Point Barrow. A fire was built in front of the council-house, and an old woman was posted at the entrance to every iglu (Eskimo house). The men gathered round the council-fire, while the young women and girls drove the spirits out of every iglu with their knives, stabbing viciously under the bunk and deer-skins, and calling upon Tuña to leave the iglu. When they thought he had been driven out of every hole and corner, they thrust him down through the hole in the floor and chased him into the open air with loud cries and frantic gestures. Meanwhile the old woman at the entrance of the iglu made passes with a long knife in the air to keep him from returning. Each party drove the spirit towards the fire and invited him to go into it. All were by this time drawn up in a semicircle round the fire, when several of the leading men made specific charges against the spirit; and each after his speech brushed his clothes violently, calling on the spirit to leave him and go into the fire. Two men now stepped forward with rifles loaded with blank cartridges, while a third brought a vessel of urine and flung it on the fire. At the same time one of the men fired a shot into the fire; and as the cloud of steam rose it received the other shot, [pg 165] which was supposed to finish Tuña for the time being.485 In autumn, when heavy gales are raging, the Eskimo of Baffin Land think that the female spirit Sedna dwells amongst them, and the most powerful enchanter is employed to drive her out. Beside a small hole in the centre of the floor a line of seal-skin is coiled up. Holding a sealing-spear in his left hand the enchanter watches the hole in the floor. Another sorcerer sits in the rear of the hut chanting songs to attract Sedna. Now she is heard approaching under the floor of the hut. When she reaches the hole the enchanter strikes her with his harpoon and pays out the line. A severe struggle ensues, but ultimately Sedna flies to her country, Adlivun. The performance is cleverly managed. When the harpoon is drawn out of the hole it is covered with blood, and the heavy breathing of Sedna can be distinctly heard under the floor.486

The Iroquois inaugurated the new year in January, February, or March (the time varied) with a “festival of dreams” like that which the Hurons observed on special occasions.487 The whole ceremonies lasted several days, or even weeks, and formed a kind of Saturnalia. Men and women, variously disguised, went from wigwam to wigwam smashing and throwing down whatever they came across. It was a time of general licence; the people were supposed to be out of their senses, and therefore not to be responsible for what they did. Accordingly, many seized the opportunity of paying off old scores by belabouring obnoxious persons, drenching them with ice-cold water, and covering them with filth or hot ashes. [pg 166] Others seized burning brands or coals and flung them at the heads of the first persons they met. The only way of escaping from these persecutors was to guess what they had dreamed of. On one day of the festival the ceremony of driving away evil spirits from the village took place. Men clothed in the skins of wild beasts, their faces covered with hideous masks, and their hands with the shell of the tortoise, went from hut to hut making frightful noises; in every hut they took the fuel from the fire and scattered the embers and ashes about the floor with their hands. The general confession of sins which preceded the festival was probably a preparation for the public expulsion of evil influences; it was a way of stripping the people of their moral burdens, that these might be collected and cast out. This New Year festival is still celebrated by some of the heathen Iroquois, though it has been shorn of its former turbulence. A conspicuous feature in the ceremony is now the sacrifice of the White Dog, but this appears to have been added to the festival in comparatively modern times, and does not figure in the oldest descriptions of the ceremonies. We shall return to it later on.488 A great annual festival of the Cherokee Indians was the Propitiation, “Cementation,” or Purification festival. “It was celebrated shortly after the first new moon of autumn, and consisted of a multiplicity of rigorous rites, fastings, ablutions, and purifications. Among the most important functionaries on the occasion were seven [pg 167] exorcisers or cleansers, whose duty it was, at a certain stage of the proceedings, to drive away evil, and purify the town. Each one bore in his hand a white rod of sycamore. ‘The leader, followed by the others, walked around the national heptagon, and coming to the treasure or store-house to the west of it, they lashed the eaves of the roofs with their rods. The leader then went to another house, followed by the others, singing, and repeated the same ceremony until every house was purified.’ This ceremony was repeated daily during the continuance of the festival. In performing their ablutions they went into the water and allowed their old clothes to be carried away by the stream, by which means they supposed their impurities removed.”489

In September the Incas of Peru celebrated a festival called Situa, the object of which was to banish from the capital and its vicinity all disease and troubles. The festival fell in September because the rains begin about this time, and with the first rains there was generally much sickness. As a preparation for the festival the people fasted on the first day of the moon after the autumnal equinox. Having fasted during the day, and the night being come, they baked a coarse paste of maize. This paste was made of two sorts. One was kneaded with the blood of children aged five to ten years, the blood being obtained by bleeding the children between the eye-brows. These two kinds of paste were baked separately, because they were for different uses. Each family assembled at the house of the eldest brother to celebrate the feast; and those who had no elder brother went to [pg 168] the house of their next relation of greater age. On the same night all who had fasted during the day washed their bodies, and taking a little of the blood-kneaded paste, rubbed it over their head, face, breast, shoulders, arms, and legs. They did this in order that the paste might take away all their infirmities. After this the head of the family anointed the threshold with the same paste, and left it there as a token that the inmates of the house had performed their ablutions and cleansed their bodies. Meantime the High Priest performed the same ceremonies in the temple of the Sun. As soon as the Sun rose, all the people worshipped and besought him to drive all evils out of the city, and then they broke their fast with the paste that had been kneaded without blood. When they had paid their worship and broken their fast, which they did at a stated hour, in order that all might adore the Sun as one man, an Inca of the blood royal came forth from the fortress, as a messenger of the Sun, richly dressed, with his mantle girded round his body, and a lance in his hand. The lance was decked with feathers of many hues, extending from the blade to the socket, and fastened with rings of gold. He ran down the hill from the fortress brandishing his lance, till he reached the centre of the great square, where stood the golden urn, like a fountain, that was used for the sacrifice of chicha. Here four other Incas of the blood royal awaited him, each with a lance in his hand, and his mantle girded up to run. The messenger touched their four lances with his lance, and told them that the Sun bade them, as his messengers, drive the evils out of the city. The four Incas then separated and ran down the four royal roads which led out of the city to the four quarters of [pg 169] the world. While they ran, all the people, great and small, came to the doors of their houses, and with great shouts of joy and gladness shook their clothes, as if they were shaking off dust, while they cried, “Let the evils be gone. How greatly desired has this festival been by us. O Creator of all things, permit us to reach another year, that we may see another feast like this.” After they had shaken their clothes, they passed their hands over their heads, faces, arms, and legs, as if in the act of washing. All this was done to drive the evils out of their houses, that the messengers of the Sun might banish them from the city. This was done not only in the streets through which the Incas ran, but generally in all quarters of the city. Moreover, they all danced, the Inca himself amongst them, and bathed in the rivers and fountains, saying that their maladies would come out of them. Then they took great torches of straw, bound round with cords. These they lighted, and passed from one to the other, striking each other with them, and saying, “Let all harm go away.” Meanwhile the runners ran with their lances for a quarter of a league outside the city, where they found four other Incas ready, who received the lances from their hands and ran with them. Thus the lances were carried by relays of runners for a distance of five or six leagues, at the end of which the runners washed themselves and their weapons in rivers, and set up the lances, in sign of a boundary within which the banished evils might not return.490

[pg 170]

The negroes of Guinea annually banish the devil from all their towns with much ceremony. At Axim, on the Gold Coast, this annual expulsion is preceded by a feast of eight days, during which mirth and jollity reign, and “a perfect lampooning liberty is allowed, and scandal so highly exalted, that they may freely sing of all the faults, villanies, and frauds of their superiors as well as inferiors, without punishment, or so much as the least interruption.” On the eighth day they hunt out the devil with a dismal cry, running after him and pelting him with sticks, stones, and whatever comes to hand. When they have driven him far enough out of the town, they all return. In this way he is driven out of more than a hundred towns at the same time. To make sure that he does not return to their houses, the women wash and scour all their wooden and earthen vessels, “to free them from all uncleanness and the devil.”491 At Onitsha, on the Quorra River, Mr. J. C. Taylor witnessed the celebration of New Year's Day by the negroes. It fell on 20th December 1858. Every family brought a firebrand out into the street, threw it away, and exclaimed as they returned, “The gods of the new year! New Year has come round again.” Mr. Taylor adds, “The meaning of the custom seems to be that the fire is to drive away the old year with its sorrows and evils, and to embrace the new year with [pg 171] hearty reception.”492 Of all Abyssinian festivals that of Mascal or the Cross is celebrated with the greatest pomp. The eve of the festival witnesses a ceremony which doubtless belongs to the world-wide class of customs we are dealing with. At sunset a discharge of firearms takes place from all the principal houses. “Then every one provides himself with a torch, and during the early part of the night bonfires are kindled, and the people parade the town, carrying their lighted torches in their hands. They go through their houses too, poking a light into every dark corner in the hall, under the couches, in the stables, kitchen, etc., as if looking for something lost, and calling out, ‘Akho, akhoky! turn out the spinage, and bring in the porridge; Mascal is come!’.... After this they play, and poke fun and torches at each other.”493

Sometimes the date of the annual expulsion of devils is fixed with reference to the agricultural seasons. Among the Hos of North-Eastern India the great festival of the year is the harvest home, held in January, when the granaries are full of grain, and the people, to use their own expression, are full of devilry. “They have a strange notion that at this period men and women are so overcharged with vicious propensities, that it is absolutely necessary for the safety of the person to let off steam by allowing for a time full vent to the passions.” The ceremonies open with a sacrifice to the village god of three fowls, two of which must be black. Along with them are offered flowers of the Palás tree, bread made from rice-flour, and sesamum seeds. These offerings are presented by the village priest, who prays that [pg 172] during the year about to begin they and their children may be preserved from all misfortune and sickness, and that they may have seasonable rain and good crops. Prayer is also made in some places for the souls of the dead. At this time an evil spirit is supposed to infest the place, and to get rid of it men, women, and children go in procession round and through every part of the village with sticks in their hands, as if beating for game, singing a wild chant, and shouting vociferously, till they feel assured that the evil spirit must have fled. Then they give themselves up to feasting and drinking rice-beer, till they are in a fit state for the wild debauch which follows. The festival now “becomes a saturnale, during which servants forget their duty to their masters, children their reverence for parents, men their respect for women, and women all notions of modesty, delicacy, and gentleness; they become raging bacchantes.” Usually the Hos are quiet and reserved in manner, decorous and gentle to women. But during this festival “their nature appears to undergo a temporary change. Sons and daughters revile their parents in gross language, and parents their children; men and women become almost like animals in the indulgence of their amorous propensities.” The Mundaris, kinsmen and neighbours of the Hos, keep the festival in much the same manner. “The resemblance to a Saturnale is very complete, as at this festival the farm labourers are feasted by their masters, and allowed the utmost freedom of speech in addressing them. It is the festival of the harvest home; the termination of one year's toil, and a slight respite from it before they commence again.”494

[pg 173]

Amongst some of the Hindoo Koosh tribes, as among the Hos and Mundaris, the expulsion of devils takes place after harvest. When the last crop of autumn has been got in, it is thought necessary to drive away evil spirits from the granaries. A kind of porridge called mool is eaten, and the head of the family takes his matchlock and fires it into the floor. Then, going outside, he sets to work loading and firing till his powder horn is exhausted, while all his neighbours are similarly employed. The next day is spent in rejoicings. In Chitral this festival is called “devil-driving.”495 On the other hand the Khonds of India expel the devils at seed-time instead of at harvest. At this time they worship Pitteri Pennu, the god of increase and of gain in every shape. On the first day of the festival a rude car is made of a basket set upon a few sticks, tied upon bamboo rollers for wheels. The priest takes this car first to the house of the lineal head of the tribe, to whom precedence is given in all ceremonies connected with agriculture. Here he receives a little of each kind of seed and some feathers. He then takes the car to all the other houses in the village, each of which contributes the same things. Lastly, the car is conducted to a field without the village, attended by all the young men, who beat each other and strike the air violently with long sticks. The seed thus carried out is called the share of the “evil spirits, spoilers of the seed.” “These are considered to be driven out with the car; and when it and its contents are abandoned to them, they are held to have no excuse for interfering with the rest of the seed-corn.” Next day each household kills a hog over the seed for the year, and prays to Pitteri Pennu. [pg 174] The elders then feast upon the hogs. The young men are excluded from the repast, but enjoy the privilege of waylaying and pelting with jungle fruit their elders as they return from the feast. Upon the third day the lineal head of the tribe goes out and sows his seed, after which all the rest may do so.496

The people of Bali, an island to the east of Java, have periodical expulsions of devils upon a great scale. Generally the time chosen for the expulsion is the day of the “dark moon” in the ninth month. When the demons have been long unmolested the country is said to be “warm,” and the priest issues orders to expel them by force, lest the whole of Bali should be rendered uninhabitable. On the day appointed the people of the village or district assemble at the principal temple. Here at a cross-road offerings are set out for the devils. After prayers have been recited by the priests, the blast of a horn summons the devils to partake of the meal which has been prepared for them. At the same time a number of men step forward and light their torches at the holy lamp which burns before the chief priest. Immediately afterwards, followed by the bystanders, they spread in all directions and march through the streets and lanes crying, “Depart! go away!” Wherever they pass, the people who have stayed at home hasten by a deafening knocking on doors, beams, rice-blocks, etc., to take their share in the expulsion of devils. Thus chased from the houses, the fiends flee to the banquet which [pg 175] has been set out for them; but here the priest receives them with curses which finally drive them from the district. When the last devil has taken his departure, the uproar is succeeded by a dead silence, which lasts during the next day also. The devils, it is thought, are anxious to return to their old homes, and in order to make them think that Bali is not Bali but some desert island, no one may stir from his own premises for twenty-four hours. Even ordinary household work, including cooking, is discontinued. Only the watchmen may show themselves in the streets. Wreaths of thorns and leaves are hung at all the entrances to warn strangers from entering. Not till the third day is this state of siege raised, and even then it is forbidden to work at the rice-fields or to buy and sell in the market. Most people still stay at home, striving to while away the time with cards and dice.497

In some parts of Fiji an annual ceremony took place which has much the aspect of an expulsion of devils. The time of its celebration was determined by the appearance of a certain fish or sea-slug (balolo) which swarms out in dense shoals from the coral reefs on a single day of the year, usually in the last quarter of the moon in November. The appearance of the sea-slugs was the signal for a general feast at those places where they were taken. An influential man ascended a tree and prayed to the spirit of the sky for good crops, fair winds, and so on. Thereupon a tremendous clatter, with drumming and shouting, was raised by all the people in their houses for about half an hour. This was followed by a dead quiet for four days, during [pg 176] which the people feasted on the sea-slug. All this time no work of any kind might be done, not even a leaf plucked nor the offal removed from the houses. If a noise was made in any house, as by a child crying, a forfeit was at once exacted by the chief. At daylight on the expiry of the fourth night the whole town was in an uproar; men and boys scampered about, knocking with clubs and sticks at the doors of the houses and crying “Sinariba.” This concluded the ceremony.498

On the night before spring begins the Japanese throw roasted beans against the walls and floors of their houses, crying thrice loudly, “Away from here, wicked spirit!” but adding softly, “Enter, O god of riches!”499 Amongst some of the Hindus of the Punjaub on the morning after Diwali or the festival of lamps (at which the souls of ancestors are believed to visit the house) the oldest woman of the family takes all the sweepings and rubbish of the family and throws them out, with the words, “Let all dirt and wretchedness depart from here, and all good fortune come in.”500 In Tonquin a theckydaw or general expulsion of malevolent spirits commonly took place once a year, especially if there was a great mortality amongst men or cattle, “the cause of which they attribute to the malicious spirits of such men as have been put to death for treason, rebellion, and conspiring the death of the king, general, or princes, and in that revenge of the punishment they have suffered, they are bent to destroy [pg 177] everything and commit horrible violence. To prevent which their superstition has suggested to them the institution of this theckydaw as a proper means to drive the devil away, and purge the country of evil spirits.” The day appointed for the ceremony was generally the 25th of February, one month after the commencement of the new year, which began on the 25th of January. The intermediate month was a season of feasting, merry-making of all kinds, and general licence. During the whole month the great seal was kept shut up in a box, face downwards, and the law was, as it were, laid asleep. All courts of justice were closed; debtors could not be seized; small crimes, such as petty larceny, fighting, and assault, escaped with impunity; only treason and murder were taken account of and the malefactors detained till the great seal should come into operation again. At the close of the saturnalia the wicked spirits were driven away. Great masses of troops and artillery having been drawn up with flying colours and all the pomp of war, “the general beginneth then to offer meat offerings to the criminal devils and malevolent spirits (for it is usual and customary likewise amongst them to feast the condemned before their execution), inviting them to eat and drink, when presently he accuses them in a strange language, by characters and figures, etc., of many offences and crimes committed by them, as to their having disquieted the land, killed his elephants and horses, etc., for all which they justly deserved to be chastised and banished the country. Whereupon three great guns are fired as the last signal; upon which all the artillery and musquets are discharged, that, by their most terrible noise the devils may be driven away; and they are so blind as to believe [pg 178] for certain, that they really and effectually put them to flight.”501

In Cambodia the expulsion of evil spirits took place in March. Bits of broken statues and stones, considered as the abode of the demons, were collected and brought to the capital. Here as many elephants were collected as could be got together. On the evening of the full moon volleys of musketry were fired and the elephants charged furiously to put the devils to flight.502 In Siam the banishment of demons is annually carried into effect on the last day of the old year. A signal gun is fired from the palace; it is answered from the next station, and so on from station to station, till the firing has reached the outer gate of the city. Thus the demons are driven out step by step. As soon as this is done a consecrated rope is fastened round the circuit of the city walls to prevent the banished demons from returning. The rope is made of tough couch-grass and is painted in alternate stripes of red, yellow, and blue.503 The Shans of Southern China annually expel the fire-spirit. The ceremony was witnessed by the English Mission under Colonel Sladen on the 13th of August 1868. Bullocks and cows were slaughtered in the market-place; the meat was all sold, part of it was cooked and eaten, while the rest was fired out of guns [pg 179] at sundown. The pieces of flesh which fell on the land were supposed to become mosquitoes, those which fell in the water were believed to turn into leeches. In the evening the chief's retainers beat gongs and blew trumpets; and when darkness had set in torches were lit and a party, preceded by the musicians, searched the central court for the fire-spirit, who is supposed to lurk about at this season with evil intent. They then searched all the rooms and the gardens, throwing the light of the torches into every nook and corner where the evil spirit might find a hiding-place.504

Annual expulsions of demons or of evil influences are not unknown in Europe at the present day. Amongst the heathen Wotyaks, a Finnish people of Eastern Russia, all the young girls of the village assemble on the last day of the year or on New Year's Day armed with sticks, the ends of which are split in nine places. With these they beat every corner of the house and yard, saying, “We are driving Satan out of the village.” Afterwards the sticks are thrown into the river below the village, and as they float down stream Satan goes with them to the next village, from which he must be driven out in turn. In some villages the expulsion is managed otherwise. The unmarried men receive from every house in the village groats, flesh, and brandy. These they take to the field, light a fire under a fir-tree, boil the groats, and eat of the food they have brought with them, after pronouncing the words, “Go away into the wilderness, come not into the house.” Then they return to the village and enter every house where there are young women. They take hold of the young women and throw them into the snow, saying, “May the spirits of [pg 180] disease leave you.” The remains of the groats and the other food are then distributed among all the houses in proportion to the amount that each contributed, and each family consumes its share. According to a Wotyak of the Malmyz district the young men throw into the snow whomever they find in the houses, and this is called “driving out Satan;” moreover some of the boiled groats are thrown into the fire with the words, “O god, afflict us not with sickness and pestilence, give us not up as a prey to the spirits of the wood.” But the most antique form of the ceremony is that observed by the Wotyaks of the Kasan Government. First of all a sacrifice is offered to the Devil at noon. Then all the men assemble on horseback in the centre of the village, and decide with which house they shall begin. When this question, which often gives rise to hot disputes, is settled, they tether their horses to the paling, and arm themselves with whips, clubs of lime-wood, and bundles of lighted twigs. The lighted twigs are believed to have the greatest terrors for Satan. Thus armed, they proceed with frightful cries to beat every corner of the house and yard, then shut the door, and spit at the ejected fiend. So they go from house to house, till the Devil has been driven from every one. Then they mount their horses and ride out of the village, yelling wildly and brandishing their clubs in every direction. Outside of the village they fling away the clubs and spit once more at the Devil.505 The Cheremiss, another Finnish people of Eastern Russia, chase Satan from their dwellings by beating the walls with cudgels of lime-wood. When he has fled to the wood, they pelt [pg 181] the trees with some of the cheese-cakes and eggs which furnished the feast.506

In Albania on Easter Eve the young people light torches of resinous wood and march in procession, swinging them, through the village. At last they throw the torches into the river, crying, “Ha, Kore! we throw you into the river, like these torches, that you may never return.”507 In some villages of Calabria the month of March is inaugurated with the expulsion of the witches. It takes place at night to the sound of the church bells, the people running about the streets and crying, “March is come.” They say that the witches roam about in March, and the ceremony is repeated every Friday evening during the month.508 In the Tyrol the expulsion of witches takes place on the first of May. On a Thursday at midnight bundles are made up of resinous splinters, black and red spotted hemlock, caper-spurge, rosemary, and twigs of the sloe. These are kept and burned on May Day by men who must first have received plenary absolution from the church. On the last three days of April all the houses are cleansed and fumigated with juniper berries and rue. On May Day, when the evening bell has rung and the twilight is falling, the ceremony of “burning out the witches,” as it is called, begins. Men and boys make a racket with whips, bells, pots, and pans; the women carry censers; the dogs are unchained and run barking and yelping about. As soon as the church bells begin to ring, the bundles of twigs, fastened on poles, are set on fire and the incense [pg 182] is ignited. Then all the house-bells and dinner-bells are rung, pots and pans are clashed, dogs bark, every one must make a noise. And amid this hubbub all scream at the pitch of their voices,

“Witch flee, flee from here,

Or it will go ill with thee.”

Then they run seven times round the houses, the yards, and the village. So the witches are smoked out of their lurking-places and driven away.509 At Brunnen in Switzerland the boys go about in procession on Twelfth Night, carrying torches and lanterns, and making a great noise with horns, cow-bells, whips, etc. This is said to frighten away the two female spirits of the wood, Strudeli and Strätteli.510

§ 15.—Scapegoats.

Thus far the examples cited have belonged to the class of direct or immediate expulsion of ills. It remains to illustrate the second class of expulsions, in which the evil influences are either embodied in a visible form or are at least supposed to be loaded upon a material medium, which acts as a vehicle to [pg 183] draw them off from the people, village, or town. The Pomos of California celebrate an expulsion of devils every seven years, at which the devils are represented by disguised men. “Twenty or thirty men array themselves in harlequin rig and barbaric paint, and put vessels of pitch on their heads; then they secretly go out into the surrounding mountains. These are to personify the devils. A herald goes up to the top of the assembly-house, and makes a speech to the multitude. At a signal agreed upon in the evening the masqueraders come in from the mountains, with the vessels of pitch flaming on their heads, and with all the frightful accessories of noise, motion, and costume which the savage mind can devise in representation of demons. The terrified women and children flee for life, the men huddle them inside a circle, and, on the principle of fighting the devil with fire, they swing blazing firebrands in the air, yell, whoop, and make frantic dashes at the marauding and bloodthirsty devils, so creating a terrific spectacle, and striking great fear into the hearts of the assembled hundreds of women, who are screaming and fainting and clinging to their valorous protectors. Finally the devils succeed in getting into the assembly-house, and the bravest of the men enter and hold a parley with them. As a conclusion of the whole farce, the men summon courage, the devils are expelled from the assembly-house, and with a prodigious row and racket of sham fighting are chased away into the mountains.”511 In spring, as soon as the willow leaves were full grown on the banks of the river, the Mandan Indians celebrated their great annual festival, one of the features of which was the expulsion of the devil. A man, painted black to [pg 184] represent the devil, entered the village from the prairie, chased and frightened the women, and acted the part of a buffalo bull in the buffalo dance, the object of which was to ensure a plentiful supply of buffaloes during the ensuing year. Finally he was chased from the village, the women pursuing him with hisses and gibes, beating him with sticks, and pelting him with dirt.512 On the last night of the year the palace of the Kings of Cambodia is purged of devils. Men painted as fiends are chased by elephants about the palace courts. When they have been expelled, a consecrated thread of cotton is stretched round the palace to keep them out.513 The Kasyas, a hill tribe of Assam, annually expel the demons. The ceremony takes place on a fixed month in the year, and part of it consists in a struggle between two bands of men who stand on opposite sides of a stream, each side tugging at the end of a rope which is stretched across the water. In this contest, which resembles the game of “French and English,” the men on one side probably represent the demons.514 At Carmona in Andalusia, [pg 185] on one day of the year, boys are stripped naked and smeared with glue in which feathers are stuck. Thus disguised, they run from house to house, the people trying to avoid them and to bar their houses against them.515 The ceremony is probably a relic of an annual expulsion of devils.

Oftener, however, the expelled demons are not represented at all, but are understood to be present invisibly in the material and visible vehicle which conveys them away. Here, again, it will be convenient to distinguish between occasional and periodical expulsions. We begin with the former.

The vehicle which conveys away the demons may be of various kinds. A common one is a little ship or boat. Thus, in the southern district of the island of Ceram, when a whole village suffers from sickness, a small ship is made and filled with rice, tobacco, eggs, etc., which have been contributed by all the people. A little sail is hoisted on the ship. When all is ready, a man calls out in a very loud voice, “O all ye sicknesses, ye small-poxes, agues, measles, etc., who have visited us so long and wasted us so sorely, but who now cease to plague us, we have made ready this ship for you, and we have furnished you with provender sufficient for the voyage. Ye shall have no lack of food nor of siri nor of pinang nor of tobacco. Depart, and sail away from us directly; never come near us again, but go to a land which is far from here. Let all the tides and winds [pg 186] waft you speedily thither, and so convey you thither that for the time to come we may live sound and well, and that we may never see the sun rise on you again.” Then ten or twelve men carry the vessel to the shore, and let it drift away with the land-breeze, feeling convinced that they are free from sickness for ever, or at least till the next time. If sickness attacks them again, they are sure it is not the same sickness, but a different one, which in due time they dismiss in the same manner. When the demon-laden bark is lost to sight, the bearers return to the village, whereupon a man cries out, “The sicknesses are now gone, vanished, expelled, and sailed away.” At this all the people come running out of their houses, passing the word from one to the other with great joy, beating on gongs and on tinkling instruments.516

Similar ceremonies are commonly resorted to in other East Indian islands. Thus in Timorlaut, to mislead the demons who are causing sickness, a small prao, containing the image of a man and provisioned for a long voyage, is allowed to drift away with wind and tide. As it is being launched, the people cry, “O sickness, go from here; turn back; what do you here in this poor land?” Three days after this ceremony a pig is killed, and part of the flesh is offered to Dudilaa, who lives in the sun. One of the oldest men says, “Old sir, I beseech you, make well the grandchildren, children, women, and men, that we may be able to eat pork and rice and to drink palm-wine. I will keep my promise. Eat your share, and make all the people in the village well.” If the prao is stranded at any inhabited spot, the sickness will break [pg 187] out there. Hence a stranded prao excites much alarm amongst the coast population, and they immediately burn it, because demons fly from fire.517 In the island of Buro the prao which carries away the demons of disease is about twenty feet long, rigged out with sails, oars, anchor, etc., and well stocked with provisions. For a day and a night the people beat gongs and drums, and rush about to frighten the demons. Next morning ten stalwart young men strike the people with branches, which have been previously dipped in an earthen pot of water. As soon as they have done so, they run down to the beach, put the branches on board the prao, launch another prao in great haste, and tow the disease-burdened prao far out to sea. There they cast it off, and one of them calls out, “Grandfather Small-pox, go away—go willingly away—go visit another land; we have made you food ready for the voyage, we have now nothing more to give.” When they have landed, all the people bathe together in the sea.518 In this ceremony the reason for striking the people with the branches is clearly to rid them of the disease-demons, which are then supposed to be transferred to the branches. Hence the haste with which the branches are deposited in the prao and towed away to sea. So in the inland districts of Ceram, when small-pox or other sickness is raging, the priest strikes all the houses with consecrated branches, which are then thrown into the river, to be carried down to the sea;519 exactly as amongst the Wotyaks of Russia the sticks which have been used for expelling the devils from the village are [pg 188] thrown into the river, that the current may sweep the baleful burden away. In Amboina, for a similar purpose, the whole body of the patient is rubbed with a live white cock, which is then placed on a little prao and committed to the waves;520 and in the Babar archipelago the bark which is to carry away to sea the sickness of a whole village contains a bowl of ashes taken from every kitchen in the village, and another bowl into which all the sick people have spat.521 The plan of putting puppets in the boat to represent sick persons, in order to lure the demons after them, is not uncommon.522

The practice of sending away diseases in boats is known outside the limits of the East Indian Archipelago. Thus when the people of Tikopia, a small island in the Pacific, to the north of the New Hebrides, were attacked by an epidemic cough, they made a little canoe and adorned it with flowers. Four sons of the principal chiefs carried it on their shoulders all round the island, accompanied by the whole population, some of whom beat the bushes, while others uttered loud cries. On returning to the spot from which they had set out, they launched the canoe on the sea.523 In the Nicobar Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, when there is much sickness in a village or no fish are caught, the blame is laid upon the spirits. They [pg 189] must be propitiated with offerings. All relations and friends are invited, a huge pig is roasted, and the best of it is eaten, but some parts are offered to the shades. The heap of offerings remains in front of the house till it is carried away by the rising tide. Then the priests, their faces reddened with paint and swine's blood, pretend to catch the demon of disease, and, after a hand-to-hand struggle, force him into a model boat, made of leaves and decked with garlands, which is then towed so far to sea that neither wind nor tide is likely to drive it back to the shore.524

Often the vehicle which carries away the collected demons or ills of a whole community is an animal or scapegoat. In the Central Provinces of India, when cholera breaks out in a village, every one retires after sunset to his house. The priests then parade the streets, taking from the roof of each house a straw, which is burnt with an offering of rice, ghi, and turmeric, at some shrine to the east of the village. Chickens daubed with vermilion are driven away in the direction of the smoke, and are believed to carry the disease with them. If they fail, goats are tried, and last of all pigs.525 When cholera is very bad among the Bhárs, Malláns, and Kurmís of India, they take a goat or a buffalo—in either case the animal must be a female, and as black as possible—then they tie some grain, cloves, and red lead in a yellow cloth on its back, and turn it out of the village. It is conducted beyond the boundary, and is not allowed to return.526 The people of the city and cantonments of [pg 190] Sagar being afflicted with a violent influenza, “I had an application from the old Queen Dowager of Sagar to allow of a noisy religious procession, for the purpose of imploring deliverance from this great calamity. Men, women, and children in this procession were to do their utmost to add to the noise by 'raising their voices in psalmody,' beating upon their brass pots and pans with all their might, and discharging firearms where they could get them. Before the noisy crowd was to be driven a buffalo, which had been purchased by general subscription, in order that every family might participate in the merit. They were to follow it out eight miles, where it was to be turned loose for any man who would take it. If the animal returned the disease must return with it, and the ceremony be performed over again.... It was, however, subsequently determined that the animal should be a goat; and he was driven before the crowd accordingly. I have on several occasions been requested to allow of such noisy ceremonies in cases of epidemics.”527 Once, when influenza was raging in Pithuria, a man had a small carriage made, after a plan of his own, for a pair of scapegoats, which were harnessed to it and driven to a wood at some distance, where they were let loose. From that hour the disease entirely ceased in the town. The goats never returned; had they done so, “the disease must have come back with them.”528 The idea of the scapegoat is not uncommon in the hills of the Eastern Ghats. In 1886, during a severe outbreak of small-pox, the people of Jeypur made “puja” to a goat, marched it to the Ghats, and let it loose on [pg 191] the plains.529 In Southern Konkan, on the appearance of cholera, the villagers went in procession from the temple to the extreme boundaries of the village, carrying a basket of cooked rice covered with red powder, a wooden doll representing the pestilence, and a cock. The head of the cock was cut off at the village boundary, and the body was thrown away. When cholera was thus transferred from one village to another, the second village observed the same ceremony and passed on the scourge to its neighbours, and so on through a number of villages.530 When the Aymara Indians were suffering from a plague, they loaded a llama with the clothes of the plague-stricken people, and drove the animal into the mountains, hoping that it would take the plague away with it.531 Sometimes the scapegoat is a man. Some of the aboriginal tribes of China, as a protection against pestilence, select a man of great muscular strength to act the part of scapegoat. Having besmeared his face with paint, he performs many antics with the view of enticing all pestilential and noxious influences to attach themselves to him only. He is assisted by a priest. Finally the scapegoat, hotly pursued by men and women beating gongs and tom-toms, is driven with great haste out of the town or village.532 A Hindu cure for the murrain is to hire a man of the Chamár caste, turn his face away from the village, brand him with a red-hot sickle, and let him go out into the jungle, taking the murrain with him. He must not look back.533

[pg 192]

The mediate expulsion of evils by means of a scapegoat or other material vehicle, like the immediate expulsion of them in invisible form, tends to become periodic, and for a like reason. Thus every year, generally in March, the people of Leti, Moa, and Lakor send away all their diseases to sea. They make a prao about six feet long, rig it with sails, oars, rudder, etc., and every family deposits in it some rice, fruit, a fowl, two eggs, insects that ravage the fields, etc. Then they let it drift away to sea, saying, “Take away from here all kinds of sickness, take them to other islands, to other lands, distribute them in places that lie eastward, where the sun rises.”534 The Biajas of Borneo annually send to sea a little bark laden with the sins and misfortunes of the people. The crew of any ship that falls in with the ill-omened bark at sea will suffer all the sorrows with which it is laden.535 At the beginning of the dry season, every year, the Nicobar islanders carry the model of a ship through their villages. The devils are chased out of the huts, and driven on board the little ship, which is then launched and suffered to sail away with the wind.536 At Sucla-Tirtha, in India, an earthen pot containing the accumulated sins of the people is (annually?) set adrift on the river. Legend says that the custom originated with a wicked priest who, after atoning for his guilt by a course of austerities and expiatory ceremonies, was directed to sail upon the river in a boat with white sails. If the white sails turned black, it would be a sign that his sins were forgiven him. They did so, and he joyfully allowed [pg 193] the boat to drift with his sins to sea.537 Amongst many of the aboriginal tribes of China, a great festival is celebrated in the third month of every year. It is held by way of a general rejoicing over what the people believe to be a total annihilation of the ills of the past twelve months. This annihilation is supposed to be effected in the following way. A large earthenware jar filled with gunpowder, stones, and bits of iron is buried in the earth. A train of gunpowder, communicating with the jar, is then laid; and a match being applied, the jar and its contents are blown up. The stones and bits of iron represent the ills and disasters of the past year, and the dispersion of them by the explosion is believed to remove the ills and disasters themselves. The festival is attended with much revelling and drunkenness.538 At Old Calabar, in Guinea, the devils are expelled once every two years. A number of figures called nabikems are made of sticks and bamboos, and fixed indiscriminately about the town. Some of them represent human beings, others birds, crocodiles, and so on. After three or four weeks the devils are expected to take up their abode in these figures. When the night comes for their general expulsion, the people feast and sally out in parties, beating at empty corners, and shouting with all their might. Shots are fired, the nabikems are torn up with violence, set in flames, and flung into the river. The orgies last till daybreak, and the town is considered to be rid of evil influences for two years to come.539 Mr. George Bogle, the English envoy sent to Tibet by Warren Hastings, witnessed the celebration of the Tibetan New Year's Day at Teshu Lumbo the capital [pg 194] of the Teshu Lama. “The figure of a man, chalked upon paper, was laid upon the ground. Many strange ceremonies, which to me who did not understand them appeared whimsical, were performed about it; and a great fire being kindled in a corner of the court, it was at length held over it, and being formed of combustibles, vanished with much smoke and explosion. I was told it was a figure of the devil.”540

On one day of the year some of the people of the Western Himalayas take a dog, intoxicate him with spirits and bhang or hemp, and having fed him with sweetmeats, lead him round the village and let him loose. They then chase and kill him with sticks and stones, and believe that, when they have done so, no disease or misfortune will visit the village during the year.541 In some parts of Breadalbane it was formerly the custom on New Year's Day to take a dog to the door, give him a bit of bread, and drive him out, saying, “Get away you dog! Whatever death of men, or loss of cattle would happen in this house to the end of the present year, may it all light on your head!”542 It appears that the white dogs annually sacrificed by the Iroquois at their New Year Festival are, or have been, regarded as scapegoats. According to Mr. J. V. H. Clark, who witnessed the ceremony in January 1841, on the first day of the festival all the fires in the village were extinguished, the ashes scattered to the winds, and a new fire was kindled with flint and steel. On a subsequent day, men dressed in fantastic costumes [pg 195] went round the village, gathering the sins of the people. On the morning of the last day of the festival, two white dogs, decorated with red paint, wampum, feathers, and ribbons were led out. They were soon strangled, and hung on a ladder. Firing and yelling succeeded, and half an hour later the dogs were taken into a house, “where the peoples' sins were transferred to them.” The dogs were afterwards burnt on a pyre of wood.543 According to the Rev. Mr. Kirkland, who wrote last century, the ashes of the pyre upon which one of the white dogs was burned were carried through the village and sprinkled at the door of every house.544 Formerly, however, as we have seen, the Iroquois expulsion of evils was immediate and not by scapegoat.545 The Jews annually laid all the sins of the people upon the head of a goat and sent it away into the wilderness.546

The scapegoat upon whom the sins of the people are periodically laid, may also be a human being. At Onitsha, on the Quorra River, two human beings are annually sacrificed to take away the sins of the land. The victims are purchased by public subscription. All persons who, during the past year, have fallen into gross sins, such as incendiarism, theft, adultery, witchcraft, etc. are expected to contribute 28 ngugas, or a little over £2. The money thus collected is taken into the [pg 196] interior of the country and expended in the purchase of two sickly persons “to be offered as a sacrifice for all these abominable crimes—one for the land and one for the river.” A man from a neighbouring town is hired to put them to death. The sacrifice of one of these victims was witnessed by the Rev. J. C. Taylor on 27th February 1858. The sufferer was a woman, about nineteen or twenty years of age. She was dragged alive along the ground, face downwards, from the king's house to the river, a distance of two miles. The crowds who accompanied her cried “Wickedness! wickedness!” The intention was “to take away the iniquities of the land. The body was dragged along in a merciless manner, as if the weight of all their wickedness was thus carried away.”547 In Siam it was formerly the custom on one day of the year to single out a woman broken down by debauchery, and carry her on a litter through all the streets to the music of drums and hautboys. The mob insulted her and pelted her with dirt; and after having carried her through the whole city, they threw her on a dunghill or a hedge of thorns outside the ramparts, forbidding her ever to enter the walls again. They believed that the woman thus drew upon herself all the malign influences of the air and of evil spirits.548 The people of Nias offer either a red horse or a buffalo as a public sacrifice to purify the land and obtain the favour of the gods. Formerly, it is said, a man was bound to the same stake as the buffalo, and when the animal was killed, the man was driven away; no one might [pg 197] receive him, converse with him, or give him food.549 Doubtless he was supposed to carry away the sins and misfortunes of the people.

In Tibet the ceremony of the scapegoat is marked by some peculiar features. The Tibetan New Year begins with the new moon, which appears about 15th February. For twenty-three days afterwards the government of Lhásá, the capital, is taken out of the hands of the ordinary rulers and entrusted to the monk of the Debang monastery who offers to pay the highest sum for the privilege. The successful bidder is called the Jalno, and he announces the fact in person through the streets of Lhásá, bearing a silver stick. Monks from all the neighbouring monasteries and temples assemble to pay him homage. The Jalno exercises his authority in the most arbitrary manner for his own benefit, as all the fines which he exacts are his by purchase. The profit he makes is about ten times the amount of the purchase money. His men go about the streets in order to discover any conduct on the part of the inhabitants that can be found fault with. Every house in Lhásá is taxed at this time, and the slightest fault is punished with unsparing rigour by fines. This severity of the Jalno drives all working classes out of the city till the twenty-three days are over. Meantime, all the priests flock from the neighbourhood to the Máchindránáth temple, where they perform religious ceremonies. The temple is a very large one, standing in the centre of the city, surrounded by bazaars and shops. The idols in it are richly inlaid with gold and precious stones. Twenty-four days [pg 198] after the Jalno has ceased to have authority, he assumes it again, and for ten days acts in the same arbitrary manner as before. On the first of the ten days the priests assemble as before at the Máchindránáth temple, pray to the gods to prevent sickness and other evils among the people, “and, as a peace-offering, sacrifice one man. The man is not killed purposely, but the ceremony he undergoes often proves fatal.550 Grain is thrown against his head, and his face is painted half white, half black.” On the tenth day, all the troops in Lhásá march to the temple and form in line before it. The victim is brought forth from the temple and receives small donations from the assembled multitude. He then throws dice with the Jalno. If the victim wins, much evil is foreboded; but if the Jalno wins, there is great rejoicing, for it is then believed that the victim has been accepted by the gods to bear all the sins of the people of Lhásá. Thereupon his face is painted half white and half black, a leathern coat is put on him, and he is marched to the walls of the city, followed by the whole populace, hooting, shouting, and firing volleys after him. When he is driven outside the city, the people return, and the victim is carried to the Sáme monastery. Should he die shortly afterwards, the people say it is an auspicious sign; but if not, he is kept a prisoner at the monastery for a whole year, after which he is allowed to return to Lhásá.551

Human scapegoats, as we shall see presently, were [pg 199] well known in classical antiquity, and even in mediæval Europe the custom seems not to have been wholly extinct. In the town of Halberstadt in Thüringen there was a church which was said to have been founded by Charlemagne. In this church every year a man was chosen, who was believed to be stained with heinous sins. On the first day of Lent he was brought to the church, dressed in mourning garb, with his head muffled up. At the close of the service he was turned out of the church. During the forty days of Lent he perambulated the city barefoot, neither entering the churches nor speaking to any one. The canons took it in turn to feed him. After midnight he was allowed to sleep on the streets. On the day before Good Friday, after the consecration of the holy oil, he was readmitted to the church and absolved from his sins. The people gave him money. He was called Adam, and was now believed to be in a state of innocence.552 At Entlebuch in Switzerland, down to the close of last century, the custom of annually expelling a scapegoat was preserved in the ceremony of driving “Posterli” from the village into the lands of the neighbouring village. “Posterli” was represented by a lad disguised as an old witch or as a goat or an ass. Amid a deafening noise of horns, clarionets, bells, whips, etc. he was driven out. Sometimes “Posterli” was represented by a puppet, which was drawn in a sledge and left in a corner of the neighbouring village. The ceremony took place on the Thursday evening of the last week but one before Christmas.553

Sometimes the scapegoat is a divine animal. The [pg 200] people of Malabar share the Hindu reverence for the cow, to kill and eat which “they esteem to be a crime as heinous as homicide or wilful murder.” Nevertheless “the Bramans transfer the sins of the people into one or more Cows, which are then carry'd away, both the Cows and the Sins wherewith these Beasts are charged, to what place the Braman shall appoint.”554 When the ancient Egyptians sacrificed a bull, they invoked upon its head all the evils that might otherwise befall themselves and the land of Egypt, and thereupon they either sold the bull's head to the Greeks or cast it into the river.555 Now, it cannot be said that in the times known to us the Egyptians worshipped bulls in general, for they seem to have commonly killed and eaten them.556 But a good many circumstances point to the conclusion that originally all cattle, bulls as well as cows, were held sacred by the Egyptians. For not only were all cows esteemed holy by them and never sacrificed, but even bulls might not be sacrificed unless they had certain natural marks; a priest examined every bull before it was sacrificed; if it had the proper marks, he put his seal on the animal in token that it might be sacrificed; and if a man sacrificed a bull which had not been sealed, he was put to death. Moreover, the worship of the black bulls Apis and Mnevis, especially the former, played an important part in Egyptian religion; all bulls that died a natural death were carefully buried in the suburbs of the cities, and their bones were afterwards collected from all parts of Egypt and buried in a single spot; and at the sacrifice of a bull in the great [pg 201] rites of Isis all the worshippers beat their breasts and mourned.557 On the whole, then, we are perhaps entitled to infer that bulls were originally, as cows were always, esteemed sacred by the Egyptians, and that the slain bull upon whose head they laid the misfortunes of the people was once a divine scapegoat. It seems not improbable that the lamb annually slain by the Madis of Central Africa is a divine scapegoat, and the same supposition may partly explain the Zuni sacrifice of the turtle.558

Lastly, the scapegoat may be a divine man. Thus, in November the Gonds of India worship Ghansyam Deo, the protector of the crops, and at the festival the god himself is said to descend on the head of one of the worshippers, who is suddenly seized with a kind of fit and, after staggering about, rushes off into the jungle, where it is believed that, if left to himself, he would die mad. As it is, he is brought back, but does not recover his senses for one or two days. “The idea is, that one man is thus singled out as a scapegoat for the sins of the rest of the village.”559 In the temple of the Moon the Albanians of the Eastern Caucasus kept a number of sacred slaves, of whom many were inspired and prophesied. When one of these men exhibited more than usual symptoms of inspiration and wandered solitary up and down the woods, like the Gond in the jungle, the high priest had him bound with a sacred chain and maintained him in luxury for a year. At the end of the year he was anointed with unguents and led forth to be sacrificed. A man whose business it was to slay these human victims and to whom practice had [pg 202] given dexterity, advanced from the crowd and thrust a sacred spear into the victim's side, piercing his heart. From the manner in which the slain man fell, omens were drawn as to the welfare of the commonwealth. Then the body was carried to a certain spot where all the people stood upon it as a purificatory ceremony.560 This last circumstance clearly indicates that the sins of the people were transferred to the victim, just as the Jewish priest transferred the sins of the people to the scapegoat by laying his hand on the animal's head; and since the man was believed to be possessed by the divine spirit, we have here an undoubted example of a man-god slain to take away the sins and misfortunes of the people.

The foregoing survey of the custom of publicly expelling the accumulated evils of a village or district suggests a few general observations. In the first place, it will not be disputed that what I have called the immediate and the mediate expulsions of evil are identical in intention; in other words, that whether the evils are conceived of as invisible or as embodied in a material form, is a circumstance entirely subordinate to the main object of the ceremony, which is simply to effect a total clearance of all the ills that have been infesting a people. If any link were wanting to connect the two kinds of expulsion, it would be furnished by such a practice as that of sending the evils away in a boat. For here, on the one hand, the evils are invisible and intangible; and, on the other hand, there is a visible and tangible vehicle to convey them away. And a scapegoat is nothing more than such a vehicle.

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In the second place, when a general clearance of evils is resorted to periodically, the interval between the celebrations of the ceremony is commonly a year, and the time of year when the ceremony takes place usually coincides with some well-marked change of season—such as the close of winter in the arctic and temperate zones, and the beginning or end of the rainy season in the tropics. The increased mortality which such climatic changes are apt to produce, especially amongst ill-fed, ill-clothed, and ill-housed savages, is set down by primitive man to the agency of demons, who must accordingly be expelled. Hence, in New Britain and Peru, the devils are or were driven out at the beginning of the rainy season. When a tribe has taken to agriculture, the time for the general expulsion of devils is naturally made to agree with one of the great epochs of the agricultural year, as sowing or harvest; but, as these epochs themselves often coincide with changes of season, it does not follow that the transition from the hunting or pastoral to the agricultural life involves any alteration in the time of celebrating this great annual rite. Some of the agricultural communities of India and the Hindoo Koosh, as we have seen, hold their general clearance of demons at harvest, others at sowing-time. But, at whatever season of the year it is held, the general expulsion of devils commonly marks the beginning of the new year. For, before entering on a new year, people are anxious to rid themselves of the troubles that have harassed them in the past; hence the fact that amongst so many people—Iroquois, Tonquinese, Siamese, Tibetans, etc.—the beginning of the new year is inaugurated with a solemn and public banishment of evil spirits.

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In the third place, it is to be observed that this public and periodic expulsion of devils is commonly preceded or followed by a period of general licence, during which the ordinary restraints of society are thrown aside, and all offences, short of the gravest, are allowed to pass unpunished. In Guinea and Tonquin the period of licence precedes the public expulsion of demons; and the suspension of the ordinary government in Lhásá previous to the expulsion of the scapegoat is perhaps a relic of a similar period of universal licence. Amongst the Hos the period of licence follows the expulsion of the devil. Amongst the Iroquois it hardly appears whether it preceded or followed the banishment of evils. In any case, the extraordinary relaxation of all ordinary rules of conduct on such occasions is doubtless to be explained by the general clearance of evils which precedes or follows it. On the one hand, when a general riddance of evil and absolution from all sin is in immediate prospect, men are encouraged to give the rein to their passions, trusting that the coming ceremony will wipe out the score which they are running up so fast. On the other hand, when the ceremony has just taken place, men's minds are freed from the oppressive sense, under which they generally labour, of an atmosphere surcharged with devils; and in the first revulsion of joy they overleap the limits commonly imposed by custom and morality. When the ceremony takes place at harvest-time, the elation of feeling which it excites is further stimulated by the state of physical wellbeing produced by an abundant supply of food.561

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Fourthly, the employment of a divine man or animal as a scapegoat is especially to be noted; indeed, we are here directly concerned with the custom of banishing evils only in so far as these evils are believed to be transferred to a god who is afterwards slain. It may be suspected that the custom of employing a divine man or animal as a public scapegoat is much more widely diffused than appears from the examples cited. For, as has already been pointed out, the custom of killing a god dates from so early a period of human history that in later ages, even when the custom continues to be practised, it is liable to be misinterpreted. The divine character of the animal or man is forgotten, and he comes to be regarded merely as an ordinary victim. This is especially likely to be the case when it is a divine man who is killed. For when a nation becomes [pg 206] civilised, if it does not drop human sacrifices altogether, it at least selects as victims only such criminals as would be put to death at any rate. Thus, as in the Sacaean festival at Babylon, the killing of a god may come to be confounded with the execution of a criminal.

If we ask why a dying god should be selected to take upon himself and carry away the sins and sorrows of the people, it may be suggested that in the practice of using the divinity as a scapegoat we have a combination of two customs which were at one time distinct and independent. On the one hand we have seen that it has been customary to kill the human or animal god in order to save his divine life from being weakened by the inroads of age. On the other hand we have seen that it has been customary to have a general expulsion of evils and sins once a year. Now, if it occurred to people to combine these two customs, the result would be the employment of the dying god as a scapegoat. He was killed, not originally to take away sin, but to save the divine life from the degeneracy of old age; but, since he had to be killed at any rate, people may have thought that they might as well seize the opportunity to lay upon him the burden of their sufferings and sins, in order that he might bear it away with him to the unknown world beyond the grave.

The use of the divinity as a scapegoat clears up the ambiguity which, as we saw, appeared to hang about the European folk-custom of “carrying out Death.”562 Grounds have been shown for believing that in this ceremony the so-called Death was originally the spirit of vegetation, who was annually [pg 207] slain in spring, in order that he might come to life again with all the vigour of youth. But, as we saw, there are certain features in the ceremony which are not explicable on this hypothesis alone. Such are the marks of joy with which the effigy of Death is carried out to be buried or burnt, and the fear and abhorrence of it manifested by the bearers. But these features become at once intelligible if we suppose that the Death was not merely the dying god of vegetation, but also a public scapegoat, upon whom were laid all the evils that had afflicted the people during the past year. Joy on such an occasion is natural and appropriate; and if the dying god appears to be the object of that fear and abhorrence which are properly due not to himself, but to the sins and misfortunes with which he is laden, this arises merely from the difficulty of distinguishing or at least of marking the distinction between the bearer and the burden. When the burden is of a baleful character, the bearer of it will be feared and shunned just as much as if he were himself instinct with those dangerous properties of which, as it happens, he is only the vehicle. Similarly we have seen that disease-laden and sin-laden boats are dreaded and shunned by East Indian peoples.563 Again, the view that in these popular customs the Death is a scapegoat as well as a representative of the divine spirit of vegetation derives some support from the circumstance that its expulsion is always celebrated in spring and chiefly by Slavonic peoples. For the Slavonic year began in spring;564 and thus, in one of its aspects, the ceremony of “carrying out Death” would be an example of the widespread [pg 208] custom of expelling the accumulated evils of the past year before entering on a new one.

We are now prepared to notice the use of the scapegoat in classical antiquity. Every year on the 14th of March a man clad in skins was led in procession through the streets of Rome, beaten with long white rods, and driven out of the city. He was called Mamurius Veturius,565 that is, “the old Mars,”566 and as the ceremony took place on the day preceding the first full moon of the old Roman year (which began on 1st March), the skin-clad man must have represented the Mars of the past year, who was driven out at the beginning of a new one. Now Mars was originally not a god of war but of vegetation. For it was to Mars that the Roman husbandman prayed for the prosperity of his corn and his vines, his fruit-trees and his copses;567 it was to Mars that the priestly college of the Arval Brothers, whose business it was to sacrifice for the growth of the crops,568 addressed their petitions almost exclusively;569 and it was to Mars, as we saw,570 that a horse was sacrificed in October to secure an abundant harvest. Moreover, it was to Mars, under his title of [pg 209] “Mars of the woods” (Mars Silvanus) that farmers offered sacrifice for the welfare of their cattle.571 We have already seen that cattle are commonly supposed to be under the special patronage of tree-gods.572 Once more, the fact that the vernal month of March was dedicated to Mars seems to point him out as the deity of the sprouting vegetation. Thus the Roman custom of expelling the old Mars at the beginning of the New Year in spring is identical with the Slavonic custom of “carrying out Death,” if the view here taken of the latter custom is correct. The similarity of the Roman and Slavonic customs has been already remarked by scholars, who appear, however, to have taken Mamurius Veturius and the corresponding figures in the Slavonic ceremonies to be representatives of the old year rather than of the old god of vegetation.573 It is possible that ceremonies of this kind may have come to be thus interpreted in later times even by the people who practised them. But the personification of a period of time is too abstract an idea to be primitive. However, in the Roman, as in the Slavonic, ceremony, the representative of the god appears to have been treated not only as a deity of vegetation but also as a scapegoat. His expulsion implies this; for there is no reason why the god of vegetation, as such, should be expelled the city. But it is otherwise if he is also a scapegoat; it then becomes necessary to drive him beyond the boundaries, that he may carry his sorrowful burden away to other lands. And, in fact, Mamurius Veturius appears to have been [pg 210] driven away to the land of the Oscans, the enemies of Rome.574

The ancient Greeks were also familiar with the use of a human scapegoat. At Plutarch's native town of Chaeronea in Boeotia, there was a ceremony of this kind performed by the chief magistrate at the Town Hall, and by each householder at his own home. It was called the “expulsion of hunger.” A slave was beaten with [pg 211] rods of the agnus castus, and turned out of doors with the words, “Out with hunger, and in with wealth and health.” When Plutarch held the office of chief magistrate of his native town he performed this ceremony at the Town Hall, and he has recorded the discussion to which the custom afterwards gave rise.575 The ceremony closely resembles the Japanese, Hindoo, and Highland customs already described.576

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But in civilised Greece the custom of the scapegoat took darker forms than the innocent rite over which the amiable and pious Plutarch presided. Whenever Marseilles, one of the busiest and most brilliant of Greek colonies, was ravaged by a plague, a man of the poorer classes used to offer himself as a scapegoat. For a whole year he was maintained at the public expense, being fed on choice and pure food. At the expiry of the year he was dressed in sacred garments, decked with holy branches, and led through the whole city, while prayers were uttered that all the evils of the people might fall on his head. He was then cast out of the city.577 The Athenians regularly maintained a number of degraded and useless beings at the public expense; and when any calamity, such as plague, drought, or famine befell the city, they sacrificed two of these outcasts as scapegoats. One of the victims was sacrificed for the men and the other for the women. The former wore round his neck a string of black, the latter a string of white figs. Sometimes, it seems, the victim slain on behalf of the women was a woman. They were led about the city and then sacrificed, apparently by being stoned to death outside the city.578 But such sacrifices were not confined to extraordinary occasions of public calamity; it appears that every year, at the festival of the Thargelia in May, two victims, one for the men and one for the women, were led out of Athens and stoned to death.579

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From the Lover's Leap, a white bluff at the southern end of their island, the Leucadians used annually to hurl a criminal into the sea as a scapegoat. But to lighten his fall they fastened live birds and feathers to him, and a flotilla of small boats waited below to catch him and convey him beyond the boundary.580 Doubtless these humane precautions were a mitigation of an earlier custom of flinging the scapegoat into the sea to drown. The custom of the scapegoat as practised by the Greeks of Asia Minor in the sixth century b.c. was as follows. When a city suffered from plague, famine, or other public calamity, an ugly or deformed person was chosen to take upon himself all the evils by which the city was afflicted. He was brought to a suitable place where dried figs, a barley loaf, and cheese were put into his hand. These he ate. Then he was beaten seven times upon his genital organs with squills and branches of the wild fig and other wild trees. Afterwards he was burned on a pyre constructed of the wood of forest trees; and his ashes were cast into the sea.581 A similar custom appears to have been annually celebrated by the Asiatic Greeks at the harvest festival of the Thargelia.582

In the ritual just described the beating of the victim with squills, branches of the wild fig, etc., cannot have been intended to aggravate his sufferings, otherwise any stick would have been good enough to [pg 214] beat him with. The true meaning of this part of the ceremony has been explained by W. Mannhardt.583 He points out that the ancients attributed to squills a magical power of averting evil influences, and accordingly hung them up at the doors of their houses and made use of them in purificatory rites.584 Hence the Arcadian custom of beating the image of Pan with squills at a festival or whenever the hunters returned empty-handed,585 must have been meant, not to punish the god, but to purify him from the harmful influences which were impeding him in the exercise of his divine functions as a god who should supply the hunter with game. Similarly the object of beating the human scapegoat on the genital organs with squills, etc., must have been to release his reproductive energies from any restraint or spell under which they might be laid by demoniacal or other malignant agency; and as the Thargelia at which he was annually sacrificed was an early harvest festival,586 we must recognise in him a representative of the creative and fertilising god of vegetation. The representative of the god was annually slain for the purpose I have indicated, that of maintaining the divine life in perpetual vigour, untainted by the weakness of age; and before he was put to death it was not unnatural to stimulate his reproductive powers in order that these might be transmitted in full activity to his successor, the new god or new embodiment of the old god, who was doubtless supposed immediately to take the place of [pg 215] the one slain.587 Similar reasoning would lead to a similar treatment of the scapegoat on special occasions, such as drought or famine. If the crops did not answer to the expectation of the husbandman, this would be attributed to some failure in the generative powers of the god whose function it was to produce the fruits of the earth. It might be thought he was under a spell or was growing old and feeble. Accordingly he was slain in the person of his representative, with all the ceremonies already described, in order that, born young again, he might infuse his own youthful vigour into the stagnant energies of nature. On the same principle we can understand why Mamurius Veturius was beaten with rods, why the slave at the Chaeronean ceremony was beaten with the agnus castus (a tree to which magical properties were ascribed),588 why the effigy of Death in north Europe is assailed with sticks and stones, and why at Babylon the criminal who played the god was scourged before he was crucified. The purpose of the scourging was not to intensify the agony of the divine sufferer, but on the contrary to dispel any malignant influences by which at the supreme moment he might conceivably be beset.

The interpretation here given to the custom of beating the human scapegoat with certain plants is supported by many analogies. With the same intention some of the Brazilian Indians beat themselves on the genital organs with an aquatic plant, the white aninga, three days before or after the new [pg 216] moon.589 We have already had examples of the custom of beating sick people with the leaves of certain plants or with branches in order to rid them of the noxious influences.590 At the autumn festival in Peru people used to strike each other with torches saying, “Let all harm go away.”591 Indians of the Quixos, in South America, before they set out on a long hunting expedition, cause their wives to whip them with nettles, believing that this renders them fleeter and helps them to overtake the peccaries. They resort to the same proceeding as a cure for sickness.592 At Mowat in New Guinea small boys are beaten lightly with sticks during December “to make them grow strong and hardy.”593 In Central Europe a similar custom is very commonly observed in spring. On the 1st of March the Albanians strike men and beasts with cornel branches, believing that this is very good for their health.594 On Good Friday and the two previous days people in Croatia and Slavonia take rods with them to church, and when the service is over they beat each other “fresh and healthy.”595 In some parts of Russia people returning from the church on Palm Sunday beat the children and servants who have stayed at home with palm branches, saying, “Sickness into the forest, health into the bones.”596 In Germany the custom is widely known as Schmeckostern, being observed at Eastertide. People beat each other, [pg 217] especially with fresh green twigs of the birch. The beating is supposed to bring good luck; the person beaten will, it is believed, be free of vermin during the summer, or will have no pains in his back or his legs for a year.597

If the view here taken of the Greek scapegoat is correct, it obviates an objection which might otherwise be brought against the main argument of this chapter. To the theory that the priest of Nemi was slain as a representative of the spirit of the grove, it might have been objected that such a custom has no analogy in classical antiquity. But reasons have now been given for believing that the human being periodically and occasionally slain by the Asiatic Greeks was regularly treated as an embodiment of a divinity. Probably the persons whom the Athenians kept to be sacrificed were similarly treated as divine. That they were social outcasts did not matter. On the primitive view a man is not chosen to be the mouth-piece or embodiment of a god on account of his high moral qualities or social standing. The divine afflatus descends equally on the good and the bad, the lofty and the lowly. If then the civilised Greeks of Asia and Athens habitually sacrificed men whom they regarded as incarnate gods, there can be no inherent improbability in the supposition that at the dawn of history a similar custom was observed by the semi-barbarous Latins in the Arician Grove.

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§ 16.—Killing the god in Mexico.

But the religion of ancient Mexico, as it was found and described by the Spanish conquerors in the sixteenth century, offers perhaps the closest parallels to the rule of the Arician priesthood, as I conceive that rule to have been originally observed. Certainly nowhere does the custom of killing the human representative of a god appear to have been carried out so systematically and on so extensive a scale as in Mexico. “They tooke a captive,” says Acosta, “such as they thought good; and afore they did sacrifice him unto their idolls, they gave him the name of the idoll, to whom hee should be sacrificed, and apparelled him with the same ornaments like their idoll, saying that he did represent the same idoll. And during the time that this representation lasted, which was for a yeere in some feasts, in others six moneths, and in others lesse, they reverenced and worshipped him in the same maner as the proper idoll; and in the meane time he did eate, drincke, and was merry. When hee went through the streetes the people came forth to worship him, and every one brought him an almes, with children and sicke folkes, that he might cure them, and bless them, suffering him to doe all things at his pleasure, onely hee was accompanied with tenne or twelve men lest he should flie. And he (to the end he might be reverenced as he passed) sometimes sounded upon a small flute, that the people might prepare to worship him. The feast being come, and hee growne fatte, they killed him, opened him, and eat him, making a solempne sacrifice [pg 219] of him.”598 For example, at the annual festival of the great god Tezcatlipoca, which fell about Easter or a few days later, a young man was chosen to be the living image of Tezcatlipoca for a whole year. He had to be of unblemished body, and he was carefully trained to sustain his lofty role with becoming grace and dignity. During the year he was lapped in luxury, and the king himself took care that the future victim was apparelled in gorgeous attire, “for already he esteemed him as a god.” Attended by eight pages clad in the royal livery, the young man roamed the streets of the capital day and night at his pleasure, carrying flowers and playing the flute. All who saw him fell on their knees before him and adored him, and he graciously acknowledged their homage. Twenty days before the festival at which he was to be sacrificed, four damsels, delicately nurtured, and bearing the names of four goddesses, were given him to be his brides. For five days before the sacrifice divine honours were showered on him more abundantly than ever. The king remained in his palace, while the whole court went after the destined victim. Everywhere there were solemn banquets and balls. On the last day the young man, still attended by his pages, was ferried across the lake in a covered barge to a small and lonely temple, which, like the Mexican temples in general, rose in the form of a pyramid. As he ascended the stairs of the temple he broke at every step one of the flutes on which he had played in the days of his glory. On reaching the summit he was seized and held down on a block of stone, while a priest cut open his breast with a stone knife, and plucking out his heart, offered it to the sun. [pg 220] His head was hung among the skulls of previous victims, and his legs and arms were cooked and prepared for the table of the lords. His place was immediately filled up by another young man, who for a year was treated with the same profound respect, and at the end of it shared the same fate.599

The idea that the god thus slain in the person of his representative comes to life again immediately, was graphically represented in the Mexican ritual by skinning the slain man-god and clothing in his skin a living man, who thus became the new representative of the godhead. Thus at an annual festival a woman was sacrificed who represented Toci or the Mother of the Gods. She was dressed with the ornaments, and bore the name of the goddess, whose living image she was believed to be. After being feasted and diverted with sham fights for several days, she was taken at midnight to the summit of a temple, and beheaded on the shoulders of a man. The body was immediately flayed, and one of the priests, clothing himself in the skin, became the representative of the goddess Toci. The skin of the woman's thigh was removed separately, and a young man who represented the god Cinteotl, the son of the goddess Toci, wrapt it round his face like a mask. Various ceremonies then followed, in which the two men, clad in the woman's skin, played the parts respectively of the god and goddess.600 Again, at the annual festival of the [pg 221] god Totec, a number of captives having been killed and skinned, a priest clothed himself in one of their skins, and thus became the image of the god Totec. Then wearing the ornaments of the god—a crown of feathers, golden necklaces and ear-rings, scarlet shoes, etc.—he was enthroned, and received offerings of the first fruits and first flowers of the season, together with bunches of the maize which had been kept for seed.601 Every fourth year the Quauhtitlans offered sacrifices in honour of the god of fire. On the eve of the festival they sacrificed two slaves, skinned them, and took out their thigh bones. Next day two priests clothed themselves in the skins, took the bones in their hands, and with solemn steps and dismal howlings descended the stairs of the temple. The people, who were assembled in crowds below, called out, “Behold, there come our gods.”602

Thus it appears that human sacrifices of the sort I suppose to have prevailed at Aricia were, as a matter of fact, systematically offered on a large scale by a people whose level of culture was probably not inferior, if indeed it was not distinctly superior, to that occupied by the Italian races at the early period to which the origin of the Arician priesthood must be referred. The positive and indubitable evidence of the prevalence of such sacrifices in one part of the world may reasonably be allowed to strengthen the probability of their prevalence in places for which the evidence is less full and trustworthy. Taken all together, the evidence affords a fair presumption that the custom of killing men whom their worshippers [pg 222] regard as divine has prevailed in many parts of the world. Whether the general explanation which I have offered of that custom is adequate, and whether the rule that the priest of Aricia had to die a violent death is, as I have tried to show, a particular instance of the general custom, are questions which I must now leave to the judgment of the reader.

[pg 223]

Chapter IV—The Golden Bough.

“Und grün des Lebens goldner Baum.”—Faust.

§ 1.—Between heaven and earth.

At the outset of this book two questions were proposed for answer; Why had the priest of Nemi (Aricia) to slay his predecessor? And why, before doing so, had he to pluck the Golden Bough? Of these two questions the first has now been answered. The priest of Nemi, if I am right, embodied in himself the spirit, primarily, of the woods and, secondarily, of vegetable life in general. Hence, according as he was well or ill, the woods, the flowers, and the fields were believed to flourish or fade; and if he were to die of sickness or old age, the plant world, it was supposed, would simultaneously perish. Therefore it was necessary that this priest of the woodlands, this sylvan deity incarnate in a man, should be put to death while he was still in the full bloom of his divine manhood, in order that his sacred life, transmitted in unabated force to his successor, might renew its youth, and thus by successive transmissions through a perpetual line of vigorous incarnations might remain eternally fresh and young, a pledge and security that [pg 224] the buds and blossoms of spring, the verdure of summer woods, and the mellow glories of autumn would never fail.

But we have still to ask, What was the Golden Bough? and why had each candidate for the Arician priesthood to pluck it before he could slay the priest? These questions I will now try to answer.

It will be well to begin by noticing two of those rules or taboos by which, as we have seen, the life of divine kings or priests is regulated. The first of the rules to which I desire to call the reader's attention is that the divine personage may not touch the ground with his foot. This rule was observed by the Mikado of Japan and by the supreme pontiff of the Zapotecs in Mexico. The latter “profaned his sanctity if he so much as touched the ground with his foot.”603 For the Mikado to touch the ground with his foot was a shameful degradation; indeed, in the sixteenth century, it was enough to deprive him of his office. Outside his palace he was carried on men's shoulders; within it he walked on exquisitely wrought mats.604 The king and queen of Tahiti might not touch the ground anywhere but within their hereditary domains; for the ground on which they trod became sacred. In travelling from place to place they were carried on the shoulders of sacred men. They were always accompanied by several pairs of these sacred men; and when it became necessary to change their bearers, the king and queen vaulted on to the shoulders of their new bearers without letting their feet touch the [pg 225] ground.605 It was an evil omen if the king of Dosuma touched the ground, and he had to perform an expiatory ceremony.606 The king of Persia was never seen on foot outside his palace.607

The second rule to be here noted is that the sun may not shine upon the divine person. This rule was observed both by the Mikado and by the pontiff of the Zapotecs. The latter “was looked upon as a god whom the earth was not worthy to hold, nor the sun to shine upon.”608 The Japanese would not allow that the Mikado “should expose his sacred person to the open air, and the sun is not thought worthy to shine on his head.”609 The heir to the throne of Bogota in Colombia, South America, had to undergo a severe training from the age of sixteen; he lived in complete retirement in a temple, where he might not see the sun nor eat salt nor converse with a woman.610 The heir to the kingdom of Sogamoso in Colombia, before succeeding to the crown, had to fast for seven years in the temple, being shut up in the dark and not allowed to see the sun or light.611 The prince who was to become Inca of Peru had to fast for a month without seeing light.612

Now it is remarkable that these two rules—not to touch the ground and not to see the sun—are observed either separately or conjointly by girls at puberty in [pg 226] many parts of the world. Thus amongst the negroes of Loango girls at puberty are confined in separate huts, and they may not touch the ground with any part of their bare body.613 Amongst the Zulus and kindred tribes of South Africa, when the first signs of puberty show themselves “while a girl is walking, gathering wood, or working in the field, she runs to the river and hides herself among the reeds for the day so as not to be seen by men. She covers her head carefully with her blanket that the sun may not shine on it and shrivel her up into a withered skeleton, assured result from exposure to the sun's beams. After dark she returns to her home and is secluded” in a hut for some time.614

In New Ireland girls are confined for four or five years in small cages, being kept in the dark and not allowed to set foot on the ground. The custom has been thus described by an eye-witness. “I heard from a teacher about some strange custom connected with some of the young girls here, so I asked the chief to take me to the house where they were. The house was about twenty-five feet in length, and stood in a reed and bamboo enclosure, across the entrance to which a bundle of dried grass was suspended to show that it was strictly ‘tabu’. Inside the house were three conical structures about seven or eight feet in height, and about ten or twelve feet in circumference at the bottom, and for about four feet from the ground, at which point they tapered off to a point at the top. These cages were made of the broad leaves of the pandanus-tree, sewn quite close [pg 227] together so that no light, and little or no air could enter. On one side of each is an opening which is closed by a double door of plaited cocoa-nut tree and pandanus-tree leaves. About three feet from the ground there is a stage of bamboos which forms the floor. In each of these cages we were told there was a young woman confined, each of whom had to remain for at least four or five years, without ever being allowed to go outside the house. I could scarcely credit the story when I heard it; the whole thing seemed too horrible to be true. I spoke to the chief, and told him that I wished to see the inside of the cages, and also to see the girls that I might make them a present of a few beads. He told me that it was ‘tabu,’ forbidden for any men but their own relations to look at them; but I suppose the promised beads acted as an inducement, and so he sent away for some old lady who had charge, and who alone is allowed to open the doors.... She had to undo the door when the chief told her to do so, and then the girls peeped out at us, and, when told to do so, they held out their hands for the beads. I, however, purposely sat at some distance away and merely held out the beads to them, as I wished to draw them quite outside, that I might inspect the inside of the cages. This desire of mine gave rise to another difficulty, as these girls were not allowed to put their feet to the ground all the time they were confined in these places. However, they wished to get the beads, and so the old lady had to go outside and collect a lot of pieces of wood and bamboo, which she placed on the ground, and then going to one of the girls, she helped her down and held her hand as she stepped from one piece of wood to another until she came near enough to get the beads I held out to [pg 228] her. I then went to inspect the inside of the cage out of which she had come, but could scarcely put my head inside of it, the atmosphere was so hot and stifling. It was clean and contained nothing but a few short lengths of bamboo for holding water. There was only room for the girl to sit or lie down in a crouched position on the bamboo platform, and when the doors are shut it must be nearly or quite dark inside. The girls are never allowed to come out except once a day to bathe in a dish or wooden bowl placed close to each cage. They say that they perspire profusely. They are placed in these stifling cages when quite young, and must remain there until they are young women, when they are taken out and have each a great marriage feast provided for them.”615

In some parts of New Guinea “daughters of chiefs, when they are about twelve or thirteen years of age, are kept indoors for two or three years, never being allowed, under any pretence, to descend from the house, and the house is so shaded that the sun cannot [pg 229] shine on them.”616 Among the Ot Danoms of Borneo girls at the age of eight or ten years are shut up in a little room or cell of the house and cut off from all intercourse with the world for a long time. The cell, like the rest of the house, is raised on piles above the ground, and is lit by a single small window opening on a lonely place, so that the girl is in almost total darkness. She may not leave the room on any pretext whatever, not even for the most necessary purposes. None of her family may see her all the time she is shut up, but a single slave woman is appointed to wait on her. During her lonely confinement, which often lasts seven years, the girl occupies herself in weaving mats or with other handiwork. Her bodily growth is stunted by the long want of exercise, and when, on attaining womanhood, she is brought out, her complexion is pale and wax-like. She is now shown the sun, the earth, the water, the trees, and the flowers, as if she were newly born. Then a great feast is made, a slave is killed, and the girl is smeared with his blood.617 In Ceram girls at puberty were formerly shut up by themselves in a hut which was kept dark.618

Amongst the Aht Indians of Vancouver Island, when girls reach puberty they are placed in a sort of gallery in the house “and are there surrounded completely with mats, so that neither the sun nor any fire can be seen. In this cage they remain for several days. Water is given them, but no food. The longer a girl remains in this retirement the greater [pg 230] honour is it to the parents; but she is disgraced for life if it is known that she has seen fire or the sun during this initiatory ordeal.”619 Amongst the Thlinkeet or Kolosh Indians of Alaska, when a girl shows signs of womanhood she is shut up in a little hut or cage, which is completely blocked up with the exception of a small air-hole. In this dark and filthy abode she had formerly to remain a year, without fire, exercise, or associates. Her food was put in at the small window; she had to drink out of the wing-bone of a white-headed eagle. The time has now been reduced, at least in some places, to six months. The girl has to wear a sort of hat with long flaps, that her gaze may not pollute the sky; for she is thought unfit for the sun to shine upon.620 Amongst the Koniags, an Esquimaux people of Alaska, girls at puberty were placed in small huts in which they had to remain on their hands and knees for six months; then the hut was enlarged enough to let them kneel upright, and they had to remain in this posture for six months more.621

When symptoms of puberty appeared on a girl for the first time, the Indians of the Rio de la Plata [pg 231] used to sew her up in her hammock as if she were dead, leaving only a small hole for her mouth to allow her to breathe. In this state she continued so long as the symptoms lasted.622 In similar circumstances the Chiriguanos of Bolivia hoisted the girl in her hammock to the roof, where she stayed for a month; the second month the hammock was let half way down from the roof; and in the third month old women, armed with sticks, entered the hut and ran about striking everything they met, saying they were hunting the snake that had wounded the girl. This they did till one of the women gave out that she had killed the snake.623 Amongst some of the Brazilian Indians, when a girl attained to puberty, her hair was burned or shaved off close to the head. Then she was placed on a flat stone and cut with the tooth of an animal from the shoulders all down the back, till she ran with blood. Then the ashes of a wild gourd were rubbed into the wounds; the girl was bound hand and foot, and hung in a hammock, being enveloped in it so closely that no one could see her. Here she had to stay for three days without eating or drinking. When the three days were over, she stepped out of the hammock upon the flat stone, for her feet might not touch the ground. If she had a call of nature, a female relation took the girl on her back and carried her out, taking with her a live coal to prevent evil influences from entering the girl's body. Being replaced in her hammock she was now allowed to get some flour, boiled roots, and water, but might not taste salt or flesh. Thus she continued to the end [pg 232] of the first monthly period, at the expiry of which she was gashed on the breast and belly as well as all down the back. During the second month she still stayed in her hammock, but her rule of abstinence was less rigid, and she was allowed to spin. The third month she was blackened with a certain pigment and began to go about as usual.624

Amongst the Macusis of British Guiana, when a girl shows the first signs of puberty, she is hung in a hammock at the highest point of the hut. For the first few days she may not leave the hammock by day, but at night she must come down, light a fire, and spend the night beside it, else she would break out in sores on her neck, throat, etc. So long as the symptoms are at their height, she must fast rigorously. When they have abated, she may come down and take up her abode in a little compartment that is made for her in the darkest corner of the hut. In the morning she may cook her food, but it must be at a separate fire and in a vessel of her own. In about ten days the magician comes and undoes the spell by muttering charms and breathing on her and on the more valuable of the things with which she has come in contact. The pots and drinking vessels which she used are broken and the fragments buried. After her first bath, the girl must submit to be beaten by her mother with thin rods without uttering a cry. At the end of the second period she is again beaten, but not afterwards. She is now “clean,” and can mix again with people.625 Other Indians of Guiana, after keeping the girl in her [pg 233] hammock at the top of the hut for a month, expose her to certain large ants, whose bite is very painful.626 The custom of stinging the girl with ants or beating her with rods is intended, we may be sure, not as a punishment or a test of endurance, but as a purification, the object being to drive away the malignant influences with which a girl at such times is believed to be beset and enveloped. Examples of purification, both by beating and by stinging with ants, have already come before us.627 Probably, beating or scourging as a religious or ceremonial rite always originated with a similar intention. It was meant to wipe off and drive away a dangerous contagion (whether personified as demoniacal or not) which was supposed to be adhering physically, though invisibly, to the body of the sufferer.628 The pain inflicted on [pg 234] the person beaten was no more the object of the beating than it is of a surgical operation with us; it was a necessary accident, that was all. In later times such customs were interpreted otherwise, and the pain, from being an accident, became the prime object of the ceremony, which was now regarded either as a test of endurance imposed upon persons at critical epochs of life, or as a mortification of the flesh well pleasing to the god. But asceticism, under any shape or form, is never primitive. Amongst the Uaupes of Brazil a girl at puberty is secluded in the house for a month, and allowed only a small quantity of bread and water. Then she is taken out into the midst of her relations and friends, each of whom gives her four or five blows with pieces of sipo (an elastic climber), till she falls senseless or dead. If she recovers, the operation is repeated four times at intervals of six hours, and it is considered an offence to the parents not to strike hard. Meantime, pots of meats and fish have been made ready; the sipos are dipped into them and then given to the girl to lick, who is now considered a marriageable woman.629

When a Hindoo maiden reaches maturity she is kept in a dark room for four days, and is forbidden to see the sun. She is regarded as unclean; no one is [pg 235] allowed to touch her. Her diet is restricted to boiled rice, milk, sugar, curd, and tamarind without salt.630 In Cambodia a girl at puberty is put to bed under a mosquito curtain, where she should stay a hundred days. Usually, however, four, five, ten, or twenty days are thought enough; and even this, in a hot climate and under the close meshes of the curtain, is sufficiently trying.631 According to another account, a Cambodian maiden at puberty is said to “enter into the shade.” During her retirement, which, according to the rank and position of her family, may last any time from a few days to several years, she has to observe a number of rules, such as not to be seen by a strange man, not to eat flesh or fish, and so on. She goes nowhere, not even to the pagoda. But this state of retirement is discontinued during eclipses; at such times she goes forth and pays her devotions to the monster who is supposed to cause eclipses by catching the heavenly bodies between his teeth.632 The fact that her retirement is discontinued during an eclipse seems to show how literally the injunction is interpreted which forbids maidens entering on womanhood to look upon the sun.

A superstition so widely diffused as this might be expected to leave traces in legends and folk-tales. And it has done so. In a modern Greek folk-tale [pg 236] the Fates predict that in her fifteenth year a princess must be careful not to let the sun shine on her, for if this were to happen she would be turned into a lizard.633 A Tyrolese story tells how it was the doom of a lovely maiden to be transported into the belly of a whale if ever a sunbeam fell on her.634 In another modern Greek tale the Sun bestows a daughter upon a childless woman on condition of taking the child back to himself when she is twelve years old. So, when the child was twelve, the mother closed the doors and windows, and stopped up all the chinks and crannies, to prevent the Sun from coming to fetch away her daughter. But she forgot to stop up the key-hole, and a sunbeam streamed through it and carried off the girl.635 In a Sicilian story a seer foretells that a king will have a daughter who, in her fourteenth year, will conceive a child by the Sun. So, when the child was born, the king shut her up in a lonely tower which had no window, lest a sunbeam should fall on her. When she was nearly fourteen years old, it happened that her parents sent her a piece of roasted kid, in which she found a sharp bone. With this bone she scraped a hole in the wall, and a sunbeam shot through the hole and impregnated her.636 [pg 237] The old Greek story of Danae, who was confined by her father in a subterranean chamber or a brazen tower, but impregnated by Zeus, who reached her in the shape of a shower of gold, perhaps belongs to the same class of tales. It has its counterpart in the legend which the Kirgis of Siberia tell of their ancestry. A certain Khan had a fair daughter, whom he kept in a dark iron house, that no man might see her. An old woman tended her; and when the girl was grown to maidenhood she asked the old woman, “Where do you go so often?”—“My child,” said the old dame, “there is a bright world. In that bright world your father and mother live, and all sorts of people live there. That is where I go.” The maiden said, “Good mother, I will tell nobody, but show me that bright world.” So the old woman took the girl out of the iron house. But when she saw the bright world, the girl tottered and fainted; and the eye of God fell upon her, and she conceived. Her angry father put her in a golden chest and sent her floating away (fairy gold can float in fairyland) over the wide sea.637 The shower of gold in the Greek story, and the eye of God in the Kirgis legend, probably stand for sunlight and the sun. The idea that women may be impregnated by the sun is not uncommon in legends,638 and there are even traces of it in marriage customs.639

[pg 238]

The ground of this seclusion of girls at puberty lies in the deeply engrained dread which primitive man universally entertains of menstruous blood. Evidence of this has already been adduced,640 but a few more facts may here be added. Amongst the Australian blacks “the boys are told from their infancy that, if they see the blood, they will early become gray-headed, and their strength will fail prematurely.” Hence a woman lives apart at these times; and if a young man or boy approaches her she calls out, and he immediately makes a circuit to avoid her. The men go out of their way to avoid even crossing the tracks made by women at such times. Similarly the woman may not walk on any path frequented by men, nor touch anything used by men; she may not eat fish, or go near water at all, much less cross it; for if she did, the fish would be frightened, and the fishers would have no luck; she may not even fetch water for the camp; it is sufficient for her to say Thama to ensure her husband fetching the water himself. A severe beating, or even death, is the punishment inflicted on an Australian woman who breaks these rules.641 The Bushmen think that, by a glance of a girl's eye [pg 239] at the time when she ought to be kept in strict retirement, men become fixed in whatever position they happen to occupy, with whatever they were holding in their hands, and are changed into trees which talk.642 The Guayquiries of the Orinoco think that, when a woman has her courses, everything upon which she steps will die, and that if a man treads on the place where she has passed, his legs will immediately swell up.643 The Creek and kindred Indians of the United States compelled women at menstruation to live in separate huts at some distance from the village. There the women had to stay, at the risk of being surprised and cut off by enemies. It was thought “a most horrid and dangerous pollution” to go near the women at such times; and the danger extended to enemies who, if they slew the women, had to cleanse themselves from the pollution by means of certain sacred herbs and roots.644 Similarly, among the Chippeways and other Indians of the Hudson Bay Territory, women at such seasons are excluded from the camp, and take up their abode in huts of branches. They wear long hoods, which effectually conceal the head and breast. They may not touch the household furniture nor any objects used by men; for their touch “is supposed to defile them, so that their subsequent use would be followed by certain mischief or misfortune,” such as disease or death. They may not walk on the common paths nor cross the tracks of animals. They “are never permitted to walk on the ice of rivers or lakes, or near the part where the men are hunting beaver, or where [pg 240] a fishing-net is set, for fear of averting their success. They are also prohibited at those times from partaking of the head of any animal, and even from walking in or crossing the track where the head of a deer, moose, beaver, and many other animals have lately been carried, either on a sledge or on the back. To be guilty of a violation of this custom is considered as of the greatest importance; because they firmly believe that it would be a means of preventing the hunter from having an equal success in his future excursions.”645 So the Lapps forbid women at menstruation to walk on that part of the shore where the fishers are in the habit of setting out their fish.646

Amongst the civilised nations of Europe the superstitions which have prevailed on this subject are not less extravagant. In the oldest existing cyclopaedia—the Natural History of Pliny—the list of dangers apprehended from menstruation is longer than any furnished by savages. According to Pliny, the touch of a menstruous woman turned wine to vinegar, blighted crops, killed seedlings, blasted gardens, brought down the fruit from trees, dimmed mirrors, blunted razors, rusted iron and brass (especially at the waning of the moon), killed bees, or at least drove them from their hives, caused mares to miscarry, and so forth.647 Similarly, in various parts of Europe, it is still believed that if a woman in her courses enters a brewery the beer will turn sour; if she touches beer, wine, vinegar, or milk, it will go bad; if she makes [pg 241] jam, it will not keep; if she mounts a mare, it will miscarry; if she touches buds, they will wither; if she climbs a cherry-tree, it will die.648

Thus the object of secluding women at menstruation is to neutralise the dangerous influences which are supposed to emanate from them at such times. That the danger is believed to be especially great at the first menstruation appears from the unusual precautions taken to isolate girls at this crisis. Two of these precautions have been illustrated above, namely, the rules that the girl may not touch the ground nor see the sun. The general effect of these rules is to keep the girl suspended, so to say, between heaven and earth. Whether enveloped in her hammock and slung up to the roof, as in South America, or elevated above the ground in a dark and narrow cage, as in New Ireland, she may be considered to be out of the way of doing mischief, since, being shut off both from the earth and from the sun, she can poison neither of these great sources of life by her deadly contagion. In short, she is rendered harmless by being, in electrical language, insulated. But the precautions thus taken to isolate or insulate the girl are dictated by a regard for her own safety as well as for the safety of others. For it is thought that the girl herself would suffer if she were to neglect the prescribed [pg 242] regimen. Thus Zulu girls, as we have seen, believe that they would shrivel to skeletons if the sun were to shine on them at puberty, and in some Brazilian tribes the girls think that a transgression of the rules would entail sores on the neck and throat. In short, the girl is viewed as charged with a powerful force which, if not kept within bounds, may prove the destruction both of the girl herself and of all with whom she comes in contact. To repress this force within the limits necessary for the safety of all concerned is the object of the taboos in question.

The same explanation applies to the observance of the same rules by divine kings and priests. The uncleanness, as it is called, of girls at puberty and the sanctity of holy men do not, to the primitive mind, differ from each other. They are only different manifestations of the same supernatural energy which, like energy in general, is in itself neither good nor bad, but becomes beneficent or maleficent according to its application.649 Accordingly, if, like girls at puberty, divine personages may neither touch the ground nor see the sun, the reason is, on the one hand, a fear lest their divinity might, at contact with earth or heaven, discharge itself with fatal violence on either; and, on the other hand, an apprehension, that the divine being, thus drained of his ethereal virtue, might thereby be incapacitated for the future performance of those supernatural functions, upon the proper discharge of which the safety of the people and even of the world is believed to hang. Thus the rules in question fall under the head of the taboos which we examined in the second chapter; they are intended to preserve the life [pg 243] of the divine person and with it the life of his subjects and worshippers. Nowhere, it is thought, can his precious yet dangerous life be at once so safe and so harmless as when it is neither in heaven nor in earth, but, as far as possible, suspended between the two.650

[pg 244]

§ 2.—Balder.

A god whose life might in a sense be said to be neither in heaven nor earth but between the two, was the Norse Balder, the good and beautiful god. The story of his death is as follows: Once on a time Balder dreamed heavy dreams which seemed to forebode his death. Thereupon the gods held a council and resolved to make him secure against every danger. So the goddess Frigg took an oath from fire and water, iron and all metals, stones and earth, from trees, sicknesses and poisons, and from all four-footed beasts, birds, and creeping things, that they would not hurt Balder. When this was done Balder was deemed invulnerable; so the gods amused themselves by setting him in their midst, while some shot at him, others hewed at him, and others threw stones at him. But whatever they did, nothing could hurt him; and at this they were all glad. Only Loki, the mischief-maker, was displeased, and he went in the guise of an old woman to Frigg, who told him that the weapons of the gods could not wound Balder, since she had made them all swear not to hurt him. Then Loki asked, “Have all things sworn to spare Balder?” She answered, “East of Walhalla grows a plant called mistletoe; it seemed to me too [pg 245] young to swear.” So Loki went and pulled the mistletoe and took it to the assembly of the gods. There he found the blind god Hödur standing at the outside of the circle. Loki asked him, “Why do you not shoot at Balder?” Hödur answered, “Because I do not see where he stands; besides I have no weapon.” Then said Loki, “Do like the rest and show Balder honour, as they all do. I will show you where he stands, and do you shoot at him with this twig.” Hödur took the mistletoe and threw it at Balder, as Loki directed him. The mistletoe struck Balder and pierced him through and through, and he fell down dead. And that was the greatest misfortune that ever befel gods and men. For a while the gods stood speechless, then they lifted up their voices and wept bitterly. They took Balder's body and brought it to the sea-shore. There stood Balder's ship; it was called Ringhorn, and was the hugest of all ships. The gods wished to launch the ship and to burn Balder's body on it, but the ship would not stir. So they sent for a giantess called Hyrrockin. She came riding on a wolf and gave the ship such a push that fire flashed from the rollers and all the earth shook. Then Balder's body was taken and placed on the funeral pile upon his ship. When his wife Nanna saw that, her heart burst for sorrow and she died. So she was laid on the funeral pile with her husband, and fire was put to it. Balder's horse, too, with all its trappings, was burned on the pile.651

The circumstantiality of this story suggests that it belongs to the extensive class of myths which are invented [pg 246] to explain ritual. For a myth is never so graphic and precise in its details as when it is a simple transcript of a ceremony which the author of the myth witnessed with his eyes. At all events, if it can be made probable that rites like those described in the Balder myth have been practised by Norsemen and by other European peoples, we shall be justified in inferring that the ritual gave birth to the myth, not the myth to the ritual. For while many cases can be shown in which a myth has been invented to explain a rite, it would be hard to point to a single case in which a myth has given rise to a rite. Ritual may be the parent of myth, but can never be its child.652

The main incidents in the myth of Balder's death are two; first, the pulling of the mistletoe, and second, the death and burning of the god. Now both these incidents appear to have formed parts of an annual ceremony once observed by Celts and Norsemen, probably also by Germans and Slavs.

In most parts of Europe the peasants have been accustomed from time immemorial to kindle bonfires on certain days of the year, and to dance round them or leap over them. Customs of this kind can be traced back on historical evidence to the Middle Ages,653 and their analogy to similar customs observed in antiquity goes with strong internal evidence to prove that their origin must be sought in a period long [pg 247] prior to the spread of Christianity. Indeed the earliest evidence of their observance in Northern Europe is furnished by the attempts made by Christian synods in the eighth century to put them down as heathenish rites.654 Not uncommonly effigies are burned in these fires, or a pretence is made of burning a living person in them; and there are grounds for believing that anciently human beings were actually burned on these occasions. A brief review of the customs in question will bring out the traces of human sacrifice, and will serve at the same time to throw light on their meaning.655

The seasons of the year at which these bonfires are most commonly lit are spring and midsummer, but in some places they are kindled at Hallow E'en (October 31st) and Christmas. In spring the first Sunday in Lent (Quadragesima) and Easter Eve are the days on which in different places the ceremony is observed. Thus in the Eifel Mountains, Rhenish Prussia, on the first Sunday in Lent young people used to collect straw and brushwood from house to house. These they carried to an eminence and piled them up round a tall, slim, beech-tree, to which a piece of wood was fastened at right angles to form a cross. The structure was known as the “hut” or “castle.” Fire was set to it and the young people marched round the blazing “castle” bareheaded, each carrying a lighted torch and praying aloud. Sometimes a straw man was burned in the “hut.” People observed the direction in which the smoke blew from the fire. If it blew towards the corn-fields, it was a sign that the [pg 248] harvest would be abundant. On the same day, in some parts of the Eifel, a great wheel was made of straw and dragged by three horses to the top of a hill. Thither the village boys marched at nightfall, set fire to the wheel, and sent it rolling down the slope. Two lads followed it with levers to set it in motion again, in case it should anywhere meet with a check.656 About Echternach the same ceremony is called “burning the witch.”657 At Voralberg in the Tyrol on the first Sunday in Lent a slender young fir-tree is surrounded with a pile of straw and fire-wood. At the top of the tree is fastened a human figure called the “witch”; it is made of old clothes and stuffed with gunpowder. At night the whole is set on fire and boys and girls dance round it, swinging torches and singing rhymes in which the words “corn in the winnowing-basket, the plough in the earth” may be distinguished.658 In Swabia on the first Sunday in Lent a figure called the “witch” or the “old wife” or “winter's grandmother” is made up of clothes and fastened to a pole. This is stuck in the middle of a pile of wood, to which fire is applied. While the “witch” is burning the young people throw blazing discs into the air. The discs are thin round pieces of wood, a few inches in diameter, with notched edges to imitate the rays of the sun or stars. They have a hole in the middle, by which they are attached to the end of a wand. Before the disc is thrown it is set on fire, the wand is swung to and fro, and the impetus thus communicated to the disc is augmented by dashing the rod sharply against a sloping board. The burning disc is thus thrown off, and mounting [pg 249] high into the air, describes a long curve before it reaches the ground. A single lad may fling up forty or fifty of these discs, one after the other. The object is to throw them as high as possible. The wand by which they are hurled must, at least in some parts of Swabia, be of hazel. Sometimes the lads also leap over the fire brandishing blazing torches of pine-wood. The charred embers of the burned “witch” and discs are taken home and planted in the flax-fields the same night, in the belief that they will keep vermin from the fields.659 In the Rhön Mountains, Bavaria, on the first Sunday in Lent the people used to march to the top of a hill or eminence. Children and lads carried torches, brooms daubed with tar, and poles swathed in straw. A wheel, wrapt in combustibles, was kindled and rolled down the hill; and the young people rushed about the fields with their burning torches and brooms, till at last they flung them in a heap, and standing round them, struck up a hymn or a popular song. The object of running about the fields with the blazing torches was to “drive away the wicked sower.” Or it was done in honour of the Virgin, that she might preserve the fruits of the earth throughout the year and bless them.660

It seems hardly possible to separate from these bonfires, kindled on the first Sunday in Lent, the fires in which, about the same season, the effigy called Death is burned as part of the ceremony of “carrying out Death.” We have seen that at Spachendorf, [pg 250] Austrian Silesia, on the morning of Rupert's Day (Shrove Tuesday?) a straw-man, dressed in a fur coat and a fur cap, is laid in a hole outside the village and there burned, and that while it is blazing every one seeks to snatch a fragment of it, which he fastens to a branch of the highest tree in his garden or buries in his field, believing that this will make the crops to grow better. The ceremony is known as the “burying of Death.”661 Even when the straw-man is not designated as Death, the meaning of the observance is probably the same; for the name Death, as I have tried to show, does not express the original intention of the ceremony. At Cobern in the Eifel Mountains the lads make up a straw-man on Shrove Tuesday. The effigy is formally tried and accused of having perpetrated all the thefts that have been committed in the neighbourhood throughout the year. Being condemned to death, the straw-man is led through the village, shot, and burned upon a pyre. They dance round the blazing pile, and the last bride must leap over it.662 In Oldenburg on the evening of Shrove Tuesday people used to make long bundles of straw, which they set on fire, and then ran about the fields waving them, shrieking, and singing wild songs. Finally they burnt a straw-man on the field.663 In the district of Düsseldorf the straw-man burned on Shrove Tuesday was made of an unthreshed sheaf of corn.664 On the first Monday after the spring equinox the urchins of Zurich drag a straw-man on a little cart through the streets, while at the same time the girls [pg 251] carry about a May-tree. When vespers ring, the straw-man is burned.665 In the district of Aachen on Ash Wednesday a man used to be encased in peas-straw and taken to an appointed place. Here he slipped quietly out of his straw casing, which was then burned, the children thinking that it was the man who was being burned.666 In the Val di Ledro (Tyrol) on the last day of the Carnival a figure is made up of straw and brushwood and then burned. The figure is called the Old Woman, and the ceremony “burning the Old Woman.”667

Another occasion on which these fire-festivals are held is Easter Eve, the Saturday before Easter Sunday. On that day it has been customary in Catholic countries to extinguish all the lights in the churches, and then to make a new fire, sometimes with flint and steel, sometimes with a burning-glass. At this fire is lit the Easter candle, which is then used to rekindle all the extinguished lights in the church. In many parts of Germany a bonfire is also kindled, by means of the new fire, on some open space near the church. It is consecrated, and the people bring sticks of oak, walnut, and beech, which they char in the fire, and then take home with them. Some of these charred sticks are thereupon burned at home in a newly-kindled fire, with a prayer that God will preserve the homestead from fire, lightning, and hail. Thus every house receives “new fire.” Some of the sticks are placed in the fields, gardens, and meadows, with a prayer that God will keep them from blight and hail. Such fields and gardens are thought to thrive more than others; the corn and the plants that grow in them are not beaten [pg 252] down by hail, nor devoured by mice, vermin, and beetles, no witch harms them, and the ears of corn stand close and full. The charred sticks are also applied to the plough. The ashes of the Easter bonfire, together with the ashes of the consecrated palm-branches, are mixed with the seed at sowing. A wooden figure called Judas is sometimes burned in the consecrated bonfire.668

Sometimes instead of the consecrated bonfire a profane fire used to be kindled on Easter Eve. In the afternoon the lads of the village collected firewood and carried it to a corn-field or to the top of a hill. Here they piled it together and fastened in the midst of it a pole with a cross-piece, all wrapt in straw, so that it looked like a man with outstretched arms. This figure was called the Easter-man, or the Judas. In the evening the lads lit their lanterns at the new holy fire in the church, and ran at full speed to the pile. The one who reached it first set fire to it and to the effigy. No women or girls might be present, though they were allowed to watch the scene from a distance. Great was the joy while the effigy was burning. The ashes were collected and thrown at sunrise into running water, or were scattered over the fields on Easter Monday. At the same time the palm branches which had been consecrated on Palm Sunday, and sticks which had been charred in the fire and consecrated on Good Friday, were also stuck up in the fields. The object was to preserve the fields from hail.669 In Münsterland, these Easter fires are always kindled upon [pg 253] certain definite hills, which are hence known as Easter or Pascal Mountains. The whole community assembles about the fire. Fathers of families form an inner circle round it. An outer circle is formed by the young men and maidens, who, singing Easter hymns, march round and round the fire in the direction of the sun, till the blaze dies down. Then the girls jump over the fire in a line, one after the other, each supported by two young men who hold her hands and run beside her. When the fire has burned out, the whole assemblage marches in solemn procession to the church, singing hymns. They march thrice round the church, and then break up. In the twilight boys with blazing bundles of straw run over the fields to make them fruitful.670 In Holland, also, Easter fires used to be kindled on the highest eminences, the people danced round them, and leaped through the flames.671 In Schaumburg, the Easter bonfires may be seen blazing on all the mountains around for miles. They are made with a tar barrel fastened to a pine-tree, which is wrapt in straw. The people dance singing round them.672 Easter bonfires are also common in the Harz Mountains and in Brunswick, Hanover, and Westphalia. They are generally lit upon particular heights and mountains which are hence called Easter Mountains. In the Harz the fire is commonly made by piling brushwood about a tree and setting it on fire, and blazing tar barrels are often rolled down into the valley. In Osterode, every one tries to snatch a brand from the bonfire and rushes about with it; the better it burns, the more lucky it is. In Grund there are torch [pg 254] races.673 In the Altmark, the Easter bonfires are composed of tar barrels, bee-hives, etc., piled round a pole. The young folk dance round the fire; and when it has died out, the old folk come and collect the ashes, which they preserve as a remedy for the ailments of bees. It is also believed that as far as the blaze of the bonfire is visible, the corn will grow well throughout the year, and no conflagration will break out.674 In some parts of Bavaria, bonfires were kindled at Easter upon steep mountains, and burning arrows or discs of wood were shot high into the air, as in the Swabian custom already described. Sometimes, instead of the discs, an old waggon wheel was wrapt in straw, set on fire, and sent rolling down the mountain. The lads who hurled the discs received painted Easter eggs from the girls.675 In some parts of Swabia the Easter fires might not be kindled with iron or flint or steel; but only by the friction of wood.676 At Braunröde in the Harz Mountains it was the custom to burn squirrels in the Easter bonfire.677 In the Altmark, bones were burned in it.678

In the central Highlands of Scotland bonfires, known as the Beltane fires, were formerly kindled with great ceremony on the 1st of May, and the traces of human sacrifices at them were particularly clear and unequivocal. In the neighbourhood of Callander, in Perthshire, the custom lasted down to [pg 255] the close of last century. The fires were lit by the people of each hamlet on a hill or knoll round which their cattle were pasturing. Hence various eminences in the Highlands are known as “the hill of the fires,” just as in Germany some mountains take their name from the Easter fires which are kindled upon them. On the morning of May Day the people repaired to a hill or knoll and cut a round trench in the green sod, leaving in the centre a platform of turf large enough to contain the whole company. On this turf they seated themselves, and in the middle was placed a pile of wood or other fuel, which of old they kindled with tein-eigin—that is, forced fire or need-fire. The way of making the need-fire was this: “The night before, all the fires in the country were carefully extinguished, and next morning the materials for exciting this sacred fire were prepared. The most primitive method seems to be that which was used in the islands of Skye, Mull, and Tiree. A well-seasoned plank of oak was procured, in the midst of which a hole was bored. A wimble of the same timber was then applied, the end of which they fitted to the hole. But in some parts of the mainland the machinery was different. They used a frame of green wood, of a square form, in the centre of which was an axle-tree. In some places three times three persons, in others three times nine, were required for turning round, by turns, the axle-tree or wimble. If any of them had been guilty of murder, adultery, theft, or other atrocious crime, it was imagined either that the fire would not kindle, or that it would be devoid of its usual virtue. So soon as any sparks were emitted by means of the violent friction, they applied a species of agaric which grows on old birch-trees, [pg 256] and is very combustible. This fire had the appearance of being immediately derived from heaven, and manifold were the virtues ascribed to it. They esteemed it a preservative against witchcraft, and a sovereign remedy against malignant diseases, both in the human species and in cattle; and by it the strongest poisons were supposed to have their nature changed.” For many years, however, before the close of last century, the Beltane fires were kindled in the usual way. The fire being lit, the company prepared a custard of eggs and milk, which they ate. Afterwards they amused themselves a while by singing and dancing round the fire. Then “they knead a cake of oatmeal, which is toasted at the embers against a stone. After the custard is eaten up they divide the cake into so many portions, as similar as possible to one another in size and shape, as there are persons in the company. They daub one of these portions all over with charcoal until it be perfectly black. They put all the bits of cake into a bonnet. Every one, blindfold, draws out a portion. He who holds the bonnet is entitled to the last bit. Whoever draws the black bit is the devoted person who is to be sacrificed to Baal, whose favour they mean to implore, in rendering the year productive of the sustenance of man and beast.” The victim thus selected “was called cailleach bealtine—i.e. the Beltane carline, a term of great reproach. Upon his being known, part of the company laid hold of him, and made a show of putting him into the fire; but, the majority interposing, he was rescued. And in some places they laid him flat on the ground, making as if they would quarter him. Afterwards he was pelted with eggshells, and retained the odious appellation during the [pg 257] whole year. And, while the feast was fresh in people's memory, they affected to speak of the cailleach bealtine as dead.” He had to leap thrice through the flames, and this concluded the ceremony.679

Another account of the Beltane festival, written in the latter half of last century, is as follows: “On the 1st of May the herdsmen of every village hold their Beltien, a rural sacrifice. They cut a square trench on the ground, leaving the turf in the middle; on that they make a fire of wood, on which they dress a large caudle of eggs, butter, oatmeal, and milk, and bring, besides the ingredients of the caudle, plenty of beer and whisky; for each of the company must contribute something. The rites begin with spilling some of the caudle on the ground, by way of libation; on that every one takes a cake of oatmeal, upon which are raised nine square knobs, each dedicated to some particular being, the supposed preserver of their flocks and herds, or to some particular animal, the real destroyer of them; each person then turns his face to the fire, breaks off a knob, and, flinging it over his shoulder, says, ‘This I give to thee, preserve thou my horses; this to thee, preserve thou my sheep; and so on.’ After that they use the same ceremony to the noxious animals: ‘This I give to thee, O fox! spare thou my lambs; this to thee, O hooded crow! this to thee, O eagle!’ When the ceremony is over they dine on the caudle; and, after the feast is finished, what is left is hid by two persons deputed for that purpose; but on the next Sunday they reassemble, and finish the reliques of the [pg 258] first entertainment.”680 The 1st of May is a great popular festival in the more midland and southern parts of Sweden. On the preceding evening huge bonfires, which should be lighted by striking two flints together, blaze on all the hills and knolls. Every large hamlet has its own fire, round which the young people dance in a ring. The old folk notice whether the flames incline to the north or to the south. In the former case the spring will be cold and backward; in the latter mild and genial.681

But the season at which these fire-festivals are most generally held all over Europe is the summer solstice, that is, Midsummer Eve (23d June) or Midsummer Day (24th June). According to a mediæval writer the three great features of this festival were the bonfires, the procession with torches round the fields, and the custom of rolling a wheel. The writer adds that the smoke drives away harmful dragons which cause sickness, and he explains the custom of rolling the wheel to mean that the sun has now reached the highest point in the ecliptic, and begins thenceforward to descend.682 From his description, which is still applicable, we see that the main features of the midsummer fire-festival are identical with those which characterise the spring festivals. In Swabia lads and lasses, hand in hand, leap over the midsummer bonfire, praying that the hemp may grow three ells high, and they set fire to wheels of straw and send them rolling down the hill.683 In Lechrain bonfires are kindled on [pg 259] the mountains on Midsummer Day; and besides the bonfire a tall beam, thickly wrapt in straw, and surmounted by a cross-piece, is burned in many places. Round this cross, as it burns, the lads dance; and when the flames have subsided, the young people leap over the fire in pairs, a young man and a young woman together. It is believed that the flax will grow that year as high as they leap over the fire; and that if a charred billet be taken from the fire and stuck in a flax field it will promote the growth of the flax.684 At Deffingen, as they jumped over the midsummer bonfire, they cried out, “Flax, flax! may the flax this year grow seven ells high!”685 In Bohemia bonfires are kindled on many of the mountains on Midsummer Eve; boys and girls, hand in hand, leap over them; cart-wheels smeared with resin are ignited and sent rolling down the hill; and brooms covered with tar and set on fire are swung about or thrown high into the air. The handles of the brooms or embers from the fire are preserved and stuck in gardens to protect the vegetables from caterpillars and gnats. Sometimes the boys run down the hillside in troops, brandishing the blazing brooms and shouting. The bonfire is sometimes made by stacking wood and branches round the trunk of a tree and setting the whole on fire.686

In old farm-houses of the Surenthal and Winenthal a couple of holes or a whole row of them may sometimes be seen facing each other in the door-posts of the barn or stable. Sometimes the holes are smooth and round; sometimes they are deeply burnt and blackened. [pg 260] The explanation of them is this. About midsummer, but especially on Midsummer Day, two such holes are bored opposite each other, into which the extremities of a strong pole are fixed. The holes are then stuffed with tow steeped in resin and oil; a rope is looped round the pole, and two young men, who must be brothers or must have the same baptismal name, and must be of the same age, pull the ends of the rope backwards and forwards so as to make the pole revolve rapidly, till smoke and sparks issue from the two holes in the door-posts. The sparks are caught and blown up with tinder, and this is the new and pure fire, the appearance of which is greeted with cries of joy. Heaps of combustible materials are now ignited with the new fire, and blazing bundles are placed on boards and sent floating down the brook. The boys light torches at the new fire and run to fumigate the pastures. This is believed to drive away all the demons and witches that molest the cattle. Finally the torches are thrown in a heap on the meadow and allowed to burn out. On their way back the boys strew the ashes over the fields: this is supposed to make them fertile. If a farmer has taken possession of a new house, or if servants have changed masters, the boys fumigate the new abode and are rewarded by the farmer with a supper.687

At Konz, on the Moselle, the midsummer fire-festival used to be celebrated as follows. A quantity of straw, contributed jointly by every house, was collected on the top of the Stromberg Hill. Here, towards evening, the men and boys assembled, while the women and girls took up their position at a certain well down below. On the top of the hill a huge wheel was completely covered with a portion of the [pg 261] collected straw, the remainder of which was made into torches. The mayor of Sierk, who always received a basket of cherries for his services, gave the signal, the wheel was ignited with a torch, and sent rolling down the hill amid shouts of joy. All the men and boys swung their torches in the air, some of them remained on the top of the hill, while others followed the fiery wheel on its course down the hillside to the Moselle. As it passed the women and girls at the well they raised cries of joy which were answered by the men on the top of the hill. The inhabitants of the neighbouring villages also stood on the banks of the river and mingled their voices with the general shout of jubilation. The wheel was often extinguished before it reached the water, but if it plunged blazing into the river the people expected an abundant vintage, and the inhabitants of Konz had the right to exact a waggon-load of white wine from the surrounding vineyards.688

In France the midsummer customs are similar. In Poitou a wheel enveloped in straw is set on fire, and people run with it through the fields, which are supposed to be fertilised thereby; also, the people leap thrice over the fire, holding in their hands branches of nut-trees, which are afterwards hung over the door of the cattle-stall. At Brest torches are brandished, and hundreds of them flung up into the air together.689 In Britanny midsummer fires blaze on the hills, the people dance round them, singing and leaping over the glowing embers. The bonfire is made by piling wood round a pole which is surmounted by a nosegay or crown.690 [pg 262] Sometimes, instead of rolling fiery wheels, discs of wood are ignited in the midsummer fires and thrown into the air in the manner already described.691 At Edersleben, near Sangerhausen, a high pole was planted in the ground and a tar barrel was hung from it by a chain which reached to the ground. The barrel was then set on fire and swung round the pole amid shouts of joy.692

In our own country the custom of lighting bonfires at midsummer has prevailed extensively. In the North of England these fires used to be lit in the open streets. Young and old gathered round them; the former leaped over the fires and engaged in games, while the old people looked on. Sometimes the fires were kindled on the tops of high hills. The people also carried firebrands about the fields.693 In Herefordshire and Somersetshire people used to make fires in the fields on Midsummer Eve “to bless the apples.”694 In Devonshire the custom of leaping over the midsummer fires was also observed.695 In Cornwall bonfires were lit on Midsummer Eve and the people marched round them with lighted torches, which they also carried from village to village. On Whiteborough, a large tumulus near Launceston, a huge bonfire used to be kindled on Midsummer Eve; a tall summer pole with a large bush at the top was fixed in the centre of the bonfire.696 At Darowen in Wales small bonfires were lit on Midsummer Eve.697 On the same [pg 263] day people in the Isle of Man used to light fires to the windward of every field, so that the smoke might pass over the corn; and they folded their cattle and carried blazing furze or gorse round them several times.698

In Ireland, “on the Eves of St. John Baptist and St. Peter, they always have in every town a bonfire late in the evening, and carry about bundles of reeds fast tied and fired; these being dry, will last long, and flame better than a torch, and be a pleasing divertive prospect to the distant beholder; a stranger would go near to imagine the whole country was on fire.”699 Another writer says of the South of Ireland: “On Midsummer's Eve, every eminence, near which is a habitation, blazes with bonfires; and round these they carry numerous torches, shouting and dancing.”700 An author who described Ireland in the first quarter of last century says: “On the vigil of St. John the Baptist's nativity, they make bonfires, and run along the streets and fields with wisps of straw blazing on long poles to purify the air, which they think infectious by believing all the devils, spirits, ghosts, and hobgoblins fly abroad this night to hurt mankind.”701 Another writer states that he witnessed the festival in Ireland in 1782: “Exactly at midnight the fires began to appear, and taking advantage of going up to the leads of the house, which had a widely extended view, I saw on a radius of thirty miles, all around, the fires burning on every eminence which the country afforded. I had a further satisfaction in learning, from undoubted authority, that the people danced [pg 264]round the fires, and at the close went through these fires, and made their sons and daughters, together with their cattle, pass through the fire; and the whole was conducted with religious solemnity.”702 That the custom prevailed in full force as late as 1867 appears from a notice in the Liverpool Mercury, 29th June 1867, which runs thus: “The old pagan fire-worship still survives in Ireland, though nominally in honour of St. John. On Sunday night bonfires were observed throughout nearly every county in the province of Leinster. In Kilkenny fires blazed on every hillside at intervals of about a mile. There were very many in the Queen's county, also in Kildare and Wexford. The effect in the rich sunset appeared to travellers very grand. The people assemble and dance round the fires, the children jump through the flames, and in former times live coals were carried into the corn-fields to prevent blight.”703

In Scotland the traces of midsummer fires are few. In reference to the parish of Mongahitter it is said: “The Midsummer Eve fire, a relic of Druidism, was kindled in some parts of this country.”704 Moresin states that on St. Peter's Day (29th June) the Scotch ran about with lighted torches on mountains and high grounds;705 and at Loudon in Ayrshire it appears that down to the close of last century the custom still prevailed for herdsmen and young people to kindle fires on high grounds on St. Peter's Day.706 In the Perthshire Highlands on Midsummer Day the cowherd used to go three times round the fold, according to the [pg 265] course of the sun, with a burning torch in his hand. This was believed to purify the flocks and herds and prevent diseases.707

In Slavonic countries also the midsummer festival is celebrated with similar rites. In Russia fires are lighted and young people, crowned with flowers, jump through them and drive their cattle through them. In Little Russia a stake is driven into the ground on St. John's Night, wrapt in straw, and set on fire. As the flames rise the peasant women throw birch-tree boughs into them, saying, “May my flax be as tall as this bough!”708 “In Ruthenia the bonfires are lighted by a flame procured from wood by friction, the operation being performed by the elders of the party, amid the respectful silence of the rest. But as soon as the fire is ‘churned,’ the bystanders break forth with joyous songs, and when the bonfires are lit the young people take hands, and spring in couples through the smoke, if not through the flames, and after that the cattle in their turn are driven through it.”709 In many parts of Prussia and Lithuania great fires are kindled on the Eve of St. John (Midsummer Eve). All the heights are ablaze with them, as far as the eye can see. The fires are supposed to be a protection against thunder, hail, and cattle disease, especially if next morning the cattle are driven over the places where the fires burned.710 In some parts of Masuren it is the custom on the evening of Midsummer Day to put out all the fires in the village. Then an oaken stake is driven into the ground, a wheel is fixed on it as on an axle [pg 266] and is made to revolve rapidly, till the friction produces fire. Every one takes home a light from the new fire and rekindles the fire on the domestic hearth.711 In Bohemia the cows used to be driven over the midsummer fires to protect them from witchcraft.712 In Servia on Midsummer Eve herdsmen light torches of birch bark and march round the sheepfolds and cattle-stalls; then they climb the hills and there allow the torches to burn out.713

In Greece the women light fires on St. John's Eve and jump over them crying, “I leave my sins behind me.”714 Italy must also have had its midsummer bonfires, since at Orvieto they were specially excepted from the prohibition directed against bonfires in general.715 We have seen that they are still lighted in Sardinia.716 In Corsica on the Eve of St. John the people set fire to the trunk of a tree or to a whole tree, and the young men and maidens dance round the blaze, which is called fucaraja.717 Midsummer fires are, or were formerly, lighted in Spain.718 Even the Mohammedans of Algeria and Morocco are reported to have kindled great midsummer bonfires of straw, into which they kept throwing incense and spices the whole night, invoking the divine blessing on their fruit-trees.719

It remains to show that the burning of effigies of human beings in the midsummer fires was not uncommon. At Rottenburg in Würtemberg, down [pg 267] to the beginning of the present century, a ceremony was observed on Midsummer Day which was called “beheading the angel-man.” A stump was driven into the ground, wrapt with straw, and fashioned into the rude likeness of a human figure, with arms, head, and face. This was the angel-man; round about him wood was piled up. The boys, armed with swords, assembled in crowds, covered the figure completely over with flowers, and eagerly awaited the signal. When the pile of wood was fired and the angel-man burst into a blaze, the word was given and all the boys fell upon him with their swords and hewed the burning figure in pieces. Then they leaped backwards and forwards over the fire.720 In some parts of the Tyrol a straw-man is carted about the village on Midsummer Day and then burned. He is called the Lotter, which has been corrupted into Luther.721 In French Flanders down to 1789 a straw figure representing a man was always burned in the midsummer bonfire, and the figure of a woman was burned on St. Peter's Day, 29th June.722 At Grätz on the 23d June the common people used to make a puppet called the Tatermann, which they dragged to the bleaching-ground, and pelted with burning besoms till it took fire.723 In some parts of Russia a figure of Kupalo is burned or thrown into a stream on St. John's Night.724 The Russian custom of carrying the straw effigy of Kupalo over the midsummer bonfire has been already described.725

The best general explanation of these European [pg 268] fire-festivals seems to be the one given by Mannhardt, namely, that they are sun-charms or magical ceremonies intended to ensure a proper supply of sunshine for men, animals, and plants. We have seen that savages resort to charms for making sunshine,726 and we need not wonder that primitive man in Europe has done the same. Indeed, considering the cold and cloudy climate of Europe during a considerable part of the year, it is natural that sun-charms should have played a much more prominent part among the superstitious practices of European peoples than among those of savages who live nearer the equator. This view of the festivals in question is supported by various considerations drawn partly from the rites themselves, partly from the influence which they are believed to exert upon the weather and on vegetation. For example, the custom of rolling a burning wheel down a hillside, which is often observed on these occasions, seems a very natural imitation of the sun's course in the sky, and the imitation is especially appropriate on Midsummer Day when the sun's annual declension begins. Not less graphic is the imitation of his apparent revolution by swinging a burning tar-barrel round a pole.727 The custom of throwing blazing discs, shaped like suns, into the air is probably also a piece of imitative magic. In these, as in so many cases, the magic force is supposed to take effect through mimicry or sympathy; by imitating the desired result you actually produce it; by counterfeiting the sun's progress through the heavens you really help the luminary to pursue his celestial journey with punctuality and despatch. The name “fire of heaven,” by which the [pg 269] midsummer fire is sometimes popularly known,728 clearly indicates a consciousness of the connection between the earthly and the heavenly flame.

Again, the manner in which the fire appears to have been originally kindled on these occasions favours the view that it was intended to be a mock-sun. For, as various scholars have seen,729 it is highly probable that originally at these festivals fire was universally obtained by the friction of two pieces of wood. We have seen that this is still the case in some places both at the Easter and midsummer fires, and that it is expressly stated to have been formerly the case at the Beltane fires.730 But what makes it almost certain that this was once the invariable mode of kindling the fire at these periodic festivals is the analogy of the need-fires. Need-fires are kindled, not at fixed periods, but on occasions of special distress, particularly at the outbreak of a murrain, and the cattle are driven through the need-fire, just as they are sometimes driven through the midsummer fires.731 Now, the need-fire has always been produced by the friction of wood and sometimes by the revolution of a wheel; in Mull, for example, it was made by turning an oaken wheel over nine oaken spindles from east to west, that is, in the direction of the sun. It is a plausible conjecture that the wheel employed to produce the need-fire represents the sun;732 and if the spring and midsummer fires were originally produced in the same way, it would be a confirmation [pg 270] of the view that they were originally sun-charms. In point of fact there is, as Kuhn has pointed out,733 some evidence to show that the midsummer fire was originally thus produced. For at Obermedlingen in Swabia the “fire of heaven,” as it was called, was made on St. Vitus's Day (15th June) by igniting a cart-wheel, which, smeared with pitch and plaited with straw, was fastened on a pole twelve feet high, the top of the pole being inserted in the nave of the wheel. This fire was made on the summit of the mountain, and as the flame ascended, the people uttered a set form of words, with eyes and arms directed heaven-ward.734 Here the fact of a wheel being fixed on the top of a pole and ignited makes it probable that originally the fire was produced, as in the need-fire, by the revolution of a wheel. The day on which the ceremony takes place (15th June) is near midsummer; and we have seen that in Masuren fire is (or was) actually made on Midsummer Day by turning a wheel rapidly about an oaken pole, though it is not said that the new fire so produced is used to light a bonfire.

Once more, the influence which these bonfires are supposed to exert on the weather and on vegetation, goes to show that they are sun-charms, since the effects ascribed to them are identical with those of sunshine. Thus, in Sweden the warmth or cold of the coming season is inferred from the direction in which the flames of the bonfire are blown; if they blow to the south, it will be warm, if to the north, cold. No doubt at present the direction of the flames is regarded merely as an augury of the weather, not as a mode of influencing it. But we may be pretty sure that this is one of the cases in which magic has [pg 271] dwindled into divination. So in the Eifel Mountains, when the smoke blows towards the corn-fields, this is an omen that the harvest will be abundant. But doubtless the older view was, not merely that the smoke and flames prognosticated, but that they actually produced an abundant harvest, the heat of the flames acting like sunshine on the corn. Indeed, this older view must still have been held by people in the Isle of Man when they lit fires to windward of their fields in order that the smoke might blow over them. Again, the idea that the corn will grow well as far as the blaze of the bonfire is visible, is certainly a remnant of the belief in the quickening and fertilising power of the bonfires. The same belief reappears in the notion that embers taken from the bonfires and inserted in the fields will promote the growth of the crops, and again it plainly underlies the custom of mixing the ashes of the bonfire with the seed-corn at sowing, or of scattering the ashes by themselves over the field. The belief that the flax will grow as high as the people leap over the bonfire belongs clearly to the same class of ideas. Once more, we saw that at Konz, on the banks of the Moselle, if the blazing wheel which was trundled down the hillside reached the river without being extinguished, this was hailed as a proof that the vintage would be abundant. So firmly was this belief held that the successful performance of the ceremony entitled the villagers to levy a tax upon the owners of the neighbouring vineyards. Here the unextinguished wheel meant an unclouded sun, and this in turn meant an abundant vintage. So the waggon-load of white wine which the villagers received from the vineyards round about was in fact a payment for the sunshine which they had procured for the grapes.

[pg 272]

The interpretation of these fire-customs as charms for making sunshine is confirmed by a parallel custom observed by the Hindoos of Southern India at the Pongol or Feast of Ingathering. The festival is celebrated in the early part of January, when, according to Hindoo astrologers, the sun enters the tropic of Capricorn, and the chief event of the festival coincides with the passage of the sun. For some days previously the boys gather heaps of sticks, straw, dead leaves, and everything that will burn. On the morning of the first day of the festival the heaps are fired. Every street and lane has its bonfire. The young folk leap over the fire or pile on fresh fuel. This fire is an offering to Sûrya, the sun-god, or to Agni, the deity of fire; it “wakes him from his sleep, calling on him again to gladden the earth with his light and heat.”735 To say that the fires awaken the sun-god from his sleep is only a metaphorical and perhaps modernised expression of the belief that they actually help to rekindle the sun's light and heat.

The custom of leaping over the fire and driving cattle through it may be intended, on the one hand, to secure for man and beast a share of the vital energy of the sun, and, on the other hand, to purify them from all evil influences; for to the primitive mind fire is the most powerful of all purificatory agents. The latter idea is obviously uppermost in the minds of Greek women when they leap over the midsummer fire, saying, “I leave my sins behind me.” So in Yucatan at a New Year's festival the people used to light a huge bonfire and pass through it, in the belief that this was a means of [pg 273] ridding themselves of their troubles.736 The custom of driving cattle through a fire is not confined to Europe. At certain times the Hottentots make a fire of chips, dry branches, and green twigs, so as to raise a great smoke. Through this fire they drive their sheep, dragging them through by force, if necessary. If the sheep make their escape without passing through the fire, it is reckoned a heavy disgrace and a very bad omen. But if they pass readily through or over the fire, the joy of the Hottentots is indescribable.737

The procession or race with burning torches, which so often forms a part of these fire-festivals, appears to be simply a means of diffusing far and wide the genial influence of the bonfire or of the sunshine which it represents. Hence on these occasions lighted torches are very frequently carried over the fields, sometimes with the avowed intention of fertilising them;738 and with the same intention live coals from the bonfire are sometimes placed in the field “to prevent blight.” The custom of trundling a burning wheel over the fields, which is practised for the express purpose of fertilising them, embodies the same idea in a still more graphic form; since in this way the mock-sun itself, not merely its light and heat represented by torches, is made actually to pass over the ground which is to receive its quickening and kindly influence. Again, the custom of carrying lighted brands round the cattle is plainly [pg 274] equivalent to driving the animals through the fire. It is quite possible that in these customs the idea of the quickening power of fire may be combined with the conception of it as a purgative agent for the expulsion or destruction of evil beings. It is certainly sometimes interpreted in the latter way by persons who practise the customs; and this purgative use of fire comes out very prominently, as we have seen, in the general expulsion of demons from towns and villages. But in the present class of cases this aspect of it is perhaps secondary, if indeed it is more than a later misinterpretation of the custom.

It remains to ask, What is the meaning of burning an effigy in these bonfires? The effigies so burned, as was remarked above, can hardly be separated from the effigies of Death which are burned or otherwise destroyed in spring; and grounds have been already given for regarding the so-called effigies of Death as really representations of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation. Are the other effigies, which are burned in the spring and midsummer bonfires, susceptible of the same explanation? It would seem so. For just as the fragments of the so-called Death are stuck in the fields to make the crops grow, so the charred embers of the figure burned in the spring bonfires are sometimes placed in the fields in the belief that they will keep vermin from the crop. Again, the rule that the last married bride must leap over the fire in which the straw-man is burned on Shrove Tuesday, is probably intended to make her fruitful. But, as we have seen, the power of blessing women with offspring is a special attribute of tree-spirits;739 it is therefore a fair presumption that the burning [pg 275] effigy over which the bride must leap is a representative of the fertilising tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation. This character of the effigy, as representative of the spirit of vegetation, is almost unmistakable when the effigy is composed of an unthreshed sheaf of corn or is covered from head to foot with flowers.740 Again, it is to be noted that instead of an effigy living trees are sometimes burned both in the spring and midsummer bonfires.741 Now, considering the frequency with which the tree-spirit is represented in human shape, it is hardly rash to suppose that when sometimes a tree and sometimes an effigy is burned in these fires, the effigy and the tree are regarded as equivalent to each other, each being a representative of the tree-spirit. This, again, is confirmed by observing, first, that sometimes the effigy which is to be burned is carried about simultaneously with a May-tree, the former being carried by the boys, the latter by the girls;742 and, second, that the effigy is sometimes tied to a living tree and burned with it.743 In these cases, we can scarcely doubt, the tree-spirit is represented, as we have found it represented before, in duplicate, both by the tree and by the effigy. That the true character of the effigy as a representative of the beneficent spirit of vegetation should sometimes be forgotten, is natural. The custom of burning a beneficent god is too foreign to later modes of thought to escape misinterpretation. Naturally enough the people who continued to burn his image came in time to identify it as the effigy of persons, whom, on various grounds, they considered objectionable, such as Judas Iscariot, Luther, and a witch.

The general reasons for killing a god or his [pg 276] representative have been examined in the preceding chapter. But when the god happens to be a deity of vegetation, there are special reasons why he should die by fire. For light and heat are necessary to vegetable growth; and, on the principle of sympathetic magic, by subjecting the personal representative of vegetation to their influence, you secure a supply of these necessaries for trees and crops. In other words, by burning the spirit of vegetation in a fire which represents the sun, you make sure that, for a time at least, vegetation shall have plenty of sun. It may be objected that, if the intention is simply to secure enough sunshine for vegetation, this end would be better attained, on the principles of sympathetic magic, by merely passing the representative of vegetation through the fire instead of burning him. In point of fact this is sometimes done. In Russia, as we have seen, the straw figure of Kupalo is not burned in the midsummer fire, but merely carried backwards and forwards across it.744 But, for the reasons already given, it is necessary that the god should die; so next day Kupalo is stripped of her ornaments and thrown into a stream. In this Russian custom, therefore, the passage of the image through the fire is a sun-charm pure and simple; the killing of the god is a separate act, and the mode of killing him—by drowning—is probably a rain-charm. But usually people have not thought it necessary to draw this fine distinction; for the various reasons already assigned, it is advantageous, they think, to expose the god of vegetation to a considerable degree of heat, and it is also advantageous to kill him, and they combine these advantages in a rough-and-ready way by burning him.

[pg 277]

Finally, we have to ask, were human beings formerly burned as representatives of the tree-spirit or deity of vegetation? We have seen reasons for believing that living persons have often acted as representatives of the tree-spirit, and have suffered death as such. There is no reason, therefore, why they should not have been burned, if any special advantages were likely to be attained by putting them to death in that way. The consideration of human suffering is not one which enters into the calculations of primitive man. It would have been surprising if it did, when we remember the record of Christian Europe. Now, in the fire-festivals which we are discussing, the pretence of burning people is sometimes carried so far that it seems reasonable to regard it as a mitigated survival of an older custom of actually burning them. Thus in Aachen, as we saw, the man clad in peas-straw acts so cleverly that the children really believe he is being burned. And at the Beltane fires the pretended victim was seized, and a show made of throwing him into the fire, and for some time afterwards people affected to speak of him as dead. In the following customs Mannhardt is probably right in recognising traces of an old custom of burning a leaf-clad representative of the spirit of vegetation. At Wolfeck, in Austria, on Midsummer Day, a boy completely clad in green fir branches goes from house to house, accompanied by a noisy crew, collecting wood for the bonfire. As he gets the wood he sings—

“Forest trees I want,
No sour milk for me,
But beer and wine,
So can the wood-man be jolly and gay.”745

[pg 278]

In some parts of Bavaria, also, the boys who go from house to house collecting fuel for the midsummer bonfire envelop one of their number from head to foot in green branches of firs, and lead him by a rope through the whole village.746 At Moosheim, in Würtemberg, the festival of St. John's Fire usually lasted for fourteen days, ending on the second Sunday after Midsummer Day. On this last day the bonfire was left in charge of the children, while the older people retired to a wood. Here they encased a young fellow in leaves and twigs, who, thus disguised, went to the fire, scattered it, and trod it out. All the people present fled at the sight of him.747

But it seems possible to go farther than this. Of human sacrifices offered on these occasions the most unequivocal traces, as we have seen, are those which, about a hundred years ago, still lingered at the Beltane fires in the Highlands of Scotland, that is, among a Celtic people who, situated in a remote corner of Europe, enjoying practical independence, and almost completely isolated from foreign influence, had till then conserved their old heathenism better than any other people in the West of Europe. It is significant, therefore, that human sacrifices by fire are known, on unquestionable evidence, to have been systematically practised by the Celts. The earliest description of these sacrifices is by Julius Caesar. As conqueror of the hitherto independent Celts of Gaul, Caesar had ample opportunity of observing the national Celtic religion and manners, while these were still fresh and crisp from the native mint and had not yet been fused in the melting-pot of Roman civilisation. With [pg 279] his own notes Caesar appears to have incorporated the observations of a Greek explorer, by name Posidonius, who travelled in Gaul about fifty years before Caesar carried the Roman arms to the English Channel. The Greek geographer Strabo and the historian Diodorus seem also to have derived their descriptions of the Celtic sacrifices from the work of Posidonius, but independently of each other and of Caesar, for each of the three derivative accounts contains some details which are not to be found in either of the others. By combining them, therefore, we can restore the original account of Posidonius with some certainty, and thus obtain a picture of the sacrifices offered by the Celts of Gaul at the close of the second century b.c.748 The following seem to have been the main outlines of the custom. Condemned criminals were reserved by the Celts in order to be sacrificed to the gods at a great festival which took place once in every five years. The more there were of such victims, the greater was believed to be the fertility of the land.749 When there were not enough criminals to furnish victims, captives taken in war were sacrificed to supply the deficiency. When the time came the victims were sacrificed by the Druids or priests. Some were shot down with arrows, some were impaled, and some were burned alive in the following manner. Colossal images of wicker-work or of wood and grass were constructed; these were filled with live men, cattle, and animals of other kinds; fire was then applied to the images, and they were burned with their living contents.

[pg 280]

Such were the great festivals held once every five years. But besides these quinquennial festivals, celebrated on so grand a scale and with, apparently, so large an expenditure of human life, it seems reasonable to suppose that festivals of the same sort, only on a lesser scale, were held annually, and that from these annual festivals are lineally descended some at least of the fire-festivals which, with their traces of human sacrifices, are still celebrated year by year in many parts of Europe. The gigantic images constructed of osiers or covered with grass in which the Druids enclosed their victims remind us of the leafy framework in which the human representative of the tree-spirit is still so often encased.750 Considering, therefore, that the fertility of the land was apparently supposed to depend upon the due performance of these sacrifices, Mannhardt is probably right in viewing the Celtic victims, cased in osiers and grass, as representatives of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation. These wicker giants of the Druids seem to have still their representatives at the spring and midsummer festivals of modern Europe. At Douay a procession takes place annually on the Sunday nearest to the 7th of July. The great feature of the procession is a colossal figure made of osiers, and called “the giant,” which is moved through the streets by means of rollers and ropes worked by men who are enclosed within the figure. The wooden head of the giant is said to have been carved and painted by Rubens. The figure is armed as a knight with lance and sword, helmet and shield. Behind him march his wife and his three children, all constructed of osiers on the same principle, but on a smaller scale.751 At Dunkirk the giant is forty [pg 281] to fifty feet high, being made of basket-work and canvas, properly painted and dressed. It contains a great many living men within it, who move it about. Wicker giants of this sort are common in the towns of Belgium and French Flanders; they are led about at the Carnival in spring. The people, it is said, are much attached to these grotesque figures, speak of them with patriotic enthusiasm, and never weary of gazing at them.752 In England artificial giants seem to have been a standing feature of the midsummer festival. A writer of the sixteenth century speaks of “Midsommer pageants in London, where, to make the people wonder, are set forth great and uglie gyants, marching as if they were alive, and armed at all points, but within they are stuffed full of browne paper and tow, which the shrewd boyes, underpeeping, do guilefully discover, and turne to a greate derision.”753 The Mayor of Chester in 1599 “altered many antient customs, as the shooting for the sheriff's breakfast; the going of the Giants at Midsommer, etc.”754 In these cases the giants only figure in the processions. But sometimes they are burned in the spring or summer bonfires. Thus the people of the Rue aux Ours in Paris used annually to make a great wicker-work figure, dressed as a soldier, which they promenaded up and down the streets for several days, and solemnly burned on the 3d of July, the crowd of spectators singing Salve Regina. The burning fragments of the image were scattered among the people, who eagerly scrambled for them. The [pg 282] custom was abolished in 1743.755 In Brie, Isle de France, a wicker-work giant, eighteen feet high, was annually burned on Midsummer Eve.756

Again, the Druidical custom of burning live animals, enclosed in wicker-work, has its counterpart at the spring and midsummer festivals. At Luchon in the Pyrenees on Midsummer Eve “a hollow column, composed of strong wicker-work, is raised to the height of about sixty feet in the centre of the principal suburb, and interlaced with green foliage up to the very top; while the most beautiful flowers and shrubs procurable are artistically arranged in groups below, so as to form a sort of background to the scene. The column is then filled with combustible materials, ready for ignition. At an appointed hour—about 8 p.m.—a grand procession, composed of the clergy, followed by young men and maidens in holiday attire, pour forth from the town chanting hymns, and take up their position around the column. Meanwhile, bonfires are lit, with beautiful effect, in the surrounding hills. As many living serpents as could be collected are now thrown into the column, which is set on fire at the base by means of torches, armed with which about fifty boys and men dance around with frantic gestures. The serpents, to avoid the flames, wriggle their way to the top, whence they are seen lashing out laterally until finally obliged to drop, their struggles for life giving rise to enthusiastic delight among the surrounding spectators. This is a favourite annual ceremony for the inhabitants of Luchon and its neighbourhood, and local tradition assigns to it a heathen origin.”757 In the midsummer [pg 283] fires formerly kindled on the Place de Grève at Paris it was the custom to burn a basket, barrel, or sack full of live cats; sometimes a fox was burned. The people collected the embers and ashes of the fire and took them home, believing that they brought good luck.758 At Metz midsummer fires were lighted on the Esplanade, and six cats were burned in them.759 In Russia a white cock was sometimes burned in the midsummer bonfire;760 in Meissen or Thüringen a horse's head used to be thrown into it.761 Sometimes animals are burned in the spring bonfires. In the Vosges cats were burned on Shrove Tuesday; in Elsass they were thrown into the Easter bonfire.762 We have seen that squirrels were sometimes burned in the Easter fire.

If the men who were burned in wicker frames by the Druids represented the spirit of vegetation, the animals burned along with them must have had the same meaning. Amongst the animals burned by the Druids or in modern bonfires have been, as we saw, cattle, cats, foxes, and cocks; and all of these creatures are variously regarded by European peoples as embodiments of the corn-spirit.763 I am not aware of any certain evidence that in Europe serpents have been regarded as representatives of the tree-spirit or corn-spirit;764 as victims at the midsummer festival in Luchon they may [pg 284] have replaced animals which really had this representative character. When the meaning of the custom was forgotten, utility and humanity might unite in suggesting the substitution of noxious reptiles as victims in room of harmless and useful animals.

Thus it appears that the sacrificial rites of the Celts of ancient Gaul can be traced in the popular festivals of modern Europe. Naturally it is in France, or rather in the wider area comprised within the limits of ancient Gaul, that these rites have left the clearest traces in the customs of burning giants of wicker-work and animals enclosed in wicker-work or baskets. These customs, it will have been remarked, are generally observed at or about midsummer. From this we may infer that the original rites of which these are the degenerate successors were solemnised at midsummer. This inference harmonises with the conclusion suggested by a general survey of European folk-custom, that the midsummer festival must on the whole have been the most widely diffused and the most solemn of all the yearly festivals celebrated by the primitive Aryans in Europe. And in its application to the Celts this general conclusion is corroborated by the more or less perfect vestiges of midsummer fire-festivals which we have found lingering in all those westernmost promontories and islands which are the last strongholds of the Celtic race in Europe—Britanny, Cornwall, Wales, the Isle of Man, Scotland, and Ireland. In Scotland, it is true, the chief Celtic fire-festivals certainly appear to have been held at Beltane (1st May) and Hallow E'en; but this was exceptional.

To sum up: the combined evidence of ancient writers and of modern folk-custom points to the conclusion that amongst the Celts of Gaul an annual [pg 285] festival was celebrated at midsummer, at which living men, representing the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation, were enclosed in wicker-frames and burned. The whole rite was designed as a charm to make the sun to shine and the crops to grow.

But another great feature of the Celtic midsummer festival appears to have been the gathering of the sacred mistletoe by the Druids. The ceremony has been thus described by Pliny in a passage which has often been quoted. After enumerating the different kinds of mistletoe he proceeds: “In treating of this subject, the admiration in which the mistletoe is held throughout Gaul ought not to pass unnoticed. The Druids, for so they call their wizards, esteem nothing more sacred than the mistletoe and the tree on which it grows, provided only that the tree is an oak. But apart from this they choose oak-woods for their sacred groves and perform no sacred rites without oak-leaves; so that the very name of Druids may be regarded as a Greek appellation derived from their worship of the oak.765 For they believe that whatever grows on these trees is sent from heaven, and is a sign that the tree has been chosen by the god himself. The mistletoe is very rarely to be met with; but when it is found, they gather it with solemn ceremony. This they do especially in the sixth month (the beginnings of their months and years are determined by the moon) and after the tree has passed the thirtieth year of its age, [pg 286] because by that time it has plenty of vigour, though it has not attained half its full size. After due preparations have been made for a sacrifice and a feast under the tree, they hail it as the universal healer and bring to the spot two white bulls, whose horns have never been bound before. A priest clad in a white robe climbs the tree and with a golden766 sickle cuts the mistletoe, which is caught in a white cloth. Then they sacrifice the victims, praying that God may make his own gift to prosper with those upon whom he has bestowed it. They believe that a potion prepared from mistletoe will make barren animals to bring forth, and that the plant is a remedy against all poison.”767

In saying that the Druids cut the mistletoe in the sixth month Pliny must have had in his mind the Roman calendar, in which the sixth month was June. Now, if the cutting of the mistletoe took place in June, we may be almost certain that the day which witnessed the ceremony was Midsummer Eve. For in many places Midsummer Eve, a day redolent of a thousand decaying fancies of yore, is still the time for culling certain magic plants, whose evanescent virtue can be secured at this mystic season alone. For example, on Midsummer Eve the fern is believed to burst into a wondrous bloom, like fire or burnished gold. Whoever [pg 287] catches this bloom, which very quickly fades and falls off, can make himself invisible, can understand the language of animals, and so forth. But he must not touch it with his hand; he must spread a white cloth under the fern, and the magic bloom (or seed) will fall into it.768 Again, St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), a herb which is believed to heal all kinds of wounds and to drive away witches and demons, is gathered on Midsummer Eve (Eve of St. John), and is worn as an amulet or hung over doors and windows on that day.769 Again, mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) is believed to possess magic qualities provided it be gathered on St. John's Eve. Hence in France it is called the herb of St. John. People weave themselves a girdle of the plant, believing that it will protect them against ghosts, magic, misfortune, and disease, throughout the year. Or they weave garlands of it on St. John's Eve, and look through them at the midsummer bonfire or put them on their heads. Whoever does this will suffer no aches in his eyes or head that year. Sometimes the plant is thrown into the midsummer bonfire.770 The superstitious association of fern-seed, St. John's wort, and mugwort with Midsummer Eve is widely diffused over Europe. The following associations seem to be more local. In England the orpine (Sedum telephium) is popularly called Midsummer [pg 288] Men, because it has been customary to gather it on Midsummer Eve for the purpose of using it to ascertain the fate of lovers;771 and in England sprigs of red sage are sometimes gathered on Midsummer Eve for the same purpose.772 In Bohemia poachers fancy they can make themselves invulnerable by means of fir-cones gathered before sunrise on St. John's Day.773 Again, in Bohemia wild thyme gathered on Midsummer Day is used to fumigate the trees on Christmas Eve, in order that they may grow well.774 In Germany and Bohemia a plant called St. John's Flower or St. John's Blood (Hieracium pilosella) is gathered on Midsummer Eve. It should be rooted up with a gold coin. The plant is supposed to bring luck and to be especially good for sick cattle.775

These facts by themselves would suffice to raise a strong presumption that, if the Druids cut the mistletoe in June, as we learn from Pliny that they did, the day on which they cut it could have been no other than Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day. This presumption is converted into practical certainty when we find it to be still a rule of folk-lore that the mistletoe should be cut on Midsummer Eve.776 Further, the peasants of Piedmont and Lombardy still go out on Midsummer morning to search the oak-leaves for the “oil of St. John,” which is supposed to heal all wounds made with cutting instruments.777 Originally no doubt the “oil of St. John” was simply the mistletoe, or a decoction made [pg 289] from it. For in Holstein the mistletoe, especially oak-mistletoe, is still regarded as a panacea for green wounds;778 and if, as is alleged, “all-healer” is an epithet of the mistletoe in the modern Celtic speech of Britanny, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland,779 this can be nothing but a survival of the name by which, as we have seen, the Druids addressed the oak, or rather, perhaps, the mistletoe.

Thus it appears that the two main features of the Balder myth—the pulling of the mistletoe and the burning of the god—were reproduced in the great midsummer festival of the Celts. But in Scandinavia itself, the home of Balder, both these features of his myth can still be traced in the popular celebration of midsummer. For in Sweden on Midsummer Eve mistletoe is “diligently sought after, they believing it to be, in a high degree, possessed of mystic qualities; and that if a sprig of it be attached to the ceiling of the dwelling-house, the horse's stall, or the cow's crib, the ‘Troll’ will then be powerless to injure either man or beast.”780 And in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark huge bonfires are kindled on hills and eminences on Midsummer Eve.781 It does not appear, indeed, that any effigy is burned in these bonfires; but the burning of an effigy is a feature which might easily drop out after its meaning was forgotten. And the name of Balder's bale-fires (Balder's Bălar), by which these midsummer fires were formerly known in Sweden,782 puts their connection with Balder beyond the reach of doubt, and makes it certain that in [pg 290] former times either a living representative or an effigy of Balder must have been annually burned in them. Midsummer was the season sacred to Balder, and the fact that the Swedish poet Tegner, in his Frithiofssaga, places the burning of Balder at midsummer783 may perhaps be allowed as evidence of a Swedish tradition to that effect. From this double coincidence of the Balder myth, on the one hand with the midsummer festival of Celtic Gaul and on the other with the midsummer festival in Scandinavia, we may safely conclude that the myth is not a myth pure and simple, that is, a mere description of physical phenomena in imagery borrowed from human life; it must undoubtedly be a ritualistic myth, that is a myth based on actual observation of religious ceremonies and purporting to explain them. Now, the standing explanation which myth gives of ritual is that the ritual in question is a periodic commemoration of some remarkable transaction in the past, the actors in which may have been either gods or men. Such an explanation the Balder myth would seem to offer of the annual fire-festivals which, as we saw, must have played so prominent a part in the primitive religion of the Aryan race in Europe. Balder must have been the Norse representative of the being who was burnt in effigy or in the person of a living man at the fire-festivals in question. But if, as I have tried to show, the being so burnt was the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation, it follows that Balder also must have been a tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation.

But it is desirable to determine, if we can, the [pg 291] particular kind of tree or trees, of which a personal representative was burned at the fire-festivals. For we may be quite sure that it was not as a representative of vegetation in general that the victim suffered death. The conception of vegetation in general is too abstract to be primitive. Most probably the victim at first represented a particular kind of sacred tree. Now of all European trees none has such claims as the oak to be considered as pre-eminently the sacred tree of the Aryans. Its worship is attested for all the great branches of the Aryan stock in Europe. We have seen that it was not only the sacred tree, but the principal object of worship of both Celts and Slavs.784 According to Grimm, the oak ranked first among the holy trees of the Germans, and was indeed their chief god. It is certainly known to have been adored by them in the age of heathendom, and traces of its worship have survived in various parts of Germany almost to the present day.785 Amongst the ancient Italians, according to Preller, the oak was sacred above all other trees.786 The image of Jupiter on the Capitol at Rome seems to have been originally nothing but a natural oak-tree.787 At Dodona, perhaps the oldest of all Greek sanctuaries, Zeus was worshipped as immanent in the sacred oak, and the rustling of its leaves in the wind was his voice.788 If, then, the great god of both Greeks and Romans was represented in some of his oldest shrines under the form of an oak, and if the oak was the principal object of worship of Celts, Germans, and Slavs, we may [pg 292] certainly conclude that this tree was one of the chief, if not the very chief divinity of the Aryans before the dispersion; and that their primitive home must have lain in a land which was clothed with forests of oak.789

Now, considering the primitive character and remarkable similarity of the fire-festivals observed by all the branches of the Aryan race in Europe, we may infer that these festivals form part of the common stock of religious observances which the various peoples carried with them in their wanderings from their original home. But, if I am right, an essential feature of those primitive fire-festivals was the burning of a man who represented the tree-spirit. In view, then, of the place occupied by the oak in the religion of the Aryans, the presumption is that the tree so represented at the fire-festivals must originally have been the oak. So far as the Celts and Slavs are concerned, this conclusion will perhaps hardly be contested. But both for them and for the Germans it is confirmed by a remarkable piece of religious conservatism. The most primitive method known to man of producing fire is by rubbing two pieces of wood against each other till they ignite; and we have seen that this method is still used in Europe for kindling sacred fires such as the [pg 293] need-fire, and that most probably it was formerly resorted to at all the fire-festivals under discussion. Now it is sometimes prescribed that the need-fire, or other sacred fire, must be made by the friction of a particular kind of wood; and wherever the kind of wood is prescribed, whether among Celts, Germans, or Slavs, that wood is always the oak. Thus we have seen that amongst the Slavs of Masuren the new fire for the village is made on Midsummer Day by causing a wheel to revolve rapidly round an axle of oak till the axle takes fire.790 When the perpetual fire which the ancient Slavs used to maintain chanced to go out, it was rekindled by the friction of a piece of oak-wood, which had been previously heated by being struck with a gray (not a red) stone.791 In Germany the need-fire was regularly kindled by the friction of oak-wood;792 and in the Highlands of Scotland, both the Beltane and the need-fires were lighted by similar means.793 Now, if the sacred fire was regularly kindled by the friction of oak-wood, we may infer that originally the fire was also fed with the same material. In point of fact, the perpetual fire which burned under the sacred oak at the great Slavonian sanctuary of Romove was fed with oak-wood;794 and that oak-wood was formerly the fuel [pg 294] burned in the midsummer fires may perhaps be inferred from the circumstance that in many mountain districts of Germany peasants are still in the habit of making up their cottage fire on Midsummer Day with a heavy block of oak-wood. The block is so arranged that it smoulders slowly and is not finally reduced to charcoal till the expiry of a year. Then upon next Midsummer Day the charred embers of the old log are removed to make room for the new one, and are mixed with the seed-corn or scattered about the garden. This is believed to promote the growth of the crops and to preserve them from blight and vermin.795 It may be remembered that at the Boeotian festival of the Daedala, the analogy of which to the spring and midsummer festivals of modern Europe has been already pointed out, the great feature was the felling and burning of an oak.796 The general conclusion is, that at those periodic or occasional ceremonies, of which the object was to cause the sun to shine, and the fruits of the earth to grow, the ancient Aryans both kindled and fed the fire with the sacred oak-wood.

But if at these solemn rites the fire was regularly made of oak-wood, it follows that the man who was burned in it as a personification of the tree-spirit could have represented no tree but the oak. The sacred oak was thus burned in duplicate; the wood of the tree was consumed in the fire, and along with it was consumed a living man as a personification of the oak-spirit. The conclusion thus drawn for the European Aryans in general is confirmed in its special application to the Celts and Scandinavians by the relation in which, amongst these peoples, the mistletoe stood to the burning of the victim in the midsummer fire. We have [pg 295] seen that among Celts and Scandinavians it has been customary to gather the mistletoe at midsummer. But so far as appears on the face of this custom, there is nothing to connect it with the midsummer fires in which human victims or effigies of them were burned. Even if the fire, as seems probable, was originally always made with oak-wood, why should it have been necessary to pull the mistletoe? The last link between the midsummer customs of gathering the mistletoe and lighting the bonfires is supplied by Balder's myth, which certainly cannot be disjoined from the customs in question. The myth shows that a vital connection must once have been believed to subsist between the mistletoe and the human representative of the oak who was burned in the fire. According to the myth, Balder could be killed by nothing in heaven or earth except the mistletoe; and so long as the mistletoe remained on the oak, he was not only immortal, but invulnerable. Now, as soon as we see that Balder was the oak, the origin of the myth becomes plain. The mistletoe was viewed as the seat of life of the oak, and so long as it was uninjured nothing could kill or even wound the oak. The conception of the mistletoe as the seat of life of the oak would naturally be suggested to primitive people by the observation that while the oak is deciduous, the mistletoe which grows on it is evergreen. In winter the sight of its fresh foliage among the bare branches must have been hailed by the worshippers of the tree as a sign that the divine life which had ceased to animate the branches yet survived in the mistletoe, as the heart of a sleeper still beats when his body is motionless. Hence when the god had to be killed—when the sacred tree had to be burnt—it was necessary to begin by breaking off [pg 296] the mistletoe. For so long as the mistletoe remained intact, the oak (so people thought) was invulnerable; all the blows of their knives and axes would glance harmless from its surface. But once tear from the oak its sacred heart—the mistletoe—and the tree nodded to its fall. And when in later times the spirit of the oak came to be represented by a living man, it was logically necessary to suppose that, like the tree he personated, he could neither be killed nor wounded so long as the mistletoe remained uninjured. The pulling of the mistletoe was thus at once the signal and the cause of his death.

But since the idea of a being whose life is thus, in a sense, outside itself, must be strange to many readers, and has, indeed, not yet been recognised in its full bearing on primitive superstition, it will be worth while to devote a couple of sections to the subject. The result will be to show that, in assuming this idea as the explanation of the relation of Balder to the mistletoe, I assume a principle which is deeply engraved on the mind of primitive man.

§ 3.—The external soul in folk-tales.

In a former chapter we saw that, in the opinion of primitive people, the soul may temporarily absent itself from the body without causing death. Such temporary absences of the soul are often believed to involve considerable risk, since the wandering soul is liable to a variety of mishaps at the hands of enemies, and so forth. But there is another aspect to this power of externalising the soul. If only the safety of the soul can be ensured during its absence from the body, there [pg 297] is no reason why the soul should not continue absent for an indefinite time; indeed a man may, on a pure calculation of personal safety, desire that his soul should never return to his body. Unable to conceive of life abstractly as a “permanent possibility of sensation” or a “continuous adjustment of internal arrangements to external relations,” the savage thinks of it as a concrete material thing of a definite bulk, capable of being seen and handled, kept in a box or jar, and liable to be bruised, fractured, or smashed in pieces. It is not needful that the life, so conceived, should be in the man; it may be absent from his body and still continue to animate him, by virtue of a sort of sympathy or “action at a distance.” So long as this object which he calls his life or soul remains unharmed, the man is well; if it is injured, he suffers; if it is destroyed, he dies. Or, to put it otherwise, when a man is ill or dies, the fact is explained by saying that the material object called his life or soul, whether it be in his body or out of it, has either sustained injury or been destroyed. But there may be circumstances in which, if the life or soul remains in the man, it stands a greater chance of sustaining injury than if it were stowed away in some safe and secret place. Accordingly, in such circumstances, primitive man takes his soul out of his body and deposits it for security in some safe place, intending to replace it in his body when the danger is past. Or if he should discover some place of absolute security, he may be content to leave his soul there permanently. The advantage of this is that, so long as the soul remains unharmed in the place where he has deposited it, the man himself is immortal; nothing can kill his body, since his life is not in it.

[pg 298]

Evidence of this primitive belief is furnished by a class of folk-tales of which the Norse story of “The giant who had no heart in his body” is perhaps the best-known example. Stories of this kind are widely diffused over the world, and from their number and the variety of incident and of details in which the leading idea is embodied, we may infer that the conception of an external soul is one which has had a powerful hold on the minds of men at an early stage of history. For folk-tales are a faithful reflection of the world as it appeared to the primitive mind; and we may be sure that any idea which commonly occurs in them, however absurd it may seem to us, must once have been an ordinary article of belief. This assurance, so far as it concerns the supposed power of externalising the soul for a longer or shorter time, is amply corroborated by a comparison of the folk-tales in question with the actual beliefs and practices of savages. To this we shall return after some specimens of the tales have been given. The specimens will be selected with a view of illustrating both the characteristic features and the wide diffusion of this class of tales.

In the first place, the story of the external soul is told, in various forms, by all Aryan peoples from Hindustan to the Hebrides. A very common form of it is this: A warlock, giant, or other fairyland being is invulnerable and immortal because he keeps his soul hidden far away in some secret place; but a fair princess, whom he holds enthralled in his enchanted castle, wiles his secret from him and reveals it to the hero, who seeks out the warlock's soul, heart, life, or death (as it is variously called), and, by destroying it, simultaneously kills the warlock. Thus a Hindoo story tells how a magician called Punchkin held a [pg 299] queen captive for twelve years, and would fain marry her, but she would not have him. At last the queen's son came to rescue her, and the two plotted together to kill Punchkin. So the queen spoke the magician fair, and pretended that she had at last made up her mind to marry him. “ ‘And do tell me,’ she said, ‘are you quite immortal? Can death never touch you? And are you too great an enchanter ever to feel human suffering?’ ... ‘It is true,’ he said, ‘that I am not as others. Far, far away—hundreds of thousands of miles from this—there lies a desolate country covered with thick jungle. In the midst of the jungle grows a circle of palm-trees, and in the centre of the circle stand six chattees full of water, piled one above another; below the sixth chattee is a small cage, which contains a little green parrot—on the life of the parrot depends my life—and if the parrot is killed I must die. It is, however,’ he added, ‘impossible that the parrot should sustain any injury, both on account of the inaccessibility of the country, and because, by my appointment, many thousand genii surround the palm-trees, and kill all who approach the place.’ ” But the queen's young son overcame all difficulties, and got possession of the parrot. He brought it to the door of the magician's palace, and began playing with it. Punchkin, the magician, saw him, and, coming out, tried to persuade the boy to give him the parrot. “ ‘Give me my parrot!’ cried Punchkin. Then the boy took hold of the parrot and tore off one of his wings; and as he did so the magician's right arm fell off. Punchkin then stretched out his left arm, crying, ‘Give me my parrot!’ The prince pulled off the parrot's second wing, and the magician's left arm tumbled off. ‘Give me my parrot!’ cried he, and fell on his knees. The [pg 300] prince pulled off the parrot's right leg, the magician's right leg fell off; the prince pulled off the parrot's left leg, down fell the magician's left. Nothing remained of him except the lifeless body and the head; but still he rolled his eyes, and cried, ‘Give me my parrot!’ ‘Take your parrot, then,’ cried the boy; and with that he wrung the bird's neck, and threw it at the magician; and, as he did so, Punchkin's head twisted round, and, with a fearful groan, he died!”797 In another Hindoo tale an ogre is asked by his daughter, “ ‘Papa, where do you keep your soul?’ ‘Sixteen miles away from this place,’ said he, ‘is a tree. Round the tree are tigers, and bears, and scorpions, and snakes; on the top of the tree is a very great fat snake; on his head is a little cage; in the cage is a bird; and my soul is in that bird.’ ” The end of the ogre is like that of the magician in the previous tale. As the bird's wings and legs are torn off, the ogre's arms and legs drop off; and when its neck is wrung he falls down dead.798

In another Hindoo story a princess called Sodewa Bai is born with a golden necklace about her neck, and the astrologer told her parents, “This is no common child; the necklace of gold about her neck contains your daughter's soul; let it, therefore, be guarded with the utmost care; for if it were taken off and worn by another person, she would die.” So her mother caused it to be firmly fastened round the child's neck, and, as soon as the child was old enough to understand, she told her its value, and warned her never to let it be taken off. In course of time Sodewa Bai was married to a prince who had another wife living. The [pg 301] first wife, jealous of her young rival, persuaded a negress to steal from Sodewa Bai the golden necklace which contained her soul. The negress did so, and, as soon as she put the necklace round her own neck, Sodewa Bai died. All day long the negress used to wear the necklace; but late at night, on going to bed, she would take it off and put it by till morning; and whenever she took it off, Sodewa Bai's soul returned to her and she lived. But when morning came, and the negress put on the necklace, Sodewa Bai died again. At last the prince discovered the treachery of his elder wife and restored the golden necklace to Sodewa Bai.799 In another Hindoo story a holy mendicant tells a queen that she will bear a son, adding, “As enemies will try to take away the life of your son, I may as well tell you that the life of the boy will be bound up in the life of a big boal-fish which is in your tank in front of the palace. In the heart of the fish is a small box of wood, in the box is a necklace of gold, that necklace is the life of your son.” The boy was born and received the name of Dalim. His mother was the Suo or younger queen. But the Duo or elder queen hated the child, and learning the secret of his life, she caused the boal-fish, with which his life was bound up, to be caught. Dalim was playing near the tank at the time, but “the moment the boal-fish was caught in the net, that moment Dalim felt unwell; and when the fish was brought up to land, Dalim fell down on the ground, and made as if he was about to breathe his last. He was immediately taken into his mother's room, and the king was astonished on hearing of the sudden illness of his son and heir. The fish was by the order of the physician taken into the room of the Duo queen, and [pg 302] as it lay on the floor striking its fins on the ground, Dalim in his mother's room was given up for lost. When the fish was cut open, a casket was found in it; and in the casket lay a necklace of gold. The moment the necklace was worn by the queen, that very moment Dalim died in his mother's room.” The queen used to put off the necklace every night, and whenever she did so, the boy came to life again. But every morning when the queen put on the necklace, he died again.800

In a Cashmeer story a lad visits an old ogress, pretending to be her grandson, the son of her daughter who had married a king. So the old ogress took him into her confidence and showed him seven cocks, a spinning-wheel, a pigeon, and a starling. “These seven cocks,” said she, “contain the lives of your seven uncles, who are away for a few days. Only as long as the cocks live can your uncles hope to live; no power can hurt them as long as the seven cocks are safe and sound. The spinning-wheel contains my life; if it is broken, I too shall be broken, and must die; but otherwise I shall live on for ever. The pigeon contains your grandfather's life, and the starling your mother's; as long as these live, nothing can harm your grandfather or your mother.” So the lad killed the seven cocks and the pigeon and the starling, and smashed the spinning-wheel; and at the moment he did so the ogres and ogresses perished.801 In another story from Cashmeer an ogre cannot die unless a particular pillar in the verandah of his palace be broken. Learning the secret, a prince struck the [pg 303] pillar again and again till it was broken in pieces. And it was as if each stroke had fallen on the ogre, for he howled lamentably and shook like an aspen every time the prince hit the pillar, until at last, when the pillar fell down, the ogre also fell down and gave up the ghost.802 In another Cashmeer tale an ogre is represented as laughing very heartily at the idea that he might possibly die. He said that “he should never die. No power could oppose him; no years could age him; he should remain ever strong and ever young, for the thing wherein his life dwelt was most difficult to obtain.” It was in a queen bee, which was in a honeycomb on a tree. But the bees in the honeycomb were many and fierce, and it was only at the greatest risk that any one could catch the queen. But the hero achieved the enterprise and crushed the queen bee; and immediately the ogre fell stone dead to the ground, so that the whole land trembled with the shock.803 In some Bengalee tales the life of a whole tribe of ogres is described as concentrated in two bees. The secret was thus revealed by an old ogress to a captive princess who pretended to fear lest the ogress should die. “Know, foolish girl,” said the ogress, “that we ogres never die. We are not naturally immortal, but our life depends on a secret which no human being can unravel. Let me tell you what it is that you may be comforted. You know yonder tank; there is in the middle of it a crystal pillar, on the top of which in deep water are two bees. If any human being can dive into the water and bring up the two bees from the pillar in one breath, and destroy them so that not a drop of their [pg 304] blood falls to the ground, then we ogres shall certainly die; but if a single drop of blood falls to the ground, then from it will start up a thousand ogres. But what human being will find out this secret, or, finding it, will be able to achieve the feat? You need not, therefore, darling, be sad; I am practically immortal.” As usual, the princess reveals the secret to the hero, who kills the bees, and that same moment all the ogres drop down dead, each on the spot where he happened to be standing.804 In another Bengalee story it is said that all the ogres dwell in Ceylon, and that all their lives are in a single lemon. A boy cuts the lemon in pieces, and all the ogres die.805

In a Siamese or Cambodian story, probably derived from India, we are told that Thossakan or Ravana, the King of Ceylon, was able by magic art to take his soul out of his body and leave it in a box at home, while he went to the wars. Thus he was invulnerable in battle. When he was about to give battle to Rama, he deposited his soul with a hermit called Fire-eye, who was to keep it safe for him. So in the fight Rama was astounded to see that his arrows struck the king without wounding him. But one of Rama's allies, knowing the secret of the king's invulnerability, transformed himself by magic into the likeness of the king, and going to the hermit asked back his soul. On receiving it he soared up into the air and flew to Rama, brandishing the box and squeezing it so hard that all the breath left the King of Ceylon's body, and he died.806 In a Bengalee [pg 305] story a prince going into a far country planted with his own hands a tree in the courtyard of his father's palace, and said to his parents, “This tree is my life. When you see the tree green and fresh, then know that it is well with me; when you see the tree fade in some parts, then know that I am in an ill case; and when you see the whole tree fade, then know that I am dead and gone.”807 In another Indian tale a prince, setting forth on his travels, left behind him a barley plant with instructions that it should be carefully tended and watched, for if it flourished, he would be alive and well, but if it drooped, then some mischance was about to happen to him. And so it fell out. For the prince was beheaded, and as his head rolled off, the barley plant snapped in two and the ear of barley fell to the ground.808 In the legend of the origin of Gilgit there figures a fairy king whose soul is in the snows and who can only perish by fire.809

In Greek tales, ancient and modern, the idea of an external soul is not uncommon. When Meleager was seven days old, the Fates appeared to his mother and told her that Meleager would die when the brand which was blazing on the hearth had burnt down. So his mother snatched the brand from the fire and kept it in a box. But in after years, being enraged at her son for slaying her brothers, she burnt the brand in the fire and Meleager at once expired.810 Again, Nisus King of Megara, had a purple or golden hair on the middle of his head, and it was fated that whenever the hair was pulled out the king should die. When Megara was besieged by the Cretans, the king's [pg 306] daughter Scylla fell in love with Minos, their King, and pulled out the fatal hair from her father's head. So he died.811 Similarly Poseidon made Pterelaus immortal by giving him a golden hair on his head. But when Taphos, the home of Pterelaus, was besieged by Amphitryon, the daughter of Pterelaus fell in love with Amphitryon and killed her father by plucking out the golden hair with which his life was bound up.812 In a modern Greek folk-tale a man's strength lies in three golden hairs on his head. When his mother pulls them out, he grows weak and timid and is slain by his enemies.813 In another modern Greek story the life of an enchanter is bound up with three doves which are in the belly of a wild boar. When the first dove is killed, the magician grows sick, when the second is killed, he grows very sick, and when the third is killed, he dies.814 In another Greek story of the same sort an ogre's strength is in three singing birds which are in a wild boar. The hero kills two of the birds, and then coming to the ogre's house finds him lying on the ground in great pain. He shows the third bird to the ogre, who begs that the hero will either let it fly away or give it to him to eat. But the hero wrings the bird's neck and the ogre dies on the spot.815 In a variant of the latter story the [pg 307] monster's strength is in two doves, and when the hero kills one of them, the monster cries out, “Ah, woe is me! Half my life is gone. Something must have happened to one of the doves.” When the second dove is killed, he dies.816 In another Greek story the incidents of the three golden hairs and the three doves are artificially combined. A monster has three golden hairs on his head which open the door of a chamber in which are three doves; when the first dove is killed, the monster grows sick, when the second is killed, he grows worse, and when the third is killed, he dies.817 In another Greek tale an old man's strength is in a ten-headed serpent. When the serpent's heads are being cut off, he feels unwell, and when the last head is struck off, he expires.818 In another Greek story a dervish tells a queen that she will have three sons, that at the birth of each she must plant a pumpkin in the garden, and that in the fruit borne by the pumpkins will reside the strength of the children. In due time the infants are born and the pumpkins planted. As the children grow up the pumpkins grow with them. One morning the eldest son feels sick, and on going into the garden they find that the largest pumpkin is gone. Next night the second son keeps watch in a summer-house in the garden. At midnight a negro appears and cuts the second pumpkin. At once the boy's strength goes out of him and he is unable to pursue the negro. The youngest son, however, succeeds in slaying the negro and recovering the lost pumpkins.819

Ancient Italian legend furnishes a close parallel to the Greek story of Meleager. Silvia, the young wife [pg 308] of Septimius Marcellus, had a child by the god Mars. The god gave her a spear, with which he said that the fate of the child would be bound up. When the boy grew up he quarrelled with his maternal uncles and slew them. So in revenge his mother burned the spear on which his life depended.820 In one of the stories of the Pentamerone a certain queen has a twin brother, a dragon. The astrologers declared at her birth that she would live just as long as the dragon and no longer, the death of the one involving the death of the other. If the dragon were killed, the only way to restore the queen to life would be to smear her temples, breast, pulses, and nostrils with the blood of the dragon.821 In a modern Roman version of “Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp,” the magician tells the princess whom he holds captive in a floating rock in mid-ocean that he will never die. The princess reports this to the prince her husband, who has come to rescue her. The prince replies, “It is impossible but that there should be some one thing or other that is fatal to him; ask him what that one fatal thing is.” So the princess asked the magician and he told her that in the wood was a hydra with seven heads; in the middle head of the hydra was a leveret, in the head of the leveret was a bird, in the bird's head was a precious stone, and if this stone were put under his pillow he would die. The prince procured the stone and the princess laid it under the magician's pillow. No sooner did the enchanter lay his head on the pillow than he gave [pg 309] three terrible yells, turned himself round and round three times, and died.822

Stories of the same sort are current among Slavonic peoples. Thus in a Russian tale a warlock called Koshchei the Deathless is asked where his death is. “My death,” he answered, “is in such and such a place. There stands an oak, and under the oak is a casket, and in the casket is a hare, and in the hare is a duck, and in the duck is an egg, and in the egg is my death.” A prince obtained the egg and squeezed it, whereupon Koshchei the Deathless bent double. But when the prince shivered the egg in pieces, the warlock died.823 “In one of the descriptions of Koshchei's death, he is said to be killed by a blow on the forehead inflicted by the mysterious egg—that last link in the magic chain by which his life is darkly bound. In another version of the same story, but told of a snake, the fatal blow is struck by a small stone found in the yolk of an egg, which is inside a duck, which is inside a hare, which is inside a stone, which is on an island.”824 In another variant the prince shifts the fatal egg from one hand to the other, and as he does so Koshchei rushes wildly from side to side of the room. At last the prince smashes the egg, and Koshchei drops dead.825 In another Russian story the death of an enchantress is in a blue rose-tree in a blue forest. Prince Ivan uproots the rose-tree, whereupon the enchantress straightway sickens. He brings the rose-tree to her house and finds her at the point of death. Then he throws it into the cellar, crying, “Behold her death!” and at once the whole building [pg 310] shakes, “and becomes an island, on which are people who had been sitting in Hell, and who offer up thanks to Prince Ivan.”826 In another Russian story a prince is grievously tormented by a witch who has got hold of his heart, and keeps it seething in a magic cauldron.827 In a Bohemian tale a warlock's strength lies in an egg, which is in a duck, which is in a stag, which is under a tree. A seer finds the egg and sucks it. Then the warlock grows as weak as a child, “for all his strength had passed into the seer.”828 In a Serbian story a fabulous being called True Steel declares, “Far away from this place there is a very high mountain, in the mountain there is a fox, in the fox there is a heart, in the heart there is a bird, and in this bird is my strength.” The fox is caught and killed and its heart is taken out. Out of the fox's heart is taken the bird, which is then burnt, and that very moment True Steel falls dead.829 In a South Slavonian story a dragon tells an old woman, “My strength is a long way off, and you cannot go thither. Far in another empire under the emperor's city is a lake, in that lake is a dragon, and in the dragon a boar, and in the boar a pigeon, and in that is my strength.”830

Amongst peoples of the Teutonic stock stories of the external soul are not wanting. In a tale told by the Saxons of Transylvania it is said that a young man shot at a witch again and again. The bullets went clean through her but did her no harm, and she only laughed and mocked at him. “Silly earthworm,” [pg 311] she cried, “shoot as much as you like. It does me no harm. For know that my life resides not in me but far, far away. In a mountain is a pond, on the pond swims a duck, in the duck is an egg, in the egg burns a light, that light is my life. If you could put out that light, my life would be at an end. But that can never, never be.” However, the young man got hold of the egg, smashed it, and put out the light, and with it the witch's life went out also.831 In a German story a cannibal called Soulless keeps his soul in a box, which stands on a rock in the middle of the Red Sea. A soldier gets possession of the box and goes with it to Soulless, who begs the soldier to give him back his soul. But the soldier opens the box, takes out the soul, and flings it backward over his head. At the same moment the cannibal drops down stone dead.832 In an Oldenburg story a king has three sons and a daughter, and for each child there grows a flower in the king's garden. Each of the flowers is a life flower; it blooms and flourishes while the child lives, but when the child dies it withers away.833 In another German story an old warlock lives with a damsel all alone in the midst of a vast and gloomy wood. She fears that being old he may die and leave her alone in the forest. But he reassures her. “Dear child,” he said, “I cannot die, and I have no heart in my breast.” But she importuned him to tell her where his heart was. So he said, “Far, far from here in an unknown and lonesome land stands a great church. The church is well secured with iron doors, and round about it flows [pg 312] a broad deep moat. In the church flies a bird and in the bird is my heart. So long as that bird lives, I live. It cannot die of itself, and no one can catch it; therefore I cannot die, and you need have no anxiety.” However, the young man, whose bride the damsel was to have been before the warlock spirited her away, contrived to reach the church and catch the bird. He brought it to the damsel, who stowed him and it away under the warlock's bed. Soon the old warlock came home. He was ailing, and said so. The girl wept and said, “Alas, daddy is dying; he has a heart in his breast after all.” “Child,” replied the warlock, “hold your tongue. I can't die. It will soon pass over.” At that the young man under the bed gave the bird a gentle squeeze; and as he did so, the old warlock felt very unwell and sat down. Then the young man gripped the bird tighter, and the warlock fell senseless from his chair. “Now squeeze him dead,” cried the damsel. Her lover obeyed, and when the bird was dead, the old warlock also lay dead on the floor.834

In the Norse tale of “the giant who had no heart in his body,” the giant tells the captive princess, “Far, far away in a lake lies an island, on that island stands a church, in that church is a well, in that well swims a duck, in that duck there is an egg, and in that egg there lies my heart.” The hero of the tale obtains the egg and squeezes it, at which the giant screams piteously and begs for his life. But the hero breaks the egg in pieces and the giant at once bursts.835 In another Norse story a hill-ogre tells the captive princess that she will never be able to return home unless she finds the [pg 313] grain of sand which lies under the ninth tongue of the ninth head of a certain dragon; but if that grain of sand were to come over the rock in which the ogres live, they would all burst “and the rock itself would become a gilded palace, and the lake green meadows.” The hero finds the grain of sand and takes it to the top of the high rock in which the ogres live. So all the ogres burst and the rest falls out as one of the ogres had foretold.836 In an Icelandic parallel to the story of Meleager, the spae-wives or sybils come and foretell the high destiny of the infant Gestr as he lies in his cradle. Two candles were burning beside the child, and the youngest of the spae-wives, conceiving herself slighted, cried out, “I foretell that the child shall live no longer than this candle burns.” Whereupon the chief sybil put out the candle and gave it to Gestr's mother to keep, charging her not to light it again until her son should wish to die. Gestr lived three hundred years; then he kindled the candle and expired.837

In a Celtic tale a giant says, “There is a great flagstone under the threshold. There is a wether under the flag. There is a duck in the wether's belly, and an egg in the belly of the duck, and it is in the egg that my soul is.” The egg is crushed, and the giant falls down dead.838 In another Celtic tale, a sea beast has carried off a king's daughter, and an old smith declares that there is no way of killing the beast but one. “In the island that is in the midst of the loch is Eillid Chaisthion—the white-footed hind, of the [pg 314] slenderest legs, and the swiftest step, and, though she should be caught, there would spring a hoodie out of her, and though the hoodie should be caught, there would spring a trout out of her, but there is an egg in the mouth of the trout, and the soul of the beast is in the egg, and if the egg breaks, the beast is dead.” As usual the egg is broken and the beast dies.839 In a Breton story there figures a giant whom neither fire nor water nor steel can harm. He tells a princess whom he has just married, “I am immortal, and no one can hurt me, unless he crushes on my breast an egg which is in a pigeon, which is in the belly of a hare; this hare is in the belly of a wolf, and this wolf is in the belly of my brother, who dwells a thousand leagues from here. So I am quite easy on that score.” A soldier gets the egg and crushes it on the breast of the giant, who immediately expires.840 In another Breton tale a giant is called Body-without-Soul because his life does not reside in his body. It resides in an egg, the egg is in a dove, the dove is in a hare, the hare is in a wolf, and the wolf is in an iron chest at the bottom of the sea. The hero kills the animals one after another, and at the death of each animal the giant grows weaker, as if he had lost a limb. When at last the hero comes to the giant's castle bearing the egg in his hand, he finds Body-without-Soul stretched on his bed at the point of death. So he dashes the egg against the giant's forehead, the egg breaks, and the giant straightway dies.841

The notion of an external soul has now been traced in folk-tales told by Aryan peoples from India to [pg 315] Brittany and the Hebrides. We have still to show that the same idea occurs commonly in the popular stories of non-Aryan peoples. In the first place it appears in the ancient Egyptian story of “The Two Brothers.” This story was written down in the reign of Rameses II, about 1300 years b.c. It is therefore older than our present redaction of Homer, and far older than the Bible. The outline of the story, so far as it concerns us here, is as follows: Once upon a time there were two brethren; the name of the elder was Anupu and the name of the younger was Bitiu. Now Anupu had a house and a wife, and his younger brother dwelt with him as his servant. It was Anupu who made the garments, and every morning when it grew light he drove the kine afield. As he walked behind them they used to say to him, “The grass is good in such and such a place,” and he heard what they said and led them to the good pasture that they desired. So his kine grew very sleek and multiplied greatly. One day when the two brothers were at work in the field the elder brother said to the younger, “Run and fetch seed from the village.” So the younger brother ran and said to the wife of his elder brother, “Give me seed that I may run to the field, for my brother sent me saying, tarry not.” She said, “Go to the barn and take as much as you desire.” He went and filled a jar full of wheat and barley, and came forth bearing it on his shoulders. When the woman saw him her heart went out to him, and she laid hold of him and said, “Come, let us rest an hour together.” But he said, “Thou art to me as a mother, and my brother is to me as a father.” So he would not hearken to her, but took the load on his back and went away to the field. In the evening, when the elder brother was returning from the field, [pg 316] his wife feared for what she had said. So she took soot and made herself as one who has been beaten. And when her husband came home, she said, “When thy younger brother came to fetch seed, he said to me, Come, let us rest an hour together. But I would not, and he beat me.” Then the elder brother became like a panther of the south; he sharpened his knife and stood behind the door of the cow-house. And when the sun set and the younger brother came laden with all the herbs of the field, as was his wont every day, the cow that walked in front of the herd said to him, “Behold, thy elder brother stands with a knife to kill thee. Flee before him.” When he heard what the cow said, he looked under the door of the cow-house and saw the feet of his elder brother standing behind the door, his knife in his hand. So he fled and his brother pursued him with the knife. But the younger brother cried for help to the Sun, and the Sun heard him and caused a great water to spring up between him and his elder brother, and the water was full of crocodiles. The two brothers stood, the one on the one side of the water and the other on the other, and the younger brother told the elder brother all that had befallen. So the elder brother repented him of what he had done and he wept aloud. But he could not come at the farther bank by reason of the crocodiles. His younger brother called to him and said, “Go home and tend the cattle thyself. For I will dwell no more in the place where thou art. I will go to the Valley of the Acacia. But this is what thou shalt do for me. Thou shalt come and care for me, if evil befalls me, for I will enchant my heart and place it on the top of the flower of the Acacia; and if they cut the Acacia and my heart falls to the ground, thou shalt come and seek [pg 317] it, and when thou hast found it thou shalt lay it in a vessel of fresh water. Then I shall come to life again. But this is the sign that evil has befallen me; the pot of beer in thine hand shall bubble.” So he went away to the Valley of the Acacia, but his brother returned home with dust on his head and slew his wife and cast her to the dogs.

For many days afterwards the younger brother dwelt alone in the Valley of the Acacia. By day he hunted the beasts of the field, but at evening he came and laid him down under the Acacia, on the top of whose flower was his heart. And many days after that he built himself a house in the Valley of the Acacia. But the gods were grieved for him; and the Sun said to Khnum, “Make a wife for Bitiu, that he may not dwell alone.” So Khnum made him a woman to dwell with him, who was perfect in her limbs more than any woman on earth, for all the gods were in her. So she dwelt with him. But one day a lock of her hair fell into the river and floated down to the land of Egypt, to the house of Pharaoh's washerwomen. The fragrance of the lock perfumed Pharaoh's raiment, and the washerwomen were blamed, for it was said, “An odour of perfume in the garments of Pharaoh!” So the heart of Pharaoh's chief washerman was weary of the complaints that were made every day, and he went to the quay, and there in the water he saw the lock of hair. He sent one down into the river to fetch it, and, because it smelt sweetly, he took it to Pharaoh. Then Pharaoh's magicians were sent for and they said, “This lock of hair belongs to a daughter of the Sun, who has in her the essence of all the gods. Let messengers go forth to all foreign lands to seek her.” So the woman was brought from the Valley of the Acacia with chariots [pg 318] and archers and much company, and all the land of Egypt rejoiced at her coming, and Pharaoh loved her. But when they asked her of her husband, she said to Pharaoh, “Let them cut down the Acacia and let them destroy him.” So men were sent with tools to cut down the Acacia. They came to it and cut the flower upon which was the heart of Bitiu; and he fell down dead in that evil hour. But the next day, when the elder brother of Bitiu was entered into his house and had sat down, they brought him a pot of beer and it bubbled, and they gave him a jug of wine and it grew turbid. Then he took his staff and his sandals and hied him to the Valley of the Acacia, and there he found his younger brother lying dead in his house. So he sought for the heart of his brother under the Acacia. For three years he sought in vain, but in the fourth year he found it in the berry of the Acacia. So he threw the heart into a cup of fresh water. And when it was night and the heart had sucked in much water, Bitiu shook in all his limbs and revived. Then he drank the cup of water in which his heart was, and his heart went into its place, and he lived as before.842

In the story of Seyf-el-Mulook in the Arabian Nights, the Jinnee declares, “When I was born, the astrologers declared that the destruction of my soul would be effected by the hand of one of the sons of the human kings. I therefore took my soul, and put it into the crop of a sparrow, and I imprisoned the sparrow in a little box, and put this into another small box, and this I put within seven other small boxes, and I put these within seven chests, and the chests I put into a coffer of marble within the verge of this circumambient ocean; for this part is remote from the countries of [pg 319] mankind, and none of mankind can gain access to it.” But Seyf-el-Mulook got possession of the sparrow and strangled it, and the Jinnee fell upon the ground a heap of black ashes.843 In a modern Arabian tale a king marries an ogress, who puts out the eyes of the king's forty wives. One of the blinded queens gives birth to a son whom she names Mohammed the Prudent. But the ogress queen hated him and compassed his death. So she sent him on an errand to the house of her kinsfolk the ogres. In the house of the ogres he saw some things hanging from the roof, and on asking a female slave what they were, she said, “That is the bottle which contains the life of my lady the queen, and the other bottle beside it contains the eyes of the queens whom my mistress blinded.” A little afterwards he spied a beetle and rose to kill it. “Don't kill it,” cried the slave, “for that is my life.” But Mohammed the Prudent watched the beetle till it entered a chink in the wall; and when the female slave had fallen asleep, he killed the beetle in its hole, and so the slave died. Then Mohammed took down the two bottles and carried them home to his father's palace. There he presented himself before the ogress queen and said, “See, I have your life in my hand, but I will not kill you till you have replaced the eyes which you took from the forty queens.” The ogress did as she was bid, and then Mohammed the Prudent said, “There, take your life.” But the bottle slipped from his hand and fell, the life of the ogress escaped from it, and she died.844

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In a Kabyl story an ogre declares that his fate is far away in an egg, which is in a pigeon, which is in a camel, which is in the sea. The hero procures the egg and crushes it between his hands, and the ogre dies.845 In a Magyar folk-tale, an old witch detains a young prince called Ambrose in the bowels of the earth. At last she confided to him that she kept a wild boar in a silken meadow, and if it were killed, they would find a hare inside, and inside the hare a pigeon, and inside the pigeon a small box, and inside the box one black and one shining beetle: the shining beetle held her life, and the black one held her power; if these two beetles died, then her life would come to an end also. When the old hag went out, Ambrose killed the wild boar, took out the hare, from the hare he took the pigeon, from the pigeon the box, and from the box the two beetles; he killed the black beetle, but kept the shining one alive. So the witch's power left her immediately, and when she came home, she had to take to her bed. Having learned from her how to escape from his prison to the upper air, Ambrose killed the shining beetle, and the old hag's spirit left her at once.846 In another Hungarian story the safety [pg 321] of the Dwarf-king resides in a golden cockchafer, inside a golden cock, inside a golden sheep, inside a golden stag, in the ninety-ninth island. The hero overcomes all these golden animals and so recovers his bride, whom the Dwarf-king had carried off.847 A Samoyed story tells how seven warlocks killed a certain man's mother and carried off his sister, whom they kept to serve them. Every night when they came home the seven warlocks used to take out their hearts and place them in a dish, which the woman hung on the tent-poles. But the wife of the man whom they had wronged stole the hearts of the warlocks while they slept, and took them to her husband. By break of day he went with the hearts to the warlocks, and found them at the point of death. They all begged for their hearts; but he threw six of their hearts to the ground, and six of the warlocks died. The seventh and eldest warlock begged hard for his heart, and the man said, “You killed my mother. Make her alive again, and I will give you back your heart.” The warlock said to his wife, “Go to the place where the dead woman lies. You will find a bag there. Bring it to me. The woman's spirit is in the bag.” So his wife brought the bag; and the warlock said to the man, “Go to your dead mother, shake the bag and let the spirit breathe over her bones; so she will come to life again.” The man did as he was bid, and his mother was restored to life. Then he hurled the seventh heart to the ground, and the seventh warlock died.848

In a Tartar poem two heroes named Ak Molot and Bulat engage in mortal combat. Ak Molot pierces his foe through and through with an arrow, grapples [pg 322] with him, and dashes him to the ground, but all in vain, Bulat could not die. At last when the combat has lasted three years, a friend of Ak Molot sees a golden casket hanging by a white thread from the sky, and bethinks him that perhaps this casket contains Bulat's soul. So he shot through the white thread with an arrow, and down fell the casket. He opened it, and in the casket sat ten white birds, and one of the birds was Bulat's soul. Bulat wept when he saw that his soul was found in the casket. But one after the other the birds were killed, and then Ak Molot easily slew his foe.849 In another Tartar poem, two brothers going to fight two other brothers take out their souls and hide them in the form of a white herb with six stalks in a deep pit. But one of their foes sees them doing so and digs up their souls, which he puts into a golden ram's horn, and then puts the ram's horn in his quiver. The two warriors whose souls have thus been stolen know that they have no chance of victory, and accordingly make peace with their enemies.850 In another Tartar poem a terrible demon sets all the gods and heroes at defiance. At last a valiant youth fights the demon, binds him hand and foot, and slices him with his sword. But still the demon is not slain. So the youth asked him, “Tell me, where is your soul hidden? For if your soul had been hidden in your body, you must have been dead long ago.” The demon replied, “On the saddle of my horse is a bag. In the bag is a serpent with twelve heads. In the serpent is my soul. When you have killed the serpent, you have killed me also.” So the youth took the saddle-bag from the horse and killed the twelve-headed serpent, whereupon the demon [pg 323] expired.851 In another Tartar poem a hero called Kök Chan deposits with a maiden a golden ring, in which is half his strength. Afterwards when Kök Chan is wrestling long with a hero and cannot kill him, a woman drops into his mouth the ring which contains half his strength. Thus inspired with fresh force he slays his enemy.852

In a Mongolian story the hero Joro gets the better of his enemy the lama Tschoridong in the following way. The lama, who is an enchanter, sends out his soul in the form of a wasp to sting Joro's eyes. But Joro catches the wasp in his hand, and by alternately shutting and opening his hand he causes the lama alternately to lose and recover consciousness.853 In a Tartar poem two youths cut open the body of an old witch and tear out her bowels, but all to no purpose, she still lives. On being asked where her soul is, she answers that it is in the middle of her shoe-sole in the form of a seven-headed speckled snake. So one of the youths slices her shoe-sole with his sword, takes out the speckled snake, and cuts off its seven heads. Then the witch dies.854 Another Tartar poem describes how the hero Kartaga grappled with the Swan-woman. Long they wrestled. Moons waxed and waned and still they wrestled; years came and went, and still the struggle went on. But the piebald horse and the black horse knew that the Swan-woman's [pg 324] soul was not in her. Under the black earth flow nine seas; where the seas meet and form one, the sea comes to the surface of the earth. At the mouth of the nine seas rises a rock of copper; it rises to the surface of the ground, it rises up between heaven and earth, this rock of copper. At the foot of the copper rock is a black chest, in the black chest is a golden casket, and in the golden casket is the soul of the Swan-woman. Seven little birds are the soul of the Swan-woman; if the birds are killed the Swan-woman will die straightway. So the horses ran to the foot of the copper rock, opened the black chest, and brought back the golden casket. Then the piebald horse turned himself into a bald-headed man, opened the golden casket, and cut off the heads of the seven birds. So the Swan-woman died.855 In a Tartar story a chief called Tash Kan is asked where his soul is. He answers that there are seven great poplars, and under the poplars a golden well; seven Maralen (?) come to drink the water of the well, and the belly of one of them trails on the ground; in this Maral is a golden box, in the golden box is a silver box, in the silver box are seven quails, the head of one of the quails is golden and its tail silver; that quail is Tash Kan's soul. The hero of the story gets possession of the seven quails and wrings the necks of six of them. Then Tash Kan comes running and begs the hero to let his soul go free. But the hero wrings the quail's neck, and Tash Kan drops dead.856 In another Tartar poem the hero, pursuing his sister who has driven away his cattle, is warned to desist from the pursuit because his sister has carried away his soul in a golden sword and a golden arrow, and if he pursues [pg 325] her she will kill him by throwing the golden sword or shooting the golden arrow at him.857

A Malay poem relates how once upon a time in the city of Indrapoera there was a certain merchant who was rich and prosperous, but he had no children. One day as he walked with his wife by the river they found a baby girl, fair as an angel. So they adopted the child and called her Bidasari. The merchant caused a golden fish to be made, and into this fish he transferred the soul of his adopted daughter. Then he put the golden fish in a golden box full of water, and hid it in a pond in the midst of his garden. In time the girl grew to be a lovely woman. Now the King of Indrapoera had a fair young queen, who lived in fear that the king might take to himself a second wife. So, hearing of the charms of Bidasari, the queen resolved to put her out of the way. So she lured the girl to the palace and tortured her cruelly; but Bidasari could not die, because her soul was not in her. At last she could stand the torture no longer and said to the queen, “If you wish me to die, you must bring the box which is in the pond in my father's garden.” So the box was brought and opened, and there was the golden fish in the water. The girl said, “My soul is in that fish. In the morning you must take the fish out of the water, and in the evening you must put it back into the water. Do not let the fish lie about, but bind it round your neck. If you do this, I shall soon die.” So the queen took the fish out of the box and fastened it round her neck; and no sooner had she done so, than Bidasari fell into a swoon. But in the evening, when the fish was put back into the water, Bidasari came to herself again. Seeing that she thus [pg 326] had the girl in her power, the queen sent her home to her adopted parents. To save her from further persecution her parents resolved to remove their daughter from the city. So in a lonely and desolate spot they built a house and brought Bidasari thither. Here she dwelt alone, undergoing vicissitudes that corresponded with the vicissitudes of the golden fish in which was her soul. All day long, while the fish was out of the water, she remained unconscious; but in the evening, when the fish was put into the water, she revived. One day the king was out hunting, and coming to the house where Bidasari lay unconscious, was smitten with her beauty. He tried to waken her, but in vain. Next day, towards evening, he repeated his visit, but still found her unconscious. However, when darkness fell, she came to herself and told the king the secret of her life. So the king returned to the palace, took the fish from the queen, and put it in water. Immediately Bidasari revived, and the king took her to wife.858

The last story of an external soul which I shall notice comes from Nias, an island to the west of Sumatra, which we have visited more than once in the course of this book. Once on a time a chief was captured by his enemies, who tried to put him to death but failed. Water would not drown him nor fire burn him nor steel pierce him. At last his wife revealed the secret. On his head he had a hair as hard as a copper wire; and with this wire his life was bound up. So the hair was plucked out, and with it his spirit fled.859

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§ 4.—The external soul in folk-custom.

Thus the idea that the soul may be deposited for a longer or shorter time in some place of security outside the body, or at all events in the hair, is found in the popular tales of many races. It remains to show that the idea is not a mere figment devised to adorn a tale, but is a real article of primitive faith, which has given rise to a corresponding set of customs.

We have seen that in the tales the hero, as a preparation for battle, sometimes removes his soul from his body, in order that his body may be invulnerable and immortal in the combat. With a like intention the savage removes his soul from his body on various occasions of real or imaginary danger. Thus we have seen that among the Minahassa of Celebes, when a family moves into a new house, a priest collects the souls of the whole family in a bag, and afterwards restores them to their owners, because the moment of entering a new house is supposed to be fraught with supernatural danger.860 In Southern Celebes when a woman is brought to bed the messenger who fetches the doctor or the midwife always carries with him a piece of iron, which he delivers to the doctor. The doctor must keep it in his house till the confinement is over, when he gives it back, receiving a fixed sum of money for doing so. The piece of iron represents the woman's soul, which at this critical time is believed to be safer out of her body than in it. Hence the doctor must take great care of [pg 328] the piece of iron; for if it were lost, the woman's soul would assuredly, it is supposed, be lost with it.861

Again, we have seen that in folk-tales a man's soul or strength is sometimes represented as bound up with his hair, and that when his hair is cut off he dies or grows weak. So the natives of Amboina used to think that their strength was in their hair and would desert them if it were shorn. A criminal under torture in a Dutch Court of that island persisted in denying his guilt till his hair was cut off, when he immediately confessed. One man who was tried for murder endured without flinching the utmost ingenuity of his torturers till he saw the surgeon standing with a pair of shears. On asking what this was for, and being told that it was to cut his hair, he begged they would not do it, and made a clean breast. In subsequent cases, when torture failed to wring a confession from a prisoner, the Dutch authorities made a practice of cutting off his hair.862 In Ceram it is still believed that if young people have their hair cut they will be weakened and enervated thereby.863 In Zacynthus people think that the whole strength of the ancient Greeks resided in three hairs on their breasts, and vanished whenever these hairs were cut; but if the hairs were allowed to grow again, their strength returned.864

Again, we have seen that in folk-tales the life of a person is sometimes so bound up with the life of a plant that the withering of the plant will immediately follow or be followed by the death of the person.865 Similarly among the M'Bengas in Western Africa, about the [pg 329] Gaboon, when two children are born on the same day, the people plant two trees of the same kind and dance round them. The life of each of the children is believed to be bound up with the life of one of the trees; and if the tree dies or is thrown down, they are sure that the child will soon die.866 In the Cameroons, also, the life of a person is believed to be sympathetically bound up with that of a tree.867 Some of the Papuans unite the life of a new-born child sympathetically with that of a tree by driving a pebble into the bark of the tree. This is supposed to give them complete mastery over the child's life; if the tree is cut down, the child will die.868 After a birth the Maoris used to bury the navel-string in a sacred place and plant a young sapling over it. As the tree grew, it was a tohu oranga or sign of life for the child; if it flourished, the child would prosper; if it withered and died, the parents augured the worst for their child.869 In Southern Celebes, when a child is born, a cocoa-nut is planted, and is watered with the water in which the after-birth and navel-string have been washed. As it grows up, the tree is called the “contemporary” of the child.870 So in Bali a cocoa-palm is planted at the birth of a child. It is believed to grow up equally with the child, and is called its “life-plant.”871 On certain occasions the Dyaks of Borneo plant a palm-tree, which is believed to be a complete index of their fate. If it flourishes, they reckon on good fortune; but if it withers or dies, they [pg 330] expect misfortune.872 It is said that there are still families in Russia, Germany, England, France, and Italy who are accustomed to plant a tree at the birth of a child. The tree, it is hoped, will grow with the child, and it is tended with special care.873 The custom is still pretty general in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland; an apple-tree is planted for a boy and a pear-tree for a girl, and the people think that the child will flourish or dwindle with the tree.874 In Mecklenburg the after-birth is thrown out at the foot of a young tree, and the child is then believed to grow with the tree.875 In England persons are sometimes passed through a cleft tree as a cure for rupture, and thenceforward a sympathetic connection is believed to exist between them and the tree. “Thomas Chillingworth, son of the owner of an adjoining farm, now about thirty-four years of age, was, when an infant of a year old, passed through a similar tree, now perfectly sound, which he preserves with so much care that he will not suffer a single branch to be touched, for it is believed that the life of the patient depends on the life of the tree; and the moment that it is cut down, be the patient ever so distant, the rupture returns, and a mortification ensues.”876 When Lord Byron first visited his ancestral estate of Newstead “he planted, it seems, a young oak in some part of the grounds, and had an idea that as it flourished so should he.”877

But in practice, as in folk-tales, it is not merely [pg 331] with trees and plants that the life of an individual is occasionally believed to be united by a bond of physical sympathy. The same bond, it is supposed, may exist between a man and an animal or a thing, so that the death or destruction of the animal or thing is immediately followed by the death of the man. The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus was once informed by an astronomer that the life of Simeon prince of Bulgaria was bound up with a certain column in Constantinople, so that if the capital of the column were removed Simeon would immediately die. The Emperor took the hint and removed the capital, and at the same hour, as the emperor learned by inquiry, Simeon died of heart disease in Bulgaria.878 Amongst the Karens of Burma “the knife with which the navel-string is cut is carefully preserved for the child. The life of the child is supposed to be in some way connected with it, for if lost or destroyed it is said the child will not be long-lived.”879 The Malays believe that “the soul of a person may pass into another person or into an animal, or rather that such a mysterious relation can arise between the two that the fate of the one is wholly dependent on that of the other.”880 In the Banks Islands “some people connect themselves with an object, generally an animal, as a lizard or a snake, or with a stone, which they imagine to have a certain very close natural relation to themselves. This, at Mota, is called tamaniu—likeness. This word at Aurora is used for the ‘atai’ [i.e. soul] of Mota. Some fancy dictates the choice of a tamaniu; or it may be [pg 332] found by drinking the infusion of certain herbs and heaping together the dregs. Whatever living thing is first seen in or upon the heap is the tamaniu. It is watched, but not fed or worshipped. The natives believe that it comes at call. The life of the man is bound up with the life of his tamaniu. If it dies, gets broken or lost, the man will die. In sickness they send to see how the tamaniu is, and judge the issue accordingly. This is only the fancy of some.”881

But what among the Banks Islanders and the Malays is irregular and occasional, among other peoples is systematic and universal. The Zulus believe that every man has his ihlozi, a kind of mysterious serpent, “which specially guards and helps him, lives with him, wakes with him, sleeps and travels with him, but always under ground. If it ever makes its appearance, great is the joy, and the man must seek to discover the meaning of its appearance. He who has no ihlozi must die. Therefore if any one unintentionally kills an ihlozi serpent, the man whose ihlozi it was dies, but the serpent comes to life again.”882 Amongst the Zapotecs of Central America, when a woman was about to be confined, her relations assembled in the hut, and began to draw on the floor figures of different animals, rubbing each one out as soon as it was completed. This went on till the moment of birth, and the figure that then remained sketched upon the ground was called the child's tona or second self. “When the child grew old enough he procured the animal that represented him and took care of it, as it [pg 333] was believed that health and existence were bound up with that of the animal's, in fact that the death of both would occur simultaneously,” or rather that when the animal died the man would die.883 Among the Indians of Guatemala the nagual or naual is an “animate or inanimate object, generally an animal, which stands in a parallel relation to a particular man, so that the weal and woe of the man depend on the fate of the animal.” Among the Chontal Indians who inhabit the part of Honduras bordering on Guatemala and in point of social culture stand very close to the Pipil Indians of Guatemala, the nagual used to be obtained as follows. The young Indian went into the forest to a lonely place by a river or to the top of a mountain, and prayed with tears to the gods that they would vouchsafe to him what his forefathers had possessed before him. After sacrificing a dog or a bird he laid himself down to sleep. Then in a dream or after awakening from sleep there appeared to him a jaguar, puma, coyote (prairie-wolf), crocodile, serpent, or bird. To this visionary animal the Indian offered blood drawn from his tongue, his ears, and other parts of his body, and prayed for an abundant yield of salt and cacao. Then the animal said to him, “On such and such a day you shall go out hunting, and the first animal that meets you will be myself, who will always be your companion and nagual.” A man who had no nagual could never grow rich. The Indians were persuaded that the death of their nagual would entail their own. Legend affirms that in the first battles with the Spaniards on [pg 334] the plateau of Quetzaltenango the naguals of the Indian chiefs fought in the form of serpents. The nagual of the highest chief was especially conspicuous, because it had the form of a great bird, resplendent in green plumage. The Spanish general Pedro de Alvarado killed the bird with his lance, and at the same moment the Indian chief fell dead to the ground.884

In many of the Australian tribes each sex regards a particular species of animals in the same way that a Central American Indian regards his nagual, but with this difference, that whereas the Indian apparently knows the individual animal with which his life is bound up, the Australians only know that each of their lives is bound up with some one animal of the species, but they cannot say with which. The result naturally is that every man spares and protects all the animals of the species with which the lives of the men are bound up; and every woman spares and protects all the animals of the species with which the lives of the women are bound up; because no one knows but that the death of any animal of the respective species might entail his or her own; just as the killing of the green bird was immediately followed by the death of the Indian chief, and the killing of the parrot by the death of Punchkin in the fairy tale. Thus, for example, the Wotjobaluk tribe of South Eastern Australia “held that ‘the life of Ngŭnŭngŭnŭt (the Bat) is the life of a man and the life of Yártatgŭrk (the Nightjar) is the life of a woman,’ and that when either of these creatures is killed the life of some man or of some woman is shortened. In such a case every man or every woman [pg 335] in the camp feared that he or she might be the victim, and from this cause great fights arose in this tribe. I learn that in these fights, men on one side and women on the other, it was not at all certain which would be victorious, for at times the women gave the men a severe drubbing with their yamsticks while often women were injured or killed by spears.”885 The particular species of animals with which the lives of the sexes were believed to be respectively bound up varied somewhat from tribe to tribe. Thus whereas among the Wotjobaluk the bat was the animal of the men, at Gunbower Creek on the lower Murray the bat seems to have been the animal of the women, for the natives would not kill it for the reason that “if it was killed, one of their lubras [women] would be sure to die in consequence.”886 But the belief itself and the fights to which it gave rise are known to have extended over a large part of South Eastern Australia, and probably they extended much farther.887 The belief is a very serious one, and so consequently are the fights which spring from it. Thus where the bat is the men's animal they “protect it against injury, even to the half-killing of their wives for its sake;” and where the fern owl or large goatsucker (a night bird) is the women's animal, “it is jealously protected by them. If a man kills one, they are as much enraged as if it was one of their children, and will strike him with their long poles.”888

The jealous protection thus afforded by Australian men and women to bats and owls respectively (for bats [pg 336] and owls seem to be the creatures usually allotted to men and women respectively) is not based upon purely selfish considerations. For each man believes that not only his own life, but the lives of his father, brothers, sons, etc., are bound up with the lives of particular bats, and that therefore in protecting the bat species he is protecting the lives of all his male relations as well as his own. Similarly, each woman believes that the lives of her mother, sisters, daughters, etc., equally with her own, are bound up with the lives of particular owls, and that in guarding the owl species she is guarding the lives of all her female relations in addition to her own. Now, when men's lives are thus supposed to be contained in certain animals, it is obvious that the animals can hardly be distinguished from the men, or the men from the animals. If my brother John's life is in a bat, then, on the one hand, the bat is my brother as well as John; and, on the other hand, John is in a sense a bat, since his life is in a bat. Similarly, if my sister Mary's life is in an owl, then the owl is my sister and Mary is an owl. This is a natural enough conclusion, and the Australians have not failed to draw it. When the bat is the man's animal, it is called his brother; and when the owl is the woman's animal, it is called her sister. And conversely a man addresses a woman as an owl, and she addresses him as a bat.889 So with the other animals allotted to the sexes respectively in other tribes. For example, among the Kurnai all Emu Wrens were “brothers” of the men, and all the men were Emu Wrens; all Superb Warblers were “sisters” of the women, and all the women were Superb Warblers.890

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But when a savage names himself after an animal, calls it his brother, and refuses to kill it, the animal is said to be his totem. Accordingly the bat and the owl, the Emu Wren and the Superb Warbler, may properly be described as totems of the sexes. But the assignation of a totem to a sex is comparatively rare, and has hitherto been discovered nowhere but in Australia. Far more commonly the totem is appropriated not to a sex, but to a tribe or clan, and is hereditary either in the male or female line. The relation of an individual to the tribal totem does not differ in kind from his relation to the sex totem; he will not kill it, he speaks of it as his brother, and he calls himself by its name.891 Now if the relations are similar, the explanation which holds good of the one ought equally to hold good of the other. Therefore the reason why a tribe revere a particular species of animals or plants (for the tribal totem may be a plant) and call themselves after it, must be a belief that the life of each individual of the tribe is bound up with some one animal or plant of the species, and that his or her death would be the consequence of killing that particular animal, or destroying that particular plant. This explanation of totemism squares very well with Sir George Grey's definition of a totem or kobong in Western Australia. He says, “A certain mysterious connection exists between a family and its kobong, so that a member of the family will never kill an animal of the species to which his kobong belongs, should he find it asleep; indeed he always kills it reluctantly, and never without affording it a chance to escape. This arises from the family belief that some one individual of the species is their nearest friend, to [pg 338] kill whom would be a great crime, and to be carefully avoided. Similarly, a native who has a vegetable for his kobong may not gather it under certain circumstances, and at a particular period of the year.”892 Here it will be observed that though each man spares all the animals or plants of the species, they are not all equally precious to him; far from it, out of the whole species there is only one which is specially dear to him; but as he does not know which the dear one is, he is obliged to spare them all from fear of injuring the one. Again, this explanation of the tribal totem harmonises with the supposed effect of killing one of the totem species. “One day one of the blacks killed a crow. Three or four days afterwards a Boortwa (crow) [i.e. a man of the Crow clan or tribe] named Larry died. He had been ailing for some days, but the killing of his wingong [totem] hastened his death.”893 Here the killing of the crow caused the death of a man of the Crow clan, exactly as, in the case of the sex totems, the killing of a bat causes the death of a Bat man, or the killing of an owl causes the death of an Owl woman. Similarly, the killing of his nagual causes the death of a Central American Indian, the killing of his ihlozi causes the death of a Zulu, the killing of his tamaniu causes the death of a Banks Islander, and the killing of the animal in which his life is stowed away causes the death of the giant or warlock in the fairy tale.

Thus it appears that the story of “The giant who had no heart in his body” furnishes the key to the religious aspect of totemism, that is, to the relation which is supposed to subsist between a man and his totem. The totem, if I am right, is simply the receptacle [pg 339] in which a man keeps his life, as Punchkin kept his life in a parrot, and Bidasari kept her soul in a golden fish. It is no valid objection to this view that when a savage has both a sex totem and a tribal totem his life must be bound up with two different animals, the death of either of which would entail his own. If a man has more vital places than one in his body, why, the savage may think, should he not have more vital places than one outside it? Why, since he can externalise his life, should he not transfer one portion of it to one animal and another to another? The divisibility of life, or, to put it otherwise, the plurality of souls, is an idea suggested by many familiar facts, and has commended itself to philosophers like Plato as well as to savages. It is only when the notion of a soul, from being a quasi-scientific hypothesis, becomes a theological dogma that its unity and indivisibility are insisted upon as essential. The savage, unshackled by dogma, is free to explain the facts of life by the assumption of as many souls as he thinks necessary. Hence, for example, the Caribs supposed that there was one soul in the head, another in the heart, and other souls at all the places where an artery is felt pulsating.894 Some of the Hidatsa Indians explain the phenomena of gradual death, when the extremities appear dead first, by supposing that man has four souls, and that they quit the body, not simultaneously, but one after the other, dissolution being only complete when all four have departed.895 The Laos suppose that the body is the seat of thirty spirits, which reside in the hands, the feet, the mouth, the eyes, etc.896 Hence, [pg 340] from the primitive point of view, it is perfectly possible that a savage should have one soul in his sex totem, and another in his tribal totem. However, as I have observed, sex totems occur nowhere but in Australia; so that as a rule the savage who practises totemism need not have more than one soul out of his body at a time.

If this explanation of the totem as a receptacle in which a man keeps his soul or one of his souls is correct, we should expect to find some totemistic tribes of whom it is expressly stated that every man amongst them is believed to keep at least one soul permanently out of his body, and that the destruction of this external soul is supposed to entail the death of its owner. Such a tribe are the Battas of Sumatra. The Battas are divided into exogamous clans (margas) with descent in the male line; and each clan is forbidden to eat the flesh of a particular animal. One clan may not eat the tiger, another the ape, another the crocodile, another the dog, another the cat, another the dove, another the white buffalo. The reason given by members of a clan for abstaining from the flesh of the particular animal is either that they are descended from animals of that species, and that their souls after death may transmigrate into the animals, or that they or their forefathers have been under certain obligations to the animals. Sometimes, but not always, the clan bears the name of the animal.897 Thus the Battas have [pg 341] totemism in full. But, further, each Batta believes that he has seven or, on a more moderate computation, three souls. One of these souls is always outside the body, but nevertheless whenever it dies, however far away it may be at the time, that same moment the man dies also.898 The writer who mentions this belief says nothing about the Batta totems; but on the analogy of the Australian and Central American evidence we can scarcely avoid concluding that the external soul, whose death entails the death of the man, must be housed in the totem animal or plant.

Against this view it can hardly be thought to militate that the Batta does not in set terms affirm his external soul to be in his totem, but alleges other, though hardly contradictory, grounds for respecting the sacred animal or plant of his clan. For if a savage seriously believes that his life is bound up with an external object, it is in the last degree unlikely that he will let any stranger into the secret. In all that touches his inmost life and beliefs the savage is exceedingly suspicious and reserved; Europeans have resided among savages for years without discovering some of their capital articles of faith, and in the end the discovery has often been the result of accident. Above all, the savage lives in an intense and perpetual dread of assassination by sorcery; the most trifling relics of his person—the clippings of his hair and nails, his spittle, the remnants of his food, his very name—all these may, he fancies, be turned by the sorcerer to his destruction, and he is therefore anxiously careful to conceal or destroy them. But if in matters such as [pg 342] these, which are but the outposts and outworks of his life, he is shy and secretive to a degree, how close must be the concealment, how impenetrable the reserve in which he enshrouds the inner keep and citadel of his being! When the princess in the fairy tale asks the giant where he keeps his soul, he generally gives false or evasive answers, and it is only after much coaxing and wheedling that the secret is at last wrung from him. In his jealous reticence the giant resembles the timid and furtive savage; but whereas the exigencies of the story demand that the giant should at last reveal his secret, no such obligation is laid on the savage; and no inducement that can be offered is likely to tempt him to imperil his soul by revealing its hiding-place to a stranger. It is therefore no matter for surprise that the central mystery of the savage's life should so long have remained a secret, and that we should be left to piece it together from scattered hints and fragments and from the recollections of it which linger in fairy tales.

This view of totemism throws light on a class of religious rites of which no adequate explanation, so far as I am aware, has yet been offered. Amongst many savage tribes, especially such as are known to practise totemism, it is customary for lads at puberty to undergo certain initiatory rites, of which one of the commonest is a pretence of killing the lad and bringing him to life again. Such rites become intelligible if we suppose that their substance consists in extracting the youth's soul in order to transfer it to his totem. For the extraction of his soul would naturally be supposed to kill the youth or, at least, to throw him into a death-like trance, which the savage hardly distinguishes from death. His recovery would then be attributed either [pg 343] to the gradual recovery of his system from the violent shock which it had received, or, more probably, to the infusion into him of fresh life drawn from the totem. Thus the essence of these initiatory rites, so far as they consist in a simulation of death and resurrection, would be an exchange of life or souls between the man and his totem. The primitive belief in the possibility of such an exchange of souls comes clearly out in the story of the Basque hunter who affirmed that he had been killed by a bear, but that the bear had, after killing him, breathed its own soul into him, so that the bear's body was now dead, but he himself was a bear, being animated by the bear's soul.899 This revival of the dead hunter as a bear is exactly analogous to what, if I am right, is supposed to take place in the totemistic ceremony of killing a lad at puberty and bringing him to life again. The lad dies as a man and comes to life again as an animal; the animal's soul is now in him, and his human soul is in the animal. With good right, therefore, does he call himself a Bear or a Wolf, etc., according to his totem; and with good right does he treat the bears or the wolves, etc., as his brethren, since in these animals are lodged the souls of himself and his kindred.

Examples of this supposed death and resurrection at initiation are the following. Among some of the Australian tribes of New South Wales, when lads are initiated, it is thought that a being called Thuremlin takes each lad to a distance, kills him, and sometimes cuts him up, after which he restores him to life and knocks out a tooth.900 In one part of Queensland the [pg 344] humming sound of the Bullroarer, which is swung at the initiatory rites, is said to be the noise made by the wizards in swallowing the boys and bringing them up again as young men. “The Ualaroi of the Upper Darling River say that the boy meets a ghost which kills him and brings him to life again as a man.”901 This resurrection appears to be represented at the initiatory rites by the following ceremony. An old man, disguised with stringy bark fibre, lies down in a grave, and is lightly covered up with sticks and earth, and as far as possible the natural appearance of the ground is restored, the excavated earth being carried away. The buried man holds a small bush in his hand; it appears to be growing in the soil, and other bushes are stuck in the soil to heighten the effect. The novices are then brought to the edge of the grave, and a song is sung, in which the only words used are the “class-name” of the buried man and the word for stringy bark fibre. Gradually, as the song continues, the bush held by the buried man begins to quiver and then to move more and more, and finally the man himself starts up from the grave.902 Similarly, Fijian lads at initiation were shown a row of apparently dead men, covered with blood, their bodies seemingly cut open, and their entrails protruding. But at a yell from the [pg 345] priest the pretended dead men sprang to their feet and ran to the river to cleanse themselves from the blood and entrails of pigs with which they had been besmeared.903

In the valley of the Congo initiatory rites of this sort are common. In some places they are called Ndembo. “In the practice of Ndembo the initiating doctors get some one to fall down in a pretended fit, and in that state he is carried away to an enclosed place outside the town. This is called ‘dying Ndembo.’ Others follow suit, generally boys and girls, but often young men and women.... They are supposed to have died. But the parents and friends supply food, and after a period varying, according to custom, from three months to three years, it is arranged that the doctor shall bring them to life again.... When the doctor's fee has been paid, and money (goods) saved for a feast, the Ndembo people are brought to life. At first they pretend to know no one and nothing; they do not even know how to masticate food, and friends have to perform that office for them. They want everything nice that any one uninitiated may have, and beat them if it is not granted, or even strangle and kill people. They do not get into trouble for this, because it is thought that they do not know better. Sometimes they carry on the pretence of talking gibberish, and behaving as if they had returned from the spirit-world. After this they are known by another name, peculiar to those who have ‘died Ndembo.’ ... We hear of the custom far along on the upper river, as well as in the cataract region.”904 The following account of [pg 346] the rites, as practised in this part of Africa, was given to Bastian by an interpreter. “In the land of Ambamba every one must die once, and when the fetish priest shakes his calabash against a village, all the men and lads whose hour is come fall into a state of lifeless torpidity, from which they generally awake after three days. But if the fetish loves a man he carries him away into the bush and buries him in the fetish house, often for many years. When he comes to life again, he begins to eat and drink as before, but his understanding is gone and the fetish man must teach him and direct him in every motion, like the smallest child. At first this can only be done with a stick, but gradually his senses return, so that it is possible to talk with him, and when his education is complete, the priest brings him back to his parents. They would seldom recognise their son but for the express assurances of the fetish priest, who moreover recalls previous events to their memory. He who has not gone through the ceremony of the new birth in Ambamba is universally looked down upon and is not admitted to the dances.” During the period of initiation the novice is sympathetically united to the fetish by which his life is henceforward determined.905 The novice, plunged in the magic sleep or death-like trance within the sacred hut, “beholds a bird or other object with which his existence is thenceforward sympathetically bound up, just as the life of the young Indian is bound up with the animal which he sees in his dreams at puberty.”906

[pg 347]

Rites of this sort were formerly observed in Quoja, on the west coast of Africa, to the north of the Congo. They are thus described by an old writer:—“They have another ceremony which they call Belli-Paaro, but it is not for everybody. For it is an incorporation in the assembly of the spirits, and confers the right of entering their groves, that is to say, of going and eating the offerings which the simple folk bring thither. The initiation or admission to the Belli-Paaro is celebrated every twenty or twenty-five years. The initiated recount marvels of the ceremony, saying that they are roasted, that they entirely change their habits and life, and that they receive a spirit quite different from that of other people and quite new lights. The badge of membership consists in some lines traced on the neck between the shoulders; the lines seem to be pricked with a needle. Those who have this mark pass for persons of spirit, and when they have attained a certain age they are allowed a voice in all public assemblies; whereas the uninitiated are regarded as profane, impure, and ignorant persons, who dare not express an opinion on any subject of importance. When the time for the ceremony has come, it is celebrated as follows: By order of the king a place is appointed in the forest, whither they bring the youths who have not been marked, not without much crying and weeping; for it is impressed upon the youths that in order to undergo this change it is necessary to suffer death. So they dispose of their property, as if it were all over with them. There are always some of the initiated beside the novices to instruct them. They teach them to dance a certain dance called killing, and to sing verses in praise of Belli. Above all, they are very careful not to let them die of hunger, [pg 348] because if they did so, it is much to be feared that the spiritual resurrection would profit them nothing. This manner of life lasts five or six years, and is comfortable enough, for there is a village in the forest, and they amuse themselves with hunting and fishing. Other lads are brought thither from time to time, so that the last comers have not long to stay. No woman or uninitiated person is suffered to pass within four or five leagues of the sacred wood. When their instruction is completed, they are taken from the wood and shut up in small huts made for the purpose. Here they begin once more to hold communion with mankind and to talk with the women who bring them their food. It is amusing to see their affected simplicity. They pretend to know no one, and to be ignorant of all the customs of the country, such as the customs of washing themselves, rubbing themselves with oil, etc. When they enter these huts, their bodies are all covered with the feathers of birds, and they wear caps of bark which hang down before their faces. But after a time they are dressed in clothes and taken to a great open place, where all the people of the neighbourhood are assembled. Here the novices give the first proof of their capacity by dancing a dance which is called the dance of Belli. After the dance is over, the novices are taken to the houses of their parents by their instructors.”907

Among the Indians of Virginia, an initiatory ceremony, called Huskanaw, took place every sixteen or twenty years, or oftener, as the young men happened to grow up. The youths were kept in solitary confinement in the woods for several months, [pg 349] receiving no food but an infusion of some intoxicating roots, so that they went raving mad, and continued in this state eighteen or twenty days. “Upon this occasion it is pretended that these poor creatures drink so much of the water of Lethe that they perfectly lose the remembrance of all former things, even of their parents, their treasure, and their language. When the doctors find that they have drank sufficiently of the Wysoccan (so they call this mad potion), they gradually restore them to their senses again by lessening the intoxication of their diet; but before they are perfectly well they bring them back into their towns, while they are still wild and crazy through the violence of the medicine. After this they are very fearful of discovering anything of their former remembrance; for if such a thing should happen to any of them, they must immediately be Huskanaw'd again; and the second time the usage is so severe that seldom any one escapes with life. Thus they must pretend to have forgot the very use of their tongues, so as not to be able to speak, nor understand anything that is spoken, till they learn it again. Now, whether this be real or counterfeit, I don't know; but certain it is that they will not for some time take notice of any body nor any thing with which they were before acquainted, being still under the guard of their keepers, who constantly wait upon them everywhere till they have learnt all things perfectly over again. Thus they unlive their former lives, and commence men by forgetting that they ever have been boys.”908

Among some of the Indian tribes of North America there are certain religious associations which are only open to candidates who have gone through a pretence [pg 350] of being killed and brought to life again. Captain Carver witnessed the admission of a candidate to an association called “the friendly society of the Spirit” among the Naudowessies. The candidate knelt before the chief, who told him that “he himself was now agitated by the same spirit which he should in a few moments communicate to him; that it would strike him dead, but that he would instantly be restored again to life.... As he spoke this, he appeared to be greatly agitated, till at last his emotions became so violent that his countenance was distorted and his whole frame convulsed. At this juncture he threw something that appeared both in shape and colour like a small bean at the young man, which seemed to enter his mouth, and he instantly fell as motionless as if he had been shot.” For a time the man lay like dead, but under a shower of blows he showed signs of consciousness, and finally, discharging from his mouth the bean, or whatever it was the chief had thrown at him, he came to life.909 In other tribes the instrument by which the candidate is apparently slain is the medicine-bag. The bag is made of the skin of an animal (such as the otter, wild cat, serpent, bear, raccoon, wolf, owl, weasel), of which it roughly preserves the shape. Each member of the society has one of these bags, in which he keeps the odds and ends that make up his “medicine” or charms. “They believe that from the miscellaneous contents in the belly of the skin bag or animal there issues a spirit or breath, which has the power, not only to knock down and kill a man, but also to set him up and restore him to life.” The mode of killing a man with one of these medicine-bags is to thrust it at him; [pg 351] he falls like dead, but a second thrust of the bag restores him to life.910

A ceremony witnessed by Jewitt during his captivity among the Indians of Nootka Sound doubtless belongs to this class of customs. The Indian king or chief “discharged a pistol close to his son's ear, who immediately fell down as if killed, upon which all the women of the house set up a most lamentable cry, tearing handfuls of hair from their heads, and exclaiming that the prince was dead; at the same time a great number of the inhabitants rushed into the house armed with their daggers, muskets, etc., inquiring the cause of their outcry. These were immediately followed by two others dressed in wolf skins, with masks over their faces representing the head of that animal. The latter came in on their hands and feet in the manner of a beast, and taking up the prince, carried him off upon their backs, retiring in the same manner as they entered.”911 In another place Jewitt mentions that the young prince—a lad of about eleven years of age—wore a mask in imitation of a wolf's head.912 Now, as the Indians of this part of America are divided into totem clans, of which the Wolf clan is one of the principal, and as the members of each clan are in the habit of wearing some portion of the totem animal about their person,913 it is probable that the prince belonged to the Wolf clan, and that the ceremony described by Jewitt represented the killing [pg 352] of the lad in order that he might be born anew as a wolf, much in the same way that the Basque hunter supposed himself to have been killed and to have come to life again as a bear. The Toukaway Indians of Texas, one of whose totems is the wolf, have a ceremony in which men, dressed in wolf skins, run about on all fours, howling and mimicking wolves. At last they scratch up a living tribesman, who has been buried on purpose, and putting a bow and arrows in his hands, bid him do as the wolves do—rob, kill, and murder.914 The ceremony probably forms part of an initiatory rite like the resurrection from the grave of the old man in the Australian rites.

The people of Rook, an island east of New Guinea, hold festivals at which one or two disguised men, their heads covered with wooden masks, go dancing through the village, followed by all the other men. They demand that the circumcised boys who have not yet been swallowed by Marsaba (the devil) shall be given up to them. The boys, trembling and shrieking, are delivered to them, and must creep between the legs of the disguised men. Then the procession moves through the village again, and announces that Marsaba has eaten up the boys, and will not disgorge them till he receives a present of pigs, taro, etc. So all the villagers, according to their means, contribute provisions, which are then consumed in the name of Marsaba.915 In New Britain all males are members [pg 353] of an association called the Duk-duk. The boys are admitted to it very young, but are not fully initiated till their fourteenth year, when they receive from the Tubuvan a terrible blow with a cane, which is supposed to kill them. The Tubuvan and the Duk-duk are two disguised men who represent cassowaries. They dance with a short hopping step in imitation of the cassowary. Each of them wears a huge hat like an extinguisher, woven of grass or palm-fibres; it is six feet high, and descends to the wearer's shoulders, completely concealing his head and face. From the neck to the knees the man's body is hidden by a crinoline made of the leaves of a certain tree fastened on hoops, one above the other. The Tubuvan is regarded as a female, the Duk-duk as a male. No woman may see these disguised men. The institution of the Duk-duk is common to the neighbouring islands of New Ireland and the Duke of York.916

Amongst the Galela and Tobelorese of Halmahera, an island to the west of New Guinea, boys go through a form of initiation, part of which seems to consist in a pretence of begetting them anew. When a number of boys have reached the proper age, their parents agree to celebrate the ceremony at their common expense, and they invite others to be present at it. A shed is erected, and two long tables are placed in it, with [pg 354] benches to match, one for the men and one for the women. When all the preparations have been made for a feast, a great many skins of the rayfish, and some pieces of a wood which imparts a red colour to water, are taken to the shed. A priest or elder causes a vessel to be placed in the sight of all the people, and then begins, with significant gestures, to rub a piece of the wood with the ray-skin. The powder so produced is put in the vessel, and at the same time the name of one of the boys is called out. The same proceeding is repeated for each boy. Then the vessels are filled with water, after which the feast begins. At the third cock-crow the priest smears the faces and bodies of the boys with the red water, which represents the blood shed at the perforation of the hymen. Towards daybreak the boys are taken to the wood, and must hide behind the largest trees. The men, armed with sword and shield, accompany them, dancing and singing. The priest knocks thrice on each of the trees behind which a boy is hiding. All day the boys stay in the wood, exposing themselves to the heat of the sun as much as possible. In the evening they bathe and return to the shed, where the women supply them with food.917

In the west of Ceram boys at puberty are admitted to the Kakian association.918 Modern writers [pg 355] have commonly regarded this association as primarily a political league instituted to resist foreign domination. In reality its objects are purely religious and social, though it is possible that the priests may have occasionally used their powerful influence for political ends. The society is in fact merely one of those widely-diffused primitive institutions, of which a chief object is the initiation of young men. In recent years the true nature of the association has been duly recognised by the distinguished Dutch ethnologist, J. G. F. Riedel. The Kakian house is an oblong wooden shed, situated under the darkest trees in the depth of the forest, and is built to admit so little light that it is impossible to see what goes on in it. Every village has such a house. Thither the boys who are to be initiated are conducted blindfolded, followed by their parents and relations. Each boy is led by the hand by two men, who act as his sponsors or guardians, looking after him during the period of initiation. When all are assembled before the shed, the high priest calls aloud upon the devils. Immediately a hideous uproar is heard to proceed from the shed. It is made by men with bamboo trumpets, who have been secretly introduced into the building by a back door, but the women and children think it is made by the devils, and are much terrified. Then the priests enter the shed, followed by the boys, one at a time. As soon as each boy has disappeared within the precincts, a dull chopping sound is heard, a fearful cry rings out, and a sword or spear, dripping with blood, is thrust [pg 356] through the roof of the shed. This is a token that the boy's head has been cut off, and that the devil has carried him away to the other world, there to regenerate and transform him. So at sight of the bloody sword the mothers weep and wail, crying that the devil has murdered their children. In some places, it would seem, the boys are pushed through an opening made in the shape of a crocodile's jaws or a cassowary's beak, and it is then said that the devil has swallowed them. The boys remain in the shed for five or nine days. Sitting in the dark, they hear the blast of the bamboo trumpets, and from time to time the sound of musket shots and the clash of swords. Every day they bathe, and their faces and bodies are smeared with a yellow dye, to give them the appearance of having been swallowed by the devil. During his stay in the Kakian house each boy has one or two crosses tattooed with thorns on his breast or arm. When they are not sleeping, the lads must sit in a crouching posture without moving a muscle. As they sit in a row cross-legged, with their hands stretched out, the chief takes his trumpet, and placing the mouth of it on the hands of each lad, speaks through it in strange tones, imitating the voice of the spirits. He warns the lads, under pain of death, to observe the rules of the Kakian society, and never to reveal what has passed in the Kakian house. The novices are also told by the priests to behave well to their blood relations, and are taught the traditions and secrets of the tribe.

Meantime the mothers and sisters of the lads have gone home to weep and mourn. But in a day or two the men who acted as guardians or sponsors to the novices return to the village with the glad tidings that the devil, at the intercession of the priests, has restored [pg 357] the lads to life. The men who bring this news come in a fainting state and daubed with mud, like messengers freshly arrived from the nether world. Before leaving the Kakian house, each lad receives from the priest a stick adorned at both ends with cock's or cassowary's feathers. The sticks are supposed to have been given to the lads by the devil at the time when he restored them to life, and they serve as a token that the lads have been in the spirit-land. When they return to their homes they totter in their walk, and enter the house backward, as if they had forgotten how to walk properly; or they enter the house by the back door. If a plate of food is given to them, they hold it upside down. They remain dumb, indicating their wants by signs only. All this is to show that they are still under the influence of the devil or the spirits. Their sponsors have to teach them all the common acts of life, as if they were new-born children. Further, upon leaving the Kakian house the boys are strictly forbidden to eat of certain fruits until the next celebration of the rites has taken place. And for twenty or thirty days their hair may not be combed by their mothers or sisters. At the end of that time the high priest takes them to a lonely place in the forest, and cuts off a lock of hair from the crown of each of their heads. After these initiatory rites the lads are deemed men, and may marry; it would be a scandal if they married before.

The simulation of death and resurrection or of a new birth at initiation appears to have lingered on, or at least to have left traces of itself, among peoples who have advanced far beyond the stage of savagery. Thus, after his investiture with the sacred thread—the symbol of his order—a Brahman is called “twice-born.” [pg 358] Manu says, “According to the injunction of the revealed texts the first birth of an Aryan is from his natural mother, the second happens on the tying of the girdle of Muñga grass, and the third on the initiation to the performance of a Srauta sacrifice.”919 A pretence of killing the candidate appears to have formed part of the initiation to the Mithraic mysteries.920

Thus, if I am right, wherever totemism is found, and wherever a pretence is made of killing and bringing to life again at initiation, there must exist or have existed not only a belief in the possibility of permanently depositing the soul in some external object—animal, plant, or what not—but an actual intention of so depositing it. If the question is put, why do men desire to deposit their life outside their bodies? the answer can only be that, like the giant in the fairy tale, they think it safer to do so than to carry it about with them, just as people deposit their money with a banker rather than carry it on their persons. We have seen that at critical periods the life or soul is sometimes temporarily deposited in a safe place till the danger is past. But institutions like totemism are not resorted to merely on special occasions of danger; they are systems into which every one, or at least every male, is obliged to be initiated at a certain period of life. Now the period of life at which initiation takes place is regularly puberty; and this fact suggests that the special danger which totemism and systems like it are intended to obviate is supposed not to arise till sexual maturity has been attained, in fact, that the danger [pg 359] apprehended is believed to attend the relation of the sexes to each other. It would be easy to prove by a long array of facts that the sexual relation is associated in the primitive mind with many supernatural perils; but the exact nature of the danger apprehended is still obscure. We may hope that a more exact acquaintance with savage modes of thought will in time disclose this central mystery of primitive society, and will thereby furnish the clue, not only to the social aspect of totemism (the prohibition of sexual union between persons of the same totem), but to the origin of the marriage system.

§ 5.—Conclusion.

Thus the view that Balder's life was in the mistletoe is entirely in harmony with primitive modes of thought. It may indeed sound like a contradiction that, if his life was in the mistletoe, he should nevertheless have been killed by a blow from it. But when a person's life is conceived as embodied in a particular object, with the existence of which his own existence is inseparably bound up, and the destruction of which involves his own, the object in question may be regarded and spoken of indifferently as the person's life or as his death, as happens in the fairy tales. Hence if a man's death is in an object, it is perfectly natural that he should be killed by a blow from it. In the fairy tales Koshchei the Deathless is killed by a blow from the egg or the stone in which his life or death is;921 the ogres burst when a certain grain of sand—doubtless containing their life or death—is carried over their [pg 360] heads;922 the magician dies when the stone in which his life or death is contained is put under his pillow;923 and the Tartar hero is warned that he may be killed by the golden arrow or golden sword in which his soul has been stowed away.924

The idea that the life of the oak was in the mistletoe was probably suggested, as I have said, by the observation that in winter the mistletoe growing on the oak remains green, while the oak itself is leafless. But the position of the plant—growing, not from the ground, but from the trunk or branches of the tree—might confirm this idea. Primitive man might think that, like himself, the oak-spirit had sought to deposit his life in some safe place, and for this purpose had pitched on the mistletoe, which, being in a sense neither on earth nor in heaven, was as secure a place as could be found. At the beginning of this chapter we saw that primitive man seeks to preserve the life of his human divinities by keeping them in a sort of intermediate position between earth and heaven, as the place where they are least likely to be assailed by the dangers that encompass the life of man on earth. We can therefore [pg 361] understand why in modern folk-medicine the mistletoe is not allowed to touch the ground; if it touches the ground, its healing virtue is supposed to be gone.925 This may be a survival of the old superstition that the plant in which the life of the sacred tree was concentrated should not be exposed to the risk incurred by contact with the ground. In an Indian legend, which offers a parallel to the Balder myth, Indra promised the demon Namuci not to kill him by day or by night, nor with what was wet or what was dry. But he killed him in the morning twilight by sprinkling over him the foam of the sea.926 The foam of the sea is just such an object as a savage might choose to put his life in, because it occupies that sort of intermediate or nondescript position between earth and sky or sea and sky in which primitive man sees safety. It is therefore not surprising that the foam of the river should be the totem of a clan in India.927 Again, the view that the mistletoe owes its mystic character partly to the fact of its not growing on the ground is confirmed by a parallel superstition about the mountain-ash or rowan-tree. In Jutland a rowan that is found growing out of the top of another tree is esteemed “exceedingly effective against witchcraft: since it does not grow on the ground witches have no power over it; if it is to have its full effect it must be cut on Ascension Day.”928 Hence it is placed over doors to prevent the ingress of witches.929 Similarly the mistletoe in Germany is still [pg 362] universally considered a protection against witchcraft, and in Sweden, as we saw, the mistletoe which is gathered on Midsummer Eve is attached to the ceiling of the house, the horse stall, or the cow's crib, in the belief that this renders the Troll powerless to injure man or beast.930

The view that the mistletoe was not merely the instrument of Balder's death, but that it contained his life, is countenanced by the analogy of a Scottish superstition. Tradition ran that the fate of the family of Hay was bound up with the mistletoe of a certain oak.

“While the mistletoe bats on Errol's oak,

And that oak stands fast,

The Hays shall flourish, and their good gray hawk

Shall not flinch before the blast.

“But when the root of the oak decays,

And the mistletoe dwines on its withered breast,

The grass shall grow on the Earl's hearthstone,

And the corbies craw in the falcon's nest.”

“A large oak with the mistletoe growing on it was long pointed out as the tree referred to. A piece of the mistletoe cut by a Hay was believed to have magical virtues. ‘The oak is gone and the estate is lost to the family,’ as a local historian says.”931 The idea that the fate of a family, as distinct from the lives of its members, is bound up with a particular plant or tree, is no doubt comparatively modern. The older view probably was that the lives of all the Hays were in this particular mistletoe, just as in the Indian story the lives of all the ogres are in a lemon; to break a twig of the mistletoe would then have been to kill one [pg 363] of the Hays. Similarly in the island of Rum, whose bold mountains the voyager from Oban to Skye observes to seaward, it was thought that if one of the family of Lachlin shot a deer on the mountain of Finchra, he would die suddenly or contract a distemper which would soon prove fatal.932 Probably the life of the Lachlins was bound up with the deer on Finchra, as the life of the Hays was bound up with the mistletoe on Errol's oak.

It is not a new opinion that the Golden Bough was the mistletoe.933 True, Virgil does not identify but only compares it with the mistletoe. But this may be only a poetical device to cast a mystic glamour over the humble plant. Or, more probably, his description was based on a popular superstition that at certain times the mistletoe blazed out into a supernatural golden glory. The poet tells how two doves, guiding Aeneas to the gloomy vale in whose depth grew the Golden Bough, alighted upon a tree, “whence shone a flickering gleam of gold. As in the woods in winter cold the mistletoe—a plant not native to its tree—is green with fresh leaves and twines its yellow berries about the boles; such seemed upon the shady oak the leafy gold, so rustled in the gentle breeze the golden leaf.”934 Here Virgil definitely describes the Golden Bough as growing on an oak, and compares it with the mistletoe. The inference is almost inevitable that the Golden Bough was nothing but the mistletoe seen through the haze of poetry or of popular superstition.

Now grounds have been shown for believing that [pg 364] the priest of the Arician grove—the King of the Wood—personified the tree on which grew the Golden Bough.935 Hence, if that tree was the oak, the King of the Wood must have been a personification of the oak-spirit. It is, therefore, easy to understand why, before he could be slain, it was necessary to break the Golden Bough. As an oak-spirit, his life or death was in the mistletoe on the oak, and so long as the mistletoe remained intact, he, like Balder, could not die. To slay him, therefore, it was necessary to break the mistletoe, and probably, as in the case of Balder, to throw it at him. And to complete the parallel, it is only necessary to suppose that the King of the Wood was formerly burned, dead or alive, at the midsummer fire festival which, as we have seen, was annually celebrated in the Arician grove.936 The perpetual fire which burned in the grove, like the perpetual fire under the oak at Romove, was probably fed with the sacred oak-wood; and thus it would be in a great fire of oak that the King of the Wood formerly met his end. At a later time, as I have suggested, his annual tenure of office was lengthened or shortened, as the case might be, by the rule which allowed him to live so long as he could prove his divine right by the strong hand. But he only escaped the fire to fall by the sword.

Thus it seems that at a remote age in the heart of Italy, beside the sweet lake of Nemi, the same fiery tragedy was annually enacted which Italian merchants and soldiers were afterwards to witness among their rude kindred, the Celts of Gaul, and which, if the [pg 365] Roman eagles had ever swooped on Norway, might have been found repeated with little difference among the barbarous Aryans of the North. The rite was probably an essential feature in the primitive Aryan worship of the oak.937

It only remains to ask, Why was the mistletoe called the Golden Bough? The name was not simply a poet's fancy, nor even peculiarly Italian; for in Welsh also the mistletoe is known as “the tree of pure gold.”938 The whitish-yellow of the mistletoe berries is hardly enough to account for the name. For Virgil says that the Bough was altogether golden, stem as well as leaves,939 and the same is implied in the Welsh name, “the tree of pure gold.” A clue to the real meaning of the name is furnished by the mythical fern-seed or fern-bloom.

We saw that fern-seed is popularly supposed to bloom like gold or fire on Midsummer Eve. Thus in Bohemia it is said that “on St. John's Day fern-seed blooms with golden blossoms that gleam like fire.”940 Now it is a property of this mythical fern-seed that whoever has it, or will ascend a mountain holding it in his hand on Midsummer Eve, will discover a vein of gold or will see the treasures of the earth shining with a bluish flame.941 And if you place fern-seed [pg 366] among money, the money will never decrease, however much of it you spend.942 Sometimes the fern-seed is supposed to bloom at Christmas, and whoever catches it will become very rich.943 Thus, on the principle of like by like, fern-seed is supposed to discover gold because it is itself golden; and for a similar reason it enriches its possessor with an unfailing supply of gold. But while the fern-seed is described as golden, it is equally described as glowing and fiery.944 Hence, when we consider that two great days for gathering the fabulous seed are Midsummer Eve and Christmas—that is, the two solstices (for Christmas is nothing but an old heathen celebration of the winter solstice)—we are led to regard the fiery aspect of the fern-seed as primary, and its golden aspect as secondary and derivative. Fern-seed, in fact, would seem to be an emanation of the sun's fire at the two turning-points of its course, the summer and winter solstices. This view is confirmed by a German story in which a hunter is said to have procured fern-seed by shooting at the sun on Midsummer Day at noon; three drops of blood fell down, which he caught in a white cloth, and these blood-drops were the fern-seed.945 Here the blood is clearly the blood of the sun, from which the fern-seed is thus directly derived. Thus it may be taken as certain that fern-seed is golden, because it is believed to be an emanation of the sun's golden fire.

Now, like fern-seed, the mistletoe is gathered [pg 367] either at Midsummer or Christmas946—that is, at the summer and winter solstices—and, like fern-seed, it is supposed to possess the power of revealing treasures in the earth. On Midsummer Eve people in Sweden make divining-rods of mistletoe or of four different kinds of wood, one of which must be mistletoe. The treasure-seeker places the rod on the ground after sundown, and when it rests directly over treasure, the rod begins to move as if it were alive.947 Now, if the mistletoe discovers gold, it must be in its character of the Golden Bough; and if it is gathered at the solstices, must not the Golden Bough, like the golden fern-seed, be an emanation of the sun's fire? The question cannot be answered with a simple affirmative. We have seen that the primitive Aryans probably kindled the midsummer bonfires as sun-charms, that is, with the intention of supplying the sun with fresh fire. But as this fire was always elicited by the friction of oak wood,948 it must have appeared to the primitive Aryan that the sun was periodically recruited from the fire which resided in the sacred oak. In other words, the oak must have seemed to him the original storehouse or reservoir of the fire which was from time to time drawn out to feed the sun. But the life of the oak was conceived to be in the mistletoe; therefore the mistletoe must have contained the seed or germ of the [pg 368] fire which was elicited by friction from the wood of the oak. Thus, instead of saying that the mistletoe was an emanation of the sun's fire, it would be more correct to say that the sun's fire was regarded as an emanation of the mistletoe. No wonder, then, that the mistletoe shone with a golden splendour, and was called the Golden Bough. Probably, however, like fern-seed, it was thought to assume its golden aspect only at those stated times, especially midsummer, when fire was drawn from the oak to light up the sun.949 At Pulverbatch, in Shropshire, it was believed within living memory that the oak-tree blooms on Midsummer Eve and the blossom withers before daylight.950 This fleeting bloom of the oak, if I am right, could originally have been nothing but the mistletoe in its character of the Golden Bough. As Shropshire borders on Wales, the superstition may be Welsh in its immediate origin, though probably the belief is a fragment of the primitive Aryan creed. In some parts of Italy, as we saw,951 peasants still go out on Midsummer morning to search the oak-trees for the “oil of St. John,” which, like the mistletoe, heals all wounds, and is doubtless the mistletoe itself in its glorified aspect. Thus it is easy to understand how a title like the Golden Bough or the “tree of pure gold,” so little descriptive of the real appearance of the plant, should have held its ground as a name for the mistletoe in Italy and Wales, and probably in other parts of the Aryan world.952

[pg 369]

Now, too, we can fully understand why Virbius came to be confounded with the sun. If Virbius was, as I have tried to show, a tree-spirit, he must have been the spirit of the oak on which grew the Golden Bough; for tradition represented him as the first of the Kings of the Wood. As an oak-spirit he must have been supposed periodically to rekindle the sun's fire, and might therefore easily be confounded with the sun itself. Similarly we can explain why Balder, an oak-spirit, was described as “so fair of face and so shining that a light went forth from him,”953 and why he should have been so often taken to be the sun. And in general we may say that in primitive society, when the only known way of making fire is by the friction of wood, the savage must necessarily conceive fire as a property stored away, like sap or juice, in trees, from which he has laboriously to extract it. Thus all trees, or at least the particular sorts of trees whose wood he employs in fire-making, must be regarded by him as reservoirs of hidden fire, and it is natural that he should describe them by epithets like golden, shining, or bright. May not this have been the origin of the name, “the Bright or Shining One” (Zeus, Jove) by which the ancient Greeks and Italians designated their supreme god?954 It is at least highly significant that, amongst [pg 370] both Greeks and Italians, the oak should have been the tree of the supreme god, that at his most ancient shrines, both in Greece and Italy, this supreme god should have been actually represented by an oak, and that so soon as the barbarous Aryans of Northern Europe appear in the light of history, they should be found, amid all diversities of language, of character, and of country, nevertheless at one in worshipping the oak as the chief object of their religious reverence, and extracting their sacred fire from its wood. If we are to judge of the primitive religion of the European Aryans by comparing the religions of the different branches of the stock, the highest place in their pantheon must certainly be assigned to the oak. The result, then, of our inquiry is to make it probable that, down to the time of the Roman Empire and the beginning of our era, the primitive worship of the Aryans was maintained nearly in its original form in the sacred grove at Nemi, as in the oak woods of Gaul, of Prussia, and of Scandinavia; and that the King of the Wood lived and died as an incarnation of the supreme Aryan god, whose life was in the mistletoe or Golden Bough.

If, in bidding farewell to Nemi, we look around us for the last time, we shall find the lake and its surroundings not much changed from what they were in the days when Diana and Virbius still received the homage of their worshippers in the sacred grove. The temple of Diana, indeed, has disappeared, and the King of the Wood no longer stands sentinel over the [pg 371] Golden Bough. But Nemi's woods are still green, and at evening you may hear the church bells of Albano, and perhaps, if the air be still, of Rome itself, ringing the Angelus. Sweet and solemn they chime out from the distant city, and die lingeringly away across the wide Campagnan marshes. Le roi est mort, vive le roi!

[pg 373]

Note. Offerings of first-fruits.

We have seen (vol. ii. p. 68 sqq.) that primitive peoples often partake of the new corn sacramentally, because they suppose it to be instinct with a divine spirit or life. At a later age, when the fruits of the earth are conceived as produced rather than as animated by a divinity, the new fruits are no longer partaken of sacramentally as the body and blood of a god; but a portion of them is presented as a thank-offering to the divine beings who are believed to have produced them. Sometimes the first-fruits are presented to the king, probably in his character of a god. Till the first-fruits have been offered to the deity or the king, people are not at liberty to eat of the new crops. But, as it is not always possible to draw a sharp line between the sacrament and the sacrifice of first-fruits, it may be well to round off this part of the subject by appending some miscellaneous examples of the latter.

Among the Basutos, when the corn has been threshed and winnowed, it is left in a heap on the threshing-floor. Before it can be touched a religious ceremony must be performed. The persons to whom the corn belongs bring a new vessel to the spot, in which they boil some of the grain. When it is boiled they throw a few handfuls of it on the heap of corn, saying, “Thank you, gods; give us bread to-morrow also!” When this is done the rest is eaten, and the provision for the year is considered pure and fit to eat.955 Here the sacrifice of the first-fruits to the gods is the prominent idea, which comes out again in the custom of leaving in the threshing-floor a little hollow filled with grain, as a thank-offering to the gods.956 [pg 374] Still the Basutos retain a lively sense of the sanctity of the corn in itself; for, so long as it is exposed to view, all defiled persons are carefully kept from it. If it is necessary to employ a defiled person in carrying home the harvest, he remains at some distance while the sacks are being filled, and only approaches to place them upon the draught oxen. As soon as the load is deposited at the dwelling he retires, and under no pretext may he help to pour the corn into the baskets in which it is kept.957

In Ashantee a harvest festival is held in September when the yams are ripe. During the festival the king eats the new yams, but none of the people may eat them till the close of the festival, which lasts a fortnight. During its continuance the grossest liberty prevails; theft, intrigue, and assault go unpunished, and each sex abandons itself to its passions.958 The Hovas of Madagascar present the first sheaves of the new grain to the sovereign. The sheaves are carried in procession to the palace from time to time as the grain ripens.959 So in Burma, when the pangati fruits ripen, some of them used to be taken to the king's palace that he might eat of them; no one might partake of them before the king.960

Every year, when they gather their first crops, the Kochs of Assam offer some of the first-fruits to their ancestors, calling to them by name and clapping their hands.961 In August, when the rice ripens, the Hos offer the first-fruits of the harvest to Sing Bonga, who dwells in the sun. Along with the new rice a white cock is sacrificed; and till the sacrifice has been offered no one may eat the new rice.962 Among the hill tribes near Rajamahall, in India, when the kosarane grain is being reaped in November or early in December, a festival is held as a thanksgiving before the new grain is eaten. On a day appointed by the chief a goat is sacrificed by two men to a god called Chitariah Gossaih, after which the chief himself sacrifices a fowl. Then the vassals repair to their fields, offer thanksgiving, make an oblation to Kull Gossaih (who is described as the Ceres of these mountaineers), and then return to their houses to eat of the new kosarane. As soon as the [pg 375] inhabitants have assembled at the chief's house—the men sitting on one side and the women on the other—a hog, a measure of kosarane, and a pot of spirits are presented to the chief, who in return blesses his vassals, and exhorts them to industry and good behaviour; “after which, making a libation in the names of all their gods, and of their dead, he drinks, and also throws a little of the kosarane away, repeating the same pious exclamations.” Drinking and festivity then begin, and are kept up for several days. The same tribes have another festival at reaping the Indian corn in August or September. Every man repairs to his fields with a hog, a goat, or a fowl, which he sacrifices to Kull Gossaih. Then, having feasted, he returns home, where another repast is prepared. On this day it is customary for every family in the village to distribute to every house a little of what they have prepared for their feast. Should any person eat of the new kosarane or the new Indian corn before the festival and public thanksgiving at the reaping of these crops, the chief fines him a white cock, which is sacrificed to Chitariah.963 In the Central Provinces of India the first grain of the season is always offered to the god Bhímsen or Bhím Deo.964 In the Punjaub, when sugar-cane is planted, a woman puts on a necklace and walks round the field, winding thread on to a spindle;965 and when the sugar-cane is cut the first-fruits are offered on an altar, which is built close to the press and is sacred to the sugar-cane god. Afterwards the first-fruits are given to Brahmans. Also, when the women begin to pick the cotton, they go round the field eating rice-milk, the first mouthful of which they spit upon the field toward the west; and the first cotton picked is exchanged at the village shop for its weight in salt, which is prayed over and kept in the house till the picking is finished.966

In the island of Tjumba, East Indies, a festival is held after harvest. Vessels filled with rice are presented as a thank-offering to the gods. Then the sacred stone at the foot of a palm-tree is sprinkled with the blood of a sacrificed animal; and rice, with some of [pg 376] the flesh, is laid on the stone for the gods. The palm-tree is hung with lances and shields.967 The Dyaks of Borneo hold a feast of first-fruits when the paddy (unhusked rice) is ripe. The priestesses, accompanied by a gong and drum, go in procession to the farms and gather several bunches of the ripe paddy. These are brought back to the village, washed in cocoa-nut water, and laid round a bamboo altar, which at the harvest festivals is erected in the common room of the largest house. The altar is gaily decorated with white and red streamers, and is hung with the sweet-smelling blossom of the areca palm. The feast lasts two days, during which the village is tabooed; no one may leave it. Only fowls are killed, and dancing and gong-beating go on day and night. When the festival is over the people are free to get in their crops.968

The pounding of the new paddy is the occasion of a harvest festival which is celebrated all over Celebes. The religious ceremonies which accompany the feast were witnessed by Dr. B. F. Matthes in July 1857. Two mats were spread on the ground, each with a pillow on it. On one of the pillows were placed a man's clothes and a sword, on the other a woman's clothes. These were seemingly intended to represent the deceased ancestors. Rice and water were placed before the two dummy figures, and they were sprinkled with the new paddy. Also dishes of rice were set down for the rest of the family and the slaves of the deceased. This was the end of the ceremony.969 The Minahassa of Celebes have a festival of “eating the new rice.” Fowls or pigs are killed; some of the flesh, with rice and palm-wine, is set apart for the gods, and then the eating and drinking begin.970 The people of Kobi and Sariputi, two villages on the north-east coast of Ceram, offer the first-fruits of the paddy, in the form of cooked rice, with tobacco, etc., to their ancestors, as a token of gratitude. The ceremony is called “feeding the dead.”971 In the Tenimber and Timorlaut Islands, East Indies, [pg 377] the first-fruits of the paddy, along with live fowls and pigs, are offered to the matmate. The matmate are the spirits of their ancestors, which are worshipped as guardian-spirits or household gods. They are supposed to enter the house through an opening in the roof, and to take up their abode temporarily in their skulls, or in images of wood or ivory, in order to partake of the offerings and to help the family. They also take the form of birds, pigs, crocodiles, turtles, sharks, etc.972 In Amboina, after the rice or other harvest has been gathered in, some of the new fruits are offered to the gods, and till this is done, the priests may not eat of them. A portion of the new rice, or whatever it may be, is boiled, and milk of the cocoa-nut is poured on it, mixed with Indian saffron. It is then taken to the place of sacrifice and offered to the god. Some people also pour out oil before the deity; and if any of the oil is left over, they take it home as a holy and priceless treasure, wherewith they smear the forehead and breast of sick people and whole people, in the firm conviction that the oil confers all kinds of blessings.973 The Irayas and Catalangans of Luzon, tribes of the Malay stock, but of mixed blood, worship chiefly the souls of their ancestors under the name of anitos, to whom they offer the first-fruits of the harvest. The anitos are household deities; some of them reside in pots in the corners of the houses; and miniature houses, standing near the dwelling-house, are especially sacred to them.974

In certain tribes of Fiji “the first-fruits of the yam harvest are presented to the ancestors in the Nanga [sacred stone enclosure] with great ceremony, before the bulk of the crop is dug for the people's use, and no man may taste of the new yams until the presentation has been made. The yams thus offered are piled in the Great Nanga, and are allowed to rot there. If any one were impiously bold enough to appropriate them to his own use, he would be smitten with madness. The mission teacher before mentioned told me that when he visited the Nanga he saw among the weeds with which it was overgrown numerous yam vines which had sprung up out of the piles of decayed offerings. Great feasts are made at the presentations of the first-fruits, which are times of public rejoicing, and the Nanga itself is frequently spoken of as the Mbaki, or [pg 378] Harvest.”975 In other parts of Fiji the practice with regard to the first-fruits seems to have been different, for we are told by another observer that “the first-fruits of the yams, which are always presented at the principal temple of the district, become the property of the priests, and form their revenue, although the pretence of their being required for the use of the god is generally kept up.”976 In Tana, one of the New Hebrides, the general name for gods appeared to be aremha, which meant “a dead man.” The spirits of departed ancestors were among the gods of the people. Chiefs who reached an advanced age were deified after their death, addressed by name, and prayed to on various occasions. They were supposed to preside especially over the growth of the yams and fruit-trees. The first-fruits were presented to them. A little of the new fruit was laid on a stone, or on a shelving branch of the tree, or on a rude temporary altar, made of a few sticks lashed together with strips of bark, in the form of a table, with its four feet stuck in the ground. All being quiet, the chief acted as high priest, and prayed aloud as follows: “Compassionate father! here is some food for you; eat it; be kind to us on account of it.” Then all the people shouted. This took place about noon, and afterwards the assembled people feasted and danced till midnight or morning.977

In some of the Kingsmill Islands the god most commonly worshipped was called Tubuériki. He was represented by a flat coral stone, of irregular shape, about three feet long by eighteen inches wide, set up on one end in the open air. Leaves of the cocoa-nut palm were tied about it, considerably increasing its size and height. The leaves were changed every month, that they might be always fresh. The worship paid to the god consisted in repeating prayers before the stone, and laying beside it a portion of the food prepared by the people for their own use. This they did at their daily meals, at festivals, and whenever they specially wished to propitiate the favour of the god. The first-fruits of the season were always offered to him. Every family of distinction had one of these stones which was considered rather in the light of a family altar than as an idol.978

[pg 379]

The following is a description of the festival of first-fruits as it was celebrated in Tonga in the days when a European flag rarely floated among the islands of the Pacific. “Inachi. This word means literally a share or portion of any thing that is to be, or has been, distributed out: but in the sense here mentioned it means that portion of the fruits of the earth, and other eatables, which is offered to the gods in the person of the divine chief Tooitonga, which allotment is made once a year, just before the yams in general are arrived at a state of maturity; those which are used in this ceremony being planted sooner than others, and, consequently, they are the first-fruits of the yam season. The object of this offering is to insure the protection of the gods, that their favour may be extended to the welfare of the nation generally, and in particular to the productions of the earth, of which yams are the most important.

“The time for planting most kinds of yams is about the latter end of July, but the species called caho-caho, which is always used in this ceremony, is put in the ground about a month before, when, on each plantation, there is a small piece of land chosen and fenced in, for the purpose of growing a couple of yams of the above description. As soon as they have arrived at a state of maturity, the How [King] sends a messenger to Tooitonga, stating that the yams for the inachi are fit to be taken up, and requesting that he would appoint a day for the ceremony; he generally fixes on the tenth day afterwards, reckoning the following day for the first. There are no particular preparations made till the day before the ceremony; at night, however, the sound of the conch is heard occasionally in different parts of the islands, and as the day of the ceremony approaches, it becomes more frequent, so that the people of almost every plantation sound the conch three or four times, which, breaking in upon the silence of the night, has a pleasing effect, particularly at Vavaoo, where the number of woods and hills send back repeated echoes, adding greatly to the effect. The day before the ceremony the yams are dug up, and ornamented with a kind of ribbon prepared from the inner membrane of the leaf of a species of pandanus, and dyed red....

“The sun has scarcely set when the sound of the conch begins again to echo through the island, increasing as the night advances. At the Mooa [capital] and all the plantations the voices of men and women are heard singing Nófo óoa tegger gnaoóe, óooa gnaoóe, Rest thou, doing no work; thou shalt not work. This increases till midnight, men generally singing the first part of the sentence, and the [pg 380] women the last: it then subsides for three or four hours, and again increases as the sun rises. Nobody, however, is seen stirring out in the public roads till about eight o'clock, when the people from all quarters of the island are seen advancing towards the Mooa, and canoes from all the other islands are landing their men; so that all the inhabitants of Tonga seem approaching by sea and land, singing and sounding the conch. At the Mooa itself the universal bustle of preparation is seen and heard; and the different processions entering from various quarters of men and women, all dressed up in new gnatoos, ornamented with red ribbons and wreaths of flowers, and the men armed with spears and clubs, betoken the importance of the ceremony about to be performed. Each party brings in its yams in a basket, which is carried in the arms with great care by the principal vassal of the chief to whom the plantation may belong. The baskets are deposited in the malái979 (in the Mooa), and some of them begin to employ themselves in slinging the yams, each upon the centre of a pole about eight or nine feet long, and four inches diameter. The proceedings are regulated by attending matabooles.980 The yams being all slung, each pole is carried by two men upon their shoulders, one walking before the other, and the yam hanging between them, ornamented with red ribbons. The procession begins to move towards the grave of the last Tooitonga (which is generally in the neighbourhood, or the grave of one of his family will do), the men advancing in a single line, every two bearing a yam, with a slow and measured pace, sinking at every step, as if their burden were of immense weight. In the meantime the chiefs and matabooles are seated in a semicircle before the grave, with their heads bowed down, and their hands clasped before them.” The procession then marched round the grave twice or thrice in a great circle, the conchs blowing and the men singing. Next the yams, still suspended from the poles, were deposited before the grave, and their bearers sat down beside them. One of the matabooles of Tooitonga now addressed the gods generally, and afterwards particularly, mentioning the late Tooitonga, and the names of several others. He thanked them for their divine bounty in favouring the land with the prospect of so good a harvest, and prayed that their beneficence might be continued in future. [pg 381] When he had finished, the men rose and resumed their loads, and after parading two or three times round the grave, marched back to the malái, singing and blowing the conchs as before. The chiefs and matabooles soon followed to the same place, where the yams had been again deposited. Here the company sat down in a great circle, presided over by Tooitonga. Then the other articles that formed part of the Inachi were brought forward, consisting of dried fish, mats, etc., which, with the yams, were divided into shares. About a fourth was allotted to the gods, and appropriated by the priests; about a half fell to the king; and the remainder belonged to Tooitonga. The materials of the Inachi having been carried away, the company set themselves to drink cava, and a mataboole addressed them, saying that the gods would protect them, and grant them long lives, if they continued to observe the religious ceremonies and to pay respect to the chiefs.981

The Samoans used to present the first-fruits to the spirits (aitus) and chiefs.982 For example, a family whose god was in the form of an eel presented the first-fruits of their taro plantations to the eel.983 In Tahiti “the first fish taken periodically on their shores, together with a number of kinds regarded as sacred, were conveyed to the altar. The first-fruits of their orchards and gardens were also taumaha, or offered, with a portion of their live stock, which consisted of pigs, dogs, and fowls, as it was supposed death would be inflicted on the owner or the occupant of the land from which the god should not receive such acknowledgment.”984 In Huahine, one of the Society Islands, the first-fruits were presented to the god Tani. A poor person was expected to bring two of the earliest fruits gathered, of whatever kind; a raatira had to bring ten, and chiefs and princes had to bring more, according to their rank and riches. They brought the fruits to the temple, where they threw them down on the ground, with the words, “Here, Tani, I have brought you something to eat.”985 The chief gods of the Easter Islanders were Make-Make and Haua. To these they offered the first of all the produce of the ground.986 Amongst the Maoris the offering of the first-fruits of the [pg 382] sweet potatoes to Pani, son of Rongo, the god of sweet potatoes, was a solemn religious ceremony.987

It has been affirmed that the old Prussians offered the first-fruits of their crops and of their fishing to the god Curcho, but doubt rests on the statement.988 The Romans sacrificed the first ears of corn to Ceres, and the first of the new wine to Liber; and until the priests had offered these sacrifices, the people might not eat the new corn nor drink the new wine.989

The chief solemnity of the Natchez, an Indian tribe on the Lower Mississippi, was the Harvest Festival or the Festival of New Fire. When the time for the festival drew near, a crier went through the villages calling upon the people to prepare new vessels and new garments, to wash their houses, and to burn the old grain, the old garments, and the old utensils in a common fire. He also proclaimed an amnesty to criminals. Next day he appeared again, commanding the people to fast for three days, to abstain from all pleasures, and to make use of the medicine of purification. Thereupon all the people took some drops extracted from a root which they called the “root of blood.” It was a kind of plantain and distilled a red liquor which acted as a violent emetic. During their three days' fast the people kept silence. At the end of it the crier proclaimed that the festival would begin on the following day. So next morning, as soon as it began to grow light in the sky, the people streamed from all quarters towards the temple of the Sun. The temple was a large building with two doors, one opening to the east, the other to the west. On this morning the eastern door of the temple stood open. Facing the eastern door was an altar, placed so as to catch the first beams of the rising sun. An image of a chouchouacha (a small marsupial) stood upon the altar; on its right was an image of a rattlesnake, on its left an image of a marmoset. Before these images a fire of oak bark burned perpetually. Once a year only, on the eve of the Harvest Festival, was the sacred flame suffered to die out. To the right of the altar, on “this pious morn,” stood the great chief, who took his title and traced his descent from the Sun. To the [pg 383] left of the altar stood his wife. Round them were grouped, according to their ranks, the war chiefs, the sachems, the heralds, and the young braves. In front of the altar were piled bundles of dry reeds, stacked in concentric rings.

The high priest, standing on the threshold of the temple, kept his eyes fixed on the eastern horizon. Before presiding at the festival he had to plunge thrice into the Mississippi. In his hands he held two pieces of dry wood which he kept rubbing slowly against each other, muttering magic words. At his side two acolytes held two cups filled with a kind of black sherbet. All the women, their backs turned to the east, each leaning with one hand on her rude mattock and supporting her infant with the other, stood in a great semicircle at the gate of the temple. Profound silence reigned throughout the multitude while the priest watched attentively the growing light in the east. As soon as the diffused light of dawn began to be shot with beams of fire, he quickened the motion of the two pieces of wood which he held in his hands; and at the moment when the upper edge of the sun's disc appeared above the horizon, fire flashed from the wood and was caught in tinder. At the same instant the women outside the temple faced round and held up their infants and their mattocks to the rising sun.

The great chief and his wife now drank the black liquor. The priests kindled the circle of dried reeds; fire was set to the heap of oak bark on the altar, and from this sacred flame all the hearths of the village were rekindled. No sooner were the circles of reeds consumed than the chief's wife came forth from the temple and placing herself at the head of the women marched in procession to the harvest fields, whither the men were not allowed to follow them. They went to gather the first sheaves of maize and returned to the temple bearing them on their heads. Some of the sheaves they presented to the high priest, who laid them on the altar. Others they used to bake the unleavened bread which was to be eaten in the evening. The eastern door of the sanctuary was now closed, and the western door was opened.

When the day began to decline, the multitude assembled once more at the temple, this time at its western gate, where they formed a great crescent, with the horns turned toward the west. The unleavened bread was held up and presented to the setting sun, and a priest struck up a hymn in praise of his descending light. [pg 384] When darkness had fallen the whole plain twinkled with fires, round which the people feasted; and the sounds of music and revelry broke the silence of night.990

[pg 385]

Index.

Aachen, fire festival at, ii. 251

Aargau, trees planted at births in, ii. 330

Aberdeenshire, ceremony at the cutting of the last sheaf in, i. 345

Abyssinia, rain-making on the outskirts of, i. 53

Abyssinian festivals, ii. 171

Acagchemen tribe, adoration of the buzzard by the, ii. 90, 91

Adonis, myth and worship of, i. 279-282, 296;
connection with vegetation, i. 281;
gardens of, i. 284-296;
rites of, similar to those of Osiris, i. 319, 320;
probable origin of the cult of, i. 363;
lament of, i. 280, 399;
as a pig, ii. 49, 50

Aegira, blood drunk at, before prophesying, i. 34

Aethiopian kings confined to their palaces, i. 164

Afghan Boundary Mission, reception of the, by the natives, i. 155

Afghanistan, reception of strangers in, i. 155

Africa, weather kings common in, i. 44;
reluctance to accept the crown in some parts of West, i. 118, 119;
priestly kings on the west coast of, i. 112;
human heart eaten in the Shire Highlands of, ii. 89

Ague, cure for, ii. 153

Aht Indians, seclusion of girls amongst the, ii. 229, 230

Ain, May-day customs in the Département de l', i. 88

Aino type of sacrament, ii. 134-136

Ainos, bear festival of the, ii. 101-105;
preparation for fishing, ii. 122;
treatment of the bear, ii. 132

Alaskan sable hunters, ii. 116

Alban hills, i. 1;
mount, i. 2

Albania, Easter Eve custom in, i. 276; ii. 181;
scapegoat in, ii. 201, 202;
beating in, ii. 216

Alexandria, commemoration of the death of Adonis and Aphrodite at, i. 279, 280

Alfoers, function of their high priest Leleen, i. 166;
ceremony for restoring the soul, i. 134, 135;
priest's hair uncut, i. 194;
priest sows the first rice seed and plucks the first ripe rice, ii. 71;
driving away the devil by the, ii. 159

Algeria, midsummer fires in, ii. 266

Alligator, the man-eating, ii. 109

Alps, May-day custom in the, i. 104

Altisheim, harvest custom in, i. 337

Altmark, Whitsuntide customs in, i. 98;

Easter bonfires, ii. 254

Amboina, soul-abstracting in, i. 139, 140;
sprinkling the sick with spices in, i. 154;
hair burying in, i. 201;
disease boats in, ii. 188;
strength thought to be in the hair in, ii. 328;
offerings of first-fruits in, ii. 377

Amenhôtep IV and the sun-god, i. 314, 315

America, belief in the resurrection of the buffalo in the western prairies of, ii. 123

Ammon, rage of the sun-god Ra against, i. 315;
rams held sacred by the worshippers of, ii. 92, 93

Andamanese belief in the reflection as the soul, i. 145

Anderida, wealds of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, remnants of the forest of, i. 57

Angel-man, beheading the, ii. 267

Angoulême, custom of burning a poplar on St. Peter's Day in, i. 101

Angoy, king of, must have no bodily defects, i. 221

[pg 386]

Animal worship, two types of, ii. 133, 134;
sacred carried in procession, ii. 139-147;
employed as a scapegoat, ii. 189-191, 194, 195;
eaten to obtain its quality, ii. 86, 87;
spared by savages from fear of the vengeance of other animals of the same kind, ii. 107-110;
respect shown by the savage for the animal he kills, ii. 110-132;

Savage belief in the resurrection of the, ii. 122-125;
burnt as representative of the spirit of vegetation, ii. 282-284

Annamites, soul superstition amongst the, i. 132

Antaymour kings responsible for the general welfare, i. 46

Antrim, harvest custom in, i. 339

Apache Indians, rain-making by the, i. 15

Apalai Indians, ceremony on the arrival of a stranger by the, i. 153, 154

Aphrodite, i. 279

Apis the sacred Egyptian bull drowned, ii. 61 sq.

Apollo Diradiotes, blood of sacrificial lamb drunk in the temple of, i. 34

Apple-tree, superstition with regard to the, by barren women, i. 73

Arabia, belief concerning a man's shadow in, i. 143

Arabian stories, the external soul in, ii. 318, 319

Arabic belief in the properties of lion's fat, ii. 86

Arabs, rain-making by the heathen, i. 20

Arcadia, rain-charm in, i. 21;
beating the scapegoat, ii. 214

Archon of Plataeae, the, may not touch iron, i. 173

Arden, forest of, i. 57

Argive tradition concerning Dionysus, i. 324, 325

Ariadne, marriage of, i. 104

Aricia, “there are many Manii at,” explanation of the proverb, ii. 82, 83

Arician Grove, the, i. 1-6;
ritual, ii. 63, 64;
harvest celebration, ii. 67;

Manius the traditional founder of the, ii. 84;
sacrament, ii. 83, 84

Aru Islands, soul superstition in the, i. 125, 126;
custom after a death in the, i. 147;
hair cutting, i. 201;
dog's flesh eaten, ii. 87

Arval Brothers, priestly college of the, and the sacred grove, i. 65;
sacred grove of the, and iron, i. 172

Aryans, the, tree worshippers, i. 56-59, 99;
totemism and the, ii. 38;
oak the sacred tree of the, ii. 291;
primitive worship, ii. 370

Ascension Day custom, i. 265

Aschbach, harvest custom in, i. 368

Ash Wednesday customs, i. 254-257; ii. 29, 48, 251

Ashantee, royal blood not shed in, i. 181;
harvest festival in, ii. 374

Asia Minor, Pontiffs of, i. 7, 8

Athene, relation of the goat to, ii. 63

Athens, annual marriage of the queen to Dionysus at, i. 103, 104;
rites of Adonis observed in, i. 284, 285;
scapegoats in, ii. 212;
ritual at the sacrifice of the ox in, ii. 38, 39, 41

Attis, myth and festival of, i. 296-298; ii. 50;
a tree-spirit or corn-spirit, i. 298-300;
probability that the high priest of, was slain in the character of the god, i. 300;
probable origin of the cult of, i. 363;
relation to Lityerses, i. 396, 397;
as a pig, ii. 49, 50

Australia, rain-making in, i. 20, 21;
ceremony on entering strange territory by the Australians, i. 156;
seclusion of women in, i. 170;
blood may not be spilt on the ground in some parts of, i. 181, 182;
hair burning after child-birth in, i. 206;
totemism, ii. 133, 334-336

Australian blacks' charm for staying the sun, i. 25;
attack the dust columns of red sand, i. 29, 30;
fear of women's blood, i. 185, 186; ii. 238;
remedy for toothache, ii. 149;
annual expulsion of ghosts, ii. 163

—— Kamilaroi, cannibalism by the, ii. 88

—— medicine man and recall of the soul, i. 131, 132

—— Wotjobaluk, rain-making by the, i. 14

Austria, charm for lulling the wind in, i. 28;
old peasant belief in the souls of trees in, i. 61

Auxerre, reaping custom at, i. 335

Axim, annual expulsion of devils at, ii. 170

Aymara Indians, scapegoat used by the, in times of plague, ii. 191

Aztecs, the, and the reflection-soul, i. 145;
aversion to wine, i. 185

Baba, a name given to the last sheaf, i. 339, 340

Babar Islands, restoration of the soul in the, i. 137;
the soul believed to be in the shadow, i. 142

Babylon, Sacaea festival at, i. 226

Babylonian legend concerning the goddess Istar, i. 287

[pg 387]

Baffin Land, expulsion of evil by the Eskimo of, ii. 165

Bagota, restrictions on the heir to the throne in, ii. 225

Balder killed by the mistletoe, ii. 244 sq.;
the oak, ii. 295;
life of, in the mistletoe, ii. 359-362

Balder's bale-fires, ii. 289 sq.

Bali, mice and the rice fields of the island of, ii. 131;
periodic expulsion of devils, ii. 174, 175;
custom at a birth, ii. 329

Balquhidder, harvest custom in, i. 344

Banjar kings held responsible for the weather, i. 46, 47

Banks Islanders, the tamaniu of the, ii. 331, 332

Baranton, fountain of, i. 15

Barcelona, Mid-Lent custom in, i. 262

Bari tribe, rain kings of the, i. 52, 53

Barotse, the chief a demigod in, i. 46

Barren women's superstition regarding the apple-tree, i. 73

Bassam, Great, sacrifice of oxen at, ii. 41, 42;
ceremony of driving out the evil spirit, ii. 161, 162

Basutos, the, and the reflection-soul, i. 145;
cannibalism by the, ii. 89;
offerings of first-fruits, ii. 373

Bat, the, ii. 334-337

Battambang, rain-charm in, i. 19

Battas, the, fighting the wind, i. 28, 29;
refuse to fell trees, i. 64, 65;
soul superstition, i. 124, 125, 135, 136;
soul straying, i. 160;
ceremony of making the curse to fly away by the, ii. 150, 151;
totemism amongst the, ii. 340, 341;
belief in plurality of souls, ii. 341

Bavaria, May custom in, i. 84;

Whitsuntide representative of the tree-spirit in, i. 242;
harvest custom in, i. 342; ii. 27, 28;
cure for fever, ii. 153;
Easter bonfires in, ii. 254;
midsummer bonfires in, ii. 278

Bear, Shrovetide, i. 254, 255;
sacrifice of the, ii. 99-108;
ceremony at killing a, ii. 111-113, 115;
ceremony before a bear-hunt, ii. 112, 113

Bears, dead, treated with respect, ii. 111-113

Beasts, divine, held responsible for the course of nature, i. 48

Beating as a ceremonial purification, ii. 213-217, 232-234

Beauce, straw man in, ii. 40

Beavers, superstition about killing, ii. 116

Bechuanaland, rain-charm in, i. 18;
sun superstition in, i. 23;
hack-thorn held sacred in, i. 69;
purification after travel, i. 157;
crocodile superstition in, ii. 55, 56;
transference of ills in, ii. 149

Bedouins, pursuing the wind, i. 29

Belfast, harvest custom at, i. 336, 337

Belgium, procession with wicker giant in, ii. 281

Belli-Paaro, ceremony of, in Quoja, ii. 347, 348

Beltane fires, ii. 254-258

Bengal, Gardens of Adonis in, i. 288, 289

Bernkastel, reaping custom in, ii. 15

Berry, belief regarding the birth of the corn-spirit in, ii. 23;
harvest custom, ii. 26

Bhagats, mock human sacrifices by the, i. 252, 253

Bhotan, man worshippers in, i. 42

Biajas of Borneo, expulsion of diseases to sea by the, ii. 192

Bidasari, ii. 325 sq.

Bilaspur, custom at, on the death of a Rajah, i. 232

Birch-tree dressed in women's clothes in Russia at Whitsuntide, i. 77

Births, trees planted at, ii. 229, 230

Bison, resurrection of the, ii. 122, 123

Bithynia, lament by the reapers in, i. 365

Black Lake, i. 15

Blankenfelde, harvest custom in, i. 370

Bleeding trees, i. 61

Blekinge, midsummer ceremonies in, i. 292

Blood, the soul thought to be in the, i. 178, 179;
not eaten, ib.;
royal blood not spilt upon the ground, i. 179-183;
ill effect of seeing, i. 185, 186;
dread of contact with, i. 185-187;
primitive dread of menstruous, ii. 238-241

Blood-drinking, inspiration by, i. 34, 35

Boba, a name given to the last sheaf, i. 340, 341

Boeotians of Plataea, festival of the, i. 100-103

Boeroe, ceremony at the rice harvest in, ii. 71

Bohemian midsummer custom, i. 79; ii. 259;
Mid-Lent custom, i. 82;
Whit Monday custom, i. 91, 244-247;
ceremony of carrying out Death, i. 258-260;
superstition regarding death, i. 260;
ceremony of bringing back summer, i. 263;
harvest custom, i. 340;
white mice spared in Bohemia, ii. 131, 132;
superstition held by poachers in Bohemia, ii. 288

Böhmer Wald Mountains, custom of the reapers in the, ii. 15

[pg 388]

Bolang Mongondo, recapture of the soul in, i. 131;
preservation of cut hair, i. 203;
ceremony at rice harvest in, ii. 71, 72

Bombay, soul superstition in, i. 127

Bones of animals not broken by savages, ii. 124

Boni, king of, and his courtiers, i. 222, 223

Booandik tribe superstition concerning the blood of women, i. 186

Book of the Dead, i. 312

Bormus, the name given to the lament of the Bithynian reapers, i. 365, 398

Borneo, custom in, regarding infested persons, i. 154

Bouphonia, the, ii. 38-41

Brabant, North, Whitsuntide custom in, i. 88

Brahman soul story, i. 128, 129;
sin eaters, ii. 156

Brahmans, temple of the, i. 230;
transference of sins by the, ii. 200

Brandy, North American Indian theory about, ii. 87

Brazilian Indians, self-beating by the, ii. 215, 216;
treatment of girls at the age of puberty by the, ii. 231, 232

Bresse, May customs in, i. 98;
ceremony regarding the last sheaf, i. 408

Brest, fire festival at, ii. 261

Breton peasant and the wind, i. 30

Briançon, May-day in the neighbourhood of, i. 95;
harvest ceremony at, ii. 11

Bride, a name given to the binder of the last sheaf, i. 345

Brie, May-day custom in, i. 84;
harvest custom in, i. 370, 375;
burning of mock giant in, ii. 282

Britanny, reaping custom in, i. 335, 336;
midsummer fires in, ii. 261

British Columbia, fish ceremony by the Indians of, ii. 121

Bruck, harvest custom in, i. 333, 334

Brüd's bed in the Highlands, i. 97

Brunnen, Twelfth Night custom at, ii. 182

Brunswick, Whitsuntide customs in, i. 90

Buddhist animism, i. 59

—— Tartar worship, i. 42, 43

Buffalo, belief in the resurrection of the, ii. 123;
held sacred by the Todas, ii. 136, 137

—— bull, ii. 19

Bulgarian rain-charm, i. 16;
custom at the laying of a foundation stone, i. 144;
harvest custom, i. 341

Bull, Dionysus as a, i. 325, 326; ii. 37-44;
the corn-spirit as a, ii. 19-24;
Osiris and the, ii. 59-61;
sacred, ii. 60;
as a scapegoat, ii. 200, 201

Burghers, first seed sowing and reaping amongst the, ii. 72;
transference of sins by the, ii. 151, 152

Burgundian kings deposed in times of scarcity, i. 47

Burma, mode of executing princes of the blood in, i. 180;
head-washing in, i. 188, 189;
mock burial in time of sickness in, ii. 84;
ceremony of driving away cholera in, ii. 161;
offering of first-fruits in, ii. 374

Burmese and the soul, i. 130

Burnt sacrifices among the Celts, ii. 278-280

Buro Islands, dog's flesh eaten in the, ii. 87;
disease boats, ii. 187

Burying alive, i. 217

Busiris, legend of, i. 400, 401

Butterfly, the Samoans and the, ii. 56

Buzzard, sacrifice of the sacred, ii. 90-92

Byblus, lamentation for the death of Adonis at, i. 280

Calabria, expulsion of witches in, ii. 181

Calcutta, iron-charm used in, i. 176

Calf, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 19-24

Calicut, kings killed at the expiry of twelve years in, i. 224, 225

Californian Indians, their opinion of the dust columns, i. 30

—— sacrifice of the buzzard, ii. 90, 91

Caligula, i. 4

Callander, Beltane fires in, ii. 254, 255

Cambodia, search for inspired man in time of epidemic in, i. 36;
kings of fire and water in, i. 53-56;
its sacred tree, i. 67;
kings of, i. 118;
touching the king's body in, i. 172;
man's head not touched in, i. 189;
ceremony at the cutting of the king's hair in, i. 197;
temporary kings of, i. 228;
the Stiens of Cambodia and the killing of animals, ii. 115;
expulsion of evil spirits, etc. in, ii. 178, 184;
seclusion of girls in, ii. 235

Cambridgeshire, harvest custom in, i. 341, 342

Cameroons, the life of a person supposed to be bound up with that of a tree by the, ii. 329

Canadian Indians, detention of the soul amongst the, i. 139;
beaver hunting by the, ii. 116, 117

Candlemas Day customs, i. 97; ii. 29, 48

[pg 389]

Canelos Indians, their belief of the soul in the portrait, i. 148

Cannibalism, ii. 88, 89

Capital offences, i. 162, 190

Carcassonne, hunting the wren in, ii. 143, 144

Caribs, the, belief in the plurality of souls, ii. 339

Carinthia, ceremonies on St. George's Day in, i. 84, 85;
ceremony at the installation of a prince of, i. 232, 233

Carmona, custom in, ii. 184, 185

Carnival, ceremony of burying the, i. 244, 252-257, 270, 272

Carnival Fool, i. 256

Carpathus islanders, reluctance to have their likenesses drawn, i. 148, 149;
transference of sickness by the, ii. 154

Cashmere stories, the external soul in, ii. 302-304

Cat, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 11, 12;
burnt, ii. 283

Caterpillars, method of freeing a garden from, ii. 130

Cattle, trees and, i. 72 sq.;
driven through the fire, ii. 273

Cedar, the sacred, of Gilgit, i. 69

Celebes, the, and the soul, i. 123-125;
custom regarding infested persons, i. 154;
superstition regarding the knife, i. 177;
blood not spilt on the ground by the, i. 182;
custom at a birth, ii. 329;
harvest festival, ii. 376

Celtic human sacrifices, ii. 278-284;
the external soul in Celtic stories, ii. 313, 314

Ceram, rain-making in, i. 13;
superstition regarding the blood of women in, i. 187;
hair cutting superstition in, i. 194; ii. 328;
disease boats in, ii. 185, 186;
ceremony in epidemic, ii. 187;
seclusion of girls in, ii. 229;
initiation ceremony, ii. 354-356

Chaeronea, human scapegoat in, ii. 210, 211

Chambéry, threshing ceremony at, ii. 23

Chedooba, ceremony on felling a tree in the island of, i. 64

Cheremiss, expulsion of Satan by the, ii. 180, 181

Cherokee Indians, purification festival of the, ii. 166, 167

Chester, procession of mock giant at, ii. 281

Chibchas, weather kings of the, i. 44

Children sacrificed by their parents, i. 235-237

Chile, preservation of cut hair in, i. 204

China, emperors of, offer public sacrifices, i. 8;
rain-charm in, i. 18;
emperor held responsible for drought, etc., i. 49;
abstention from knives after a death in, i. 177;
ceremony to welcome the return of spring in, ii. 42, 43;
special seat of courage amongst the Chinese, ii. 87;
cannibalism in, ii. 89;
human scapegoat in, ii. 191;
festival of the aboriginal tribes of, ii. 193

Chios, rites of Dionysus at, i. 329

Chippeways, seclusion of women amongst the, ii. 239, 240

Chiriguanos, seclusion of girls by the, ii. 231

Chitomé, the, i. 113-115;
not allowed to die a natural death, i. 217, 218

Cholera, driving away, ii. 161, 189, 191

Chontal Indians, the nagual amongst the, ii. 333

Christian, Captain, shooting of, i. 181

Christmas customs, i. 60, 334; ii. 6, 7, 29-31, 141, 142, 144

Chrudim, ceremony of carrying out Death at, i. 259, 260

Chuwash, the, test of a suitable sacrificial victim, i. 36

Circassians, the pear-tree believed to be the protector of cattle by the, i. 73

Circumcision, i. 171

Clucking-hen, ii. 8

Cobern, fire festival at, ii. 250

Cobra Capella, sacrifice of the, ii. 94, 95

Cock, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 7-10

Columbia River, Indians of the, and the salmon, ii. 121, 122

Comanches, rain-charm used by the, i. 18

Compitalia, festival of the, ii. 83

Congo belief in the souls of trees, i. 60;
the Chitomé in the kingdom of, i. 113;
negroes and soul selling, i. 139;
initiatory rites in the valley of the, ii. 345, 346

Coorg rice-harvest ceremonies, ii. 72, 73

Corea, kings of, confined to their palaces, i. 164;
may not be touched, i. 172;
tigers' bones valuable in, ii. 87

Corn drenched as a rain-charm, i. 286;
double personification of the, i. 358, 359;
reaper, binder, or thresher wrapt up in corn, i. 370, 371

—— baby, ii. 23

—— goat, ii. 13, 14

—— mother, i. 232, 233;
a prototype of Demeter, i. 356

[pg 390]

Corn queen, i. 341

—— spirit, the, as the grandmother, etc., i. 336-343;
as youthful, i. 343-346;
death of, i. 363, 364;
binding persons in sheaves as representatives of the, i. 367-372;
pretence of killing the, or its representative, i. 372-380;
represented by a stranger, i. 375-380;
represented by a human victim, i. 390-395;
how the representative is chosen, i. 393;
as an animal, ii. 1-67;
as a cock, ii. 7-10;
as a hare, ii. 11;
as a cat, ii. 11, 12;
as a goat, ii. 12-17;
as a bull, ii. 19-24;
as a calf, ib.;
as a cow, ii. 20, 21;
as a mare, ii. 24, 25;
as a horse, ii. 26;
as a pig, ii. 26-31;
parallelism between the anthropomorphic and theriomorphic conceptions of the, ii. 32;
death of the, ii. 33;
suggested explanation of the embodiment of the, in animal form, ii. 34;
the ox as the embodiment of the, ii. 41-43

—— wolf, ii. 3-7, 30

—— woman, i. 342, 343

Cornwall, May-day custom in, i. 75;
midsummer bonfires in, i. 101; ii. 262;
reaping cries in, i. 407

Corsica, midsummer fires in, ii. 266

Cough, cure for, ii. 154

Court ceremonies, i. 22, 23; ii. 88

Cow, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 20, 21;
sacred, ii. 61;
man in cow's hide, ii. 145, 146;
cow as a scapegoat, ii. 200, 201

Cracow, harvest customs in, i. 340

Crannon, rain-charm at, i. 21

Creek Indians, festival of the first-fruits amongst the, ii. 75-78;
opinions held regarding the properties of various foods amongst the, ii. 85, 86;
seclusion of women by the, ii. 239

Crete, sacrifices in, i. 173;
festival of Dionysus in, i. 324;
worship of Demeter in, i. 331

Croatia, beating in, ii. 216

Crocodiles spared from fear of the vengeance of other crocodiles, ii. 109

Crops, kings and priests punished for the failure of the, i. 46-48;
human sacrifices for the, i. 383, 384;
ceremonies at the eating of the new, ii. 69, 71;
sacramental eating of the new, ii. 68-77

Crying the Neck, i. 405-408

Curka Coles of India, their belief that the tops of trees are inhabited, i. 65

Curse, ceremony of making the curse to fly away, ii. 150, 151

Cyzicus, construction of the council chamber of, i. 174

Dacotas and the resurrection of the dog, ii. 123

Daedala, festival of the, i. 100-103

Dahomey, king of, a capital offence to see him eat, i. 162

Damaras, custom of the, after travel, i. 158;
blood of cattle not shed by the, i. 182

Danae, ii. 237

Danger Islanders, soul snare used by the, i. 138, 139

Danzig, burying of cut hair in, i. 202;
reaping custom, i. 333;
harvest ceremony, i. 367, 368

Dards, the, rain-charm, i. 19

Darfur, veiling the sultan of, i. 162;
the sultans and their courtiers, i. 222;
the liver thought to be the seat of the soul in, ii. 88

Darowen, midsummer bonfires at, ii. 262

Dead Sunday, i. 254, 260

Death, preference for a violent, i. 216, 217;
superstition concerning, i. 260;
“carrying out,” i. 257-261, 264-271; ii. 207;
driving out, i. 258, 259, 272, 276;
in the custom of “carrying out” Death is probably a divine scapegoat, ii. 206-208;
ceremonies at the burying of, ii. 250;
effigy of, i. 257 sq.

Debden, May Day custom in, i. 76

Deer, regard for, ii. 117, 118

Deities, reduplication of, i. 360-362

Demeter, the corn mother, i. 331, 332;
festivals of, ii. 44-47;
as a pig, ii. 44-49;
legend of the Phigalian, ii. 49;
representation of the black, ii. 49;
and Proserpine, myth of, i. 330, 331;
probable origin of, i. 355 sq.;
prototypes of, i. 356, 357

Demons, the soul carried off by, i. 132-135

Denderah, tree of Osiris at, i. 308

Denmark Christmas customs, ii. 29, 30;
midsummer bonfires, ii. 289

Devils, ceremony at the expulsion of, ii. 151, 158, 159-162, 170-185, 192, 193, 203;
represented by men and expelled, ii. 183-185

Devonshire reaping cries, i. 405, 406;
rain-charm, i. 408;
cure for cough, ii. 154

Diana, rule of the priesthood of, i. 2, 3, 6;
ceremonies at the festival of, i. 5;

Arician Grove said to be first consecrated to her by Manius Egerius, i. 5;
a tree goddess, i. 105

Diana's mirror, i. 1

[pg 391]

Dieyerie of South Australia, rain-making by the, i. 20;
tree superstition amongst the, i. 62

Dingelstedt, harvest custom at, i. 371

Dionysus, marriage of, i. 104;
titles of, i. 320, 321;
myth of, i. 322-325;
rites of, i. 324, 329; ii. 43-46, 90;
rites of, similar to those of Osiris, i. 319, 320;
as an animal, i. 325-327, ii. 34-38;
association of, with Demeter and Proserpine, ii. 37

Diseases sent away in boats, ii. 185-189, 192 sq.

Divine beasts, i. 48

—— king, dependence of nature upon the, i. 109

—— kings, i. 49;
care taken of, i. 115;
cease to govern, i. 118, 119

—— kings and priests, burdensome observances placed upon, i. 110-118;
effects of these burdens, i. 118-120

—— Man as scapegoat, ii. 201, 205

—— persons, seclusion of, ii. 242, 243

—— spirit, transmigration of, i. 42-44

Divining rods made from the mistletoe, ii. 367

Dog, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 3-7;
the flesh of the, eaten, ii. 87;
resurrection of the, ii. 123;
used as a scapegoat, ii. 194, 195

Domalde, King of Sweden, sacrificed, i. 47

Douai, annual procession at, ii. 280

Dreams, festival of, ii. 165, 166

Druids, oak-worship of the, i. 58

Dublin, May Day custom in, i. 101

Duk-duk, the, ii. 352 sq.

Duke of York Island, fishing ceremony by the natives of, ii. 120

Dulyn, i. 15

Dunkirk, annual procession at, ii. 280, 281

Dust columns, i. 30

Dutch criminals, cutting the hair of, to enforce confession, ii. 328

Dyaks, belief in the souls of trees amongst the, i. 59, 60;
abduction of the soul, i. 132, 133;
restoration of the soul, i. 138;
harvest custom, i. 68, 69, 353, 354;
the Dyaks and bad omens, ii. 151;
custom in epidemic, ii. 84;
may not eat venison, ii. 86, 87;
spare the crocodile, ii. 109;
Dyaks and the palm-tree, ii. 329;
festival of first-fruits, ii. 376

East Indian Islands, supposed cure for epilepsy in the, ii. 148, 149

Easter customs, i. 272, 276, 334; ii. 29, 181, 216, 217

—— fires, ii. 251, 252

—— Islanders, blood of an animal not shed by the, i. 182, 183;
offerings of first fruits, ii. 381

Eating animals to get their qualities, ii. 85-89

—— the god, ii. 67-90

—— and drinking, precautions taken at, i. 160-162

Edersleben, midsummer fire festival in, ii. 262

Efugaos, cannibalism by the, ii. 88

Egeria, i. 5

Egypt, beasts responsible for the course of nature in Upper, i. 48;

Egyptian kings deified, i. 49, 50;

Egyptian kings blamed for failure of crops, i. 50;
ancient Egyptian kings did not drink wine, i. 184, 185;
temporary-rulers in Upper Egypt, i. 231;
custom of burning red-haired men by the ancient Egyptians, i. 307;
religion of ancient Egypt, i. 313;
Egyptians and the pig, ii. 52, 53, 56, 57;
the bulls Apis and Mnevis worshipped, ii. 60;
sacred cattle in Egypt, ii. 60, 61;
sacrifice of the ram in, ii. 92, 93;
Egyptian type of sacrament, ii. 134-136;
Egyptian scapegoat, ii. 200;
the external soul in Egyptian story, ii. 315-318

Eifel mountains, fire festival in the, ii. 247, 248;
harvest omens in the, ii. 271

Eisenach, ceremony of bringing back summer in, i. 263;
ceremony of carrying out death in, ib.

Elan, regard for the, ii. 117, 118

Elephant, ceremony at the killing of an, ii. 113-115

Eleusis, mysteries of, ii. 37

Elk, regard for the, ii. 117, 118

Ellwangen, harvest ceremony in, ii. 17

Emin Pasha's reception in a Central African village, i. 155

Emu wren, ii. 336, 337

Encounter Bay tribe, their dread of women's blood, i. 186

English tradition concerning the killing of the wren, ii. 140, 141

Entlebuch, human scapegoat in, ii. 199

Entraigues, hunting the wren in, ii. 144

Epidemic, ceremony in time of, i. 36; ii. 84, 187-189

Epilepsy, supposed cure for, ii. 148, 149

Erfurt, harvest custom in, i. 336

Ertingen, midsummer custom in, i. 89

Erzgebirge, Shrovetide custom in the, i. 244

Eskimos, charm for lulling the wind, i. 28;
Eskimos and the soul, i. 122;
reception of strangers, i. 155;
Eskimo women, i. 170

[pg 392]

Essex, hunting the wren in, ii. 143

Esthonian superstition regarding the welfare of cattle, i. 72 sq.;
blood not tasted by the Esthonians, i. 178, 179;
belief concerning women's blood, i. 187;
preservation of the parings of nails by the Esthonians, i. 204;
carrying out the effigy of Death, i. 270;
ceremony at the eating of the new corn, ii. 69, 70;
dread of the weevil by the Esthonian peasants, ii. 129, 130

Ethiopian kings and their courtiers, i. 222

Etruscan wizards, i. 22

European rain-charm, i. 18;
forests, i. 57;
fire festivals, ii. 246-285

Evils, expulsion of, ii. 145 sq.;
occasional, ii. 158-162;
periodic, ii. 162-182;
two kinds of expulsion of evils, the direct or immediate, and the indirect or mediate, ii. 158;
general observations on, ii. 202-206;
transference of, ii. 145 sq.

Fauns, representation of the, ii. 35;
the Fauns wood and corn-spirits, ii. 35, 36

Feilenhof, the wolf a corn-spirit in, ii. 3

Feloupes of Senegambia, charm for rain-making, i. 18

Fern seed, midsummer, ii. 365, 366

Fernando Po, restrictions on the food of the king of, i. 208

Fever, cure for, ii. 152, 153

Fida, no one to drink out of the king's glass in, i. 166

Field of Mars, chariot race on the, ii. 64-66

Fiji, charm used for staying the sun in, i. 24;
gods of, i. 39;
soul extraction in, i. 138;
belief in two souls in, i. 145;
eating in the presence of suspected persons avoided in, i. 160;
self-immolation at old age in, i. 216;
expulsion of devils in, ii. 175, 176;
initiatory rites in, ii. 344, 345;
offerings of first-fruits in, ii. 377, 378

Finland, wind selling in, i. 27;
cattle protected by the wood god in, i. 105, 106;
ceremony at the killing of a bear in, ii. 112

Fire festivals, human sacrifices offered at, i. 251

—— festivals in Europe, ii. 246-285;
they were charms to make the sun shine, ii. 267, 274

—— kings, i. 53-56

—— sacred, made by the friction of wood, ii. 269;
made with oak wood, ii. 292, 293

Fire spirit, expulsion of the, ii. 178

Firstborn sacrificed, i. 236, 237

First-fruits, festival of the, ii. 75-78;
offerings of, ii. 373-384

Fish, respect shown by savages to, ii. 118-122;
fish preachers, ii. 119, 120

Fladda's chapel and wind-making, i. 26, 27

Flamen Dialis, rules of life, i. 117;
not allowed to walk under a trellised vine, i. 183, 184;
cuttings from the hair and nails buried, i. 200;
restriction on the food of the, i. 207

—— Virbialis, i. 6

Flaminica, rules of life for the, i. 117, 118

Flanders, midsummer bonfires in, ii. 267;

Flemish cure for ague, ii. 153

Flax-pullers, custom of the, i. 375

Florence, “sawing the old woman” in, i. 261

Florida, sacrifice of the firstborn by the Indians of, i. 236, 237

Folk tales, resurrection in, ii. 125

Food, unconsumed, buried, i. 166;
prohibited food, i. 207, 208;
strong food, ii. 85

Forests, Europe covered with, in prehistoric times, i. 56

Fors, the, of Central Africa, preservation of nail parings by the, i. 204, 205

Forsaken sleeper, i. 96

Foulahs of Senegambia spare the crocodile, ii. 110

France, harvest customs in the northeast of, ii. 4

Franche Comté, harvest customs in, ii. 17

Frankish kings not allowed to cut their hair, i. 193

Friedingen, harvest custom in, ii. 27

Friesland, harvest customs in East, ii. 8

Frog-flayer, i. 92

Funeral custom, i. 129, 130

Fürstenwalde, harvest ceremonies in, ii. 7

Gablingen, harvest customs in, ii. 13

Galela, ceremony at the initiation of boys amongst the, ii. 353

Galicia, harvest customs in, ii. 8

Gall-bladder the special seat of courage amongst the Chinese, ii. 87

Gareloch, Dumbartonshire, harvest customs on some farms on the, i. 345

Garos, rain-charm used by the, i. 18

Georgia, rain-charm in, i. 17

Germany—German peasants and a whirlwind, i. 30;
sacred groves common amongst the ancient Germans, i. 58;
ceremony on felling a tree, i. 64;
rain-charm, i. 93;
custom [pg 393] after a death, i. 147;
superstition regarding the knife, i. 177;
superstition concerning hair cutting, i. 196, 199;
harvest custom, i. 337, 345, 374, 375; ii. 9;
harvest cries, i. 408, 409;
way to free a garden from caterpillars, ii. 130;
beating as a charm, ii. 216, 217;
oak the sacred tree, ii. 291;
oak log burnt on Midsummer Day, ii. 294;
the external soul in German stories, ii. 310-312

Gervasius, rain spring mentioned by, i. 19

Ghosts, the soul carried off by, i. 129-132;
annual expulsion of the ghosts of the dead, ii. 163

Giant, sham, procession and burning of the, ii. 280-282

Gilgit, ceremony on felling a tree in, i. 65;
sacred cedar of, i. 69 sq.;
harvest custom at, ii. 73, 74

Gilyak sacrifice of the bear, ii. 105-107

Girls secluded at puberty, ii. 225-247;
reason for, ii. 238-242;
not allowed to touch the ground or see the sun, ii. 225-253;
traces in folk tales of the rule which forbids girls at puberty to see the sun, ii. 235-237

Goat, the, sacred, ii. 56, 63;
Dionysus as a, i. 326-328; ii. 34-37;
the corn-spirit as a, ii. 12-19

God, killing the, i. 213; ii. 218-222;
killing a god in animal form, i. 327, 328;
motives for killing the god, i. 214-216

God's Mouth, the name of the supreme ruler of the old Prussians, i. 223

Gods die and are buried, i. 213, 214

—— incarnate, slain, ii. 218-222

Gold Coast, sacrifices of the negroes of the, i. 67;
their superstition with regard to iron, i. 173

Golden Bough, Turner's picture of the, i. 1;
legend of the, i. 4;
the representative of the tree-spirit, i. 107;
between heaven and earth, ii. 223-243;
what was it, ii. 224;
the Golden Bough is the mistletoe, ii. 363, 368;
why was the mistletoe called the Golden Bough, ii. 365;
the Golden Bough an emanation of the sun's fire, ii. 367

Goldi sacrifice of the bear, ii. 107, 108

Gommern, harvest festival at, i. 370

Gonds, human sacrifices by the, i. 252, 384;
mock-human sacrifices, i. 252;
scapegoats amongst the, ii. 200

Good Friday custom, ii. 216

Gout transferred from a man to a tree, ii. 153

Grand Lama, death and reappearance of the, i. 42, 43;
and the shadow of Sankara, i. 142

Grandmother, a name given to the last sheaf, i. 336

Granny, a name given to the last sheaf, i. 336

Grass king, i. 91-93, 247

Grätz, midsummer custom in, ii. 267

Greece, rain-making in, i. 16;
tree worship in, i. 58, 59, 99;
festivals of the Greeks, i. 99, 100, 103;
ceremony at the laying of a foundation stone in, i. 144;
sacrificial ritual in, ii. 54, 55;
human scapegoats in, ii. 210-217;
midsummer fires in, ii. 266;
the external soul in Greek stories, ii. 305-307

Green George, i. 84-86

Grenoble, May Day in, i. 94;
harvest custom in, ii. 15, 47

Grihya-Sûtras, provision in the, for the burning of cut hair, i. 202

Grossvargula, Whitsuntide custom in, i. 91

Ground, sacred persons not allowed to touch the, ii. 224, 243 note;
girls at puberty not allowed to touch the, ii. 225-253;
sacred things may not touch the, ii. 243 note

Grüneberg, harvest ceremony in, ii. 11

Guanches, rain-charm in, i. 19

Guatemala, the nagual amongst the, ii. 333, 334

Guaycurus and storms, i. 28

Guinea, secreting of cut hair and nails in, i. 203;
annual expulsion of the devil by the negroes of, ii. 170;
time of licence in, ii. 204

Guyenne, harvest ceremony in, ii. 6

Hack-thorn, sacred, i. 69

Hadeln, reaping custom in the district of, i. 333

Haida Indian wind-charm, i. 26

Hair, burning of loose, i. 205;
burning after child-birth, i. 206;
cut hair deposited in a safe place, i. 200-205;
cutting, i. 193 sq.;
most sacred day of the year appointed for hair cutting, i. 197;
superstition concerning the cutting of the, i. 196, 198, 199;
cut only during a storm, i. 199;
haircutting as a disinfectant, i. 206, 207;
magic use of cut hair, i. 198, 199;
strength supposed to be in the, ii. 328;
hair not cut, i. 193-195;
superstition about cutting the hair and nails, i. 193-207

Halberstadt, human scapegoats in, ii. 199

Halibut, festival in honour of the, ii. 121

[pg 394]

Halmahera, rain-making in, i. 13, 21

Hampstead, forest of, i. 57

Hare, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 10 sq.

Harran, ritual observed by the heathen Syrians of, i. 283

Harvest child, a name given to the last sheaf, i. 344

—— cock, a name given to the last sheaf, ii. 7, 8

—— cries, i. 404-409

—— customs, i. 333-347, 352, 353, 367-381, 408; ii. 4-27, 32, 47, 48, 68-73, 213

—— festival, i. 169; ii. 171, 172, 374-376, 382-384

—— goat, ii. 13

—— maiden, a prototype of Proserpine, i. 356

—— May, i. 68, 69, 81, 82; ii. 4

—— omens, ii. 271

—— queen, i. 344

—— songs and cries, ii. 364-366, 404-409

Harz Mountains, Easter fires in the, ii. 253

Hawaii, detention of the soul in, i. 139;
capital offences in, i. 190

Hay family, the, and the mistletoe, ii. 362

Head, sanctity of the, i. 187-193;
ceremony at the washing of the, i. 188

Headache, transference of, ii. 149

Headington, May-day custom at, i. 94, 95

Heaven, the Golden Bough between heaven and earth, ii. 223-243

Hebrides, representation of spring in the, i. 97

Heligoland, disappearance of the herring from, ii. 120

Herbrechtingen, threshing custom in, ii. 22

Hercynian forest, i. 56, 57

Hereford, sin eaters in, ii. 154, 155

Herefordshire, midsummer fires in, ii. 262

Hermsdorf, harvest custom in, i. 338

Herodotus, story by, of the wind fighters of Psylli, i. 29

Herring, disappearance of the, from Heligoland, ii. 120

Hertfordshire harvest custom, ii. 24

Hessen, Ash Wednesday custom in, ii. 29;
sowing-time customs in, ii. 48

Hidatsa Indians, belief in the plurality of souls amongst the, ii. 339

Hierapolis, pigs sacred at, ii. 50

Himalayas, scapegoats in the Western, ii. 194

Hindoo cure for the murrain, ii. 191;
festival of Ingathering, ii. 272;
girls and puberty, ii. 234, 235;
the external soul in Hindoo stories, ii. 298-302

Hindoos, the, test of a suitable sacrificial victim, i. 36;

Hindoos and yawning, i. 123;
custom of nail cutting by the, i. 196;
festival at the eating of the new rice by the, ii. 73

Hindoo Koosh, smoke from the sacred tree inhaled by the sybil, i. 35;
blood sucking the test of a diviner amongst the, ib.;
expulsion of devils amongst the, ii. 173

Hippolytus, i. 6

Holland, Whitsuntide custom in, i. 88;

Easter fires, ii. 253

Holstein, reaping custom in, i. 333;
healing effects of the mistletoe in, ii. 289

Hornkampe, harvest custom in, i. 337

Horse, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 24-26;
sacrifice of the, ii. 64

Horses excluded from the Arician grove, i. 6

—— and Virbius, ii. 62-64

Hos, harvest festival amongst the, ii. 171, 172;
time of licence with the, ii. 204;
offering of first-fruits by the, ii. 374

Hottentot priests do not use iron, i. 173;
wind-charm, i. 27, 28;
sheep driven through the fire by the, ii. 273

Hovas of Madagascar, offerings of first-fruits by the, ii. 374

How, coffer of Osiris at, i. 309

Huahine, offerings of first-fruits in, ii. 381

Huitzilopochtli, dough image of the Mexican god, made and eaten, ii. 81

Human sacrifices, i. 235-237, 251, 252, 381;
replaced by mock sacrifices, i. 250-253

—— victim represents the corn-spirit, i. 390-395

Hungary, Whitsuntide custom in, i. 93;
the external soul in Hungarian stories, ii. 320, 321

Hunger, expulsion of, ii. 210, 211

Hunting the wren, ii. 140-144

Hurons, the, and fish bones, ii. 119;
their idea of the soul, i. 122;
driving away sickness amongst the, ii. 162

Huskanaw, the name of an initiatory ceremony amongst the Indians of Virginia, ii. 348

Hylæ, sacred men inspired by the image of Apollo at, i. 37

Ibo, king of, confined to his premises, i. 164

[pg 395]

Iddah, king of, asserts that he is god, i. 41, 42

Ihlozi, the, of the Zulus, ii. 332

Incarnate gods, i. 30-54

Incarnation, temporary and permanent, i. 32, 37-42

Incas of Peru revered as gods, i. 49;
preservation of cut hair and parings of the nails of the, i. 203;
restrictions upon the prince who is to become Inca of Peru, ii. 225;
ceremony for the expulsion of diseases, etc. by the, ii. 167-169

Indersdorf, harvest custom in, ii. 17, 18

India, devil dancer drinks sacrificial blood in Southern, i. 34;
human gods in, i. 41, 42;
marriage of shrubs and trees in, i. 60;
sin eating in, ii. 155, 156;
iron used as a charm in, i. 175, 176;
harvest custom in the Central Provinces of, i. 371, 372;
custom during cholera in Central Provinces of, ii. 189;
offerings of first-fruits in, ii. 374, 375

Indians of Alaska, preservation of cut hair by the, i. 201, 202

—— of Arizona offer human sacrifices, i. 251

—— of Guayaquil sacrifice human beings at seed time, i. 381

—— of Guiana, treatment of girls at puberty by the, ii. 232-234

—— of Peru and their fish gods, ii. 118, 119

—— of Virginia, initiatory ceremony amongst the, ii. 348, 349

Influenza, ii. 190

Initiatory rites, simulation of death and resurrection at, ii. 342-358

Innuit of Alaska, custom after a death amongst the, i. 177

Inspiration, i. 33;
by blood drinking, i. 34, 35;
by use of sacred tree, i. 35; 36

Inspired men, i. 36, 37

—— victims, i. 36

Irayas of Luzon, offerings of first-fruits by the, ii. 377

Ireland, May Day in the south-east of, i. 94;
hunting the wren at Christmas in, ii. 142, 143;
midsummer fires in, ii. 263, 264

Iron, superstitious aversion to, i. 172-174;
as a charm, i. 175

Iron-Beard, Dr., i. 249, 257

Iroquois, ceremony at the festival of dreams by the, ii. 165, 166;
scapegoat used by the, ii. 194, 195;
time of licence amongst the, ii. 204

Isis, acorn goddess, i. 310, 311;
named the moon by the aboriginal inhabitants of Egypt, i. 311;
as a cow, ii. 61

Isle of Man, wind selling in the, i. 27;
hunting the wren at Christmas in the, ii. 142;
midsummer bonfires, ii. 263

Issapoo, the cobra capella the guardian deity of the negroes of, ii. 94, 95

Istar, legend concerning the goddess, i. 287

Italones, cannibalism by the, ii. 88

Italy, tree worship in ancient, i. 58, 59;
custom of “sawing the old woman” in, i. 261, 262;
gardens of Adonis in, i. 294;
midsummer fires in, ii. 266;
oak the sacred tree in, ii. 291;
the external soul in Italian stories, ii. 307, 308

Itonamas, the, and the soul, i. 123

Itzgrund, harvest custom in, i. 338

Ivy girl, i. 344

Jack-in-the-green, i. 88, 89, 247

Jambi, temporary kings in, i. 231, 232

Japanese, expulsion of evil spirits by the, ii. 176

Jarkino, belief in animate trees in, i. 61

Javanese and rice bloom, i. 60, 61;
ceremony at rice harvest, i. 355;

Javanese and the soul, i. 124, 125

Jerome of Prague, i. 24

Jeypur, scapegoat used in cases of smallpox in, ii. 190, 191

Jubilee, i. 225

Jupiter represented by an oak on the Capitol at Rome, ii. 291

Kaffa, worship of human god in, i. 42

Kafir boys at circumcision, i. 171;
New Year festival, ii. 74;
elephant hunters, ii. 113, 114;
burying of cut hair and nails by the Kafirs, i. 202, 203

Kakian Association, ii. 354-357

Kakongo, king of, not allowed to touch certain European goods, i. 160;
not seen eating, i. 162

Kalamba, ceremonies on a visit to, by subject chiefs, i. 159

Kalmucks, consecration of the white ram by the, ii. 136

Kamant tribe do not allow a natural death, i. 217

Kamtchatkans excuse themselves before killing land or sea animals, ii. 110, 111;
respect the seal and sea lion, ii. 111

Kânagrâ, spring custom in, i. 276, 277

Kángrá, custom at, on the death of a Rajah, i. 232;
sin eaters in, ii. 156

[pg 396]

Karens, funeral custom by the, i. 129, 130;
transference of the soul in Karen, i. 140;
dread of women's blood by the, i. 186;
belief concerning the head, i. 187;
custom at rice sowing, i. 354, 355

Karma tree, i. 289

Karoks of California and salmon catching, ii. 121

Kasyas, expulsion of devils by the, ii. 184

Katodis, ceremony before felling a tree by the, i. 63

Kent, the ivy girl in, i. 344

Keramin tribe of New South Wales, rain-making by the, i. 15

Key Islanders, soul superstition amongst the, i. 130, 131;
expulsion of sickness by the, ii. 160

Khonds, human sacrifices by the, i. 384-390;
rain-charm, ii. 42;
expulsion of devils by the, ii. 173, 174

Kibanga, kings killed in, i. 218

Kilema, ceremony in, before a stranger is allowed to see the king, i. 159

Kilimanjaro Mount, believed to be tenanted by demons, i. 151

Kimbunda, cannibalism amongst the, ii. 88, 89

King Hop, the title of a temporary king, i. 230

—— of the calf, ii. 21

—— of the May, i. 247

—— of the sacred rites, i. 7

—— of the Wood, i. 1-108;
why so called, i. 7;
never a temporal sovereign, i. 51;
an incarnation of the tree spirit, i. 106-108;
probability that he was formerly slain annually, i. 240, 241;
similarity to North European personages, i. 249, 250;
a personification of the oak, ii. 364;
probably burned in a fire of oak wood, ii. 363-365

Kings—as gods, i. 8;
supposed to control the weather, i. 44-46;
punished for the failure of crops, i. 46-48;
killed, i. 48;
divine, i. 49;
of nature, i. 52;
of fire, i. 53-56;
of rain, i, 52, 53;
of water, i. 53-56;
divine, cease to govern, i. 118, 119;
abdicate, i. 120;
guarded against strangers, i. 158, 159;
veiled, i. 162, 163;
at meals, i. 162;
confined to their palaces, i. 164, 165;
killed when they show signs of decay, i. 217-223;
killed at expiry of fixed term, i. 223;
mitigation of the above rule, kings allowed to defend themselves, i. 224;
killed annually, i. 225-227;
temporary, i. 228-234;
temporary kings sometimes hereditary, i. 228, 232;
sons sacrificed in times of great danger, i. 235

Kingsmill Islands, offerings of first-fruits in, ii. 378

Kirn, the name of a harvest supper, i. 345

Klausenburg, harvest custom at, ii. 9

Kloxin, harvest ceremony in, i. 369

Knives, reluctance to use, after a death, i. 176, 177

Kobi, offering of first-fruits by the, ii. 376

Kochs of Assam, offerings of first-fruits by the, ii. 374

Kohlerwinkel, harvest ceremony at, ii. 27

Kolosh Indians, seclusion of girls amongst the, ii. 230

Koniags, seclusion of girls amongst the, ii. 230

Königshain, driving out Death in, i. 276

Konkan, scapegoat used in Southern, in cases of cholera, ii. 191

Konz, midsummer fire festival in, ii. 260, 261

Kostroma, funeral of, i. 273

Kostrubonko, i. 272

Kukulu, the priest king, i. 112, 113

Kumis, driving away small-pox by the, ii. 161

Kupalo, funeral of, i. 272;
representation of, i. 292

Kupole's festival, i. 294

Lachlin family and the deer, ii. 363

La Ciotat, hunting the wren in, ii. 144

Lada, funeral of, i. 273

Lagos, human sacrifices at, i. 383

Lakor, expulsion of diseases to sea in, ii. 192

Lamas, Grand, i. 42, 43;
the chief of the, i. 43, 44

Lamb killed sacramentally by the Madi tribe of Central Africa, ii. 137, 138

Lamps, festival of, ii. 176

Laos, precautions against strangers in, i. 152;
belief in plurality of souls amongst the, ii. 339

Laosia, women worshippers in, i. 42

La Palisse, harvest custom in, ii. 68

Lapis manalis, i. 22

Lappland, wind selling in, i. 27;
ceremony at the sacrifice of an animal in, ii. 123;
seclusion of women in, ii. 240

Larch-tree, sacred, i. 61, 62

Lazy man, the, i. 89

Lechrain, midsummer fires in, ii. 258, 259

[pg 397]

Leipzig, carrying out the effigy of Death in, i. 268

Lent customs, ii. 247-249

Leopard, ceremony at the killing of a, ii. 114

Leper, custom at the cleansing of a, ii. 151

Lerwick wind-sellers, i. 27

Leti, expulsion of diseases to sea by the, ii. 92

Leucadian scapegoat, ii. 213

Lewis, wind selling in the island of, i. 27

Lhoosai, harvest festival of the, i. 69

Libchowic, Mid-Lent custom in the neighbourhood of, i. 93

Licence, periods of, ii. 204

Life of a person bound up with that of a plant, ii. 328-330

Life plants, ii. 329, 330

Lille, harvest ceremonies at, ii. 25, 26

Linus, the name given to the Phoenician lament at vintage time, i. 365

—— song, i. 398, 399

—— identified with Adonis, i. 399

Lion, ceremony at the killing of a, ii. 114;

Arabic belief in the properties of lion's fat, ii. 86

Lithuania, sun worshippers in, i. 24, 25;
tree worshippers in, i. 58;
superstition concerning the felling of sacred groves in, i. 66, 67;

May customs in, i. 83, 84;
custom after a funeral in, i. 177;
harvest custom in, i. 340, 341;
ceremony at threshing time in, i. 372, 373;
ceremonies by the peasants at the eating of the new corn in, ii. 69, 70

Little leaf man, i. 88

Lityerses compared with harvest customs, i. 366, 367;
story of, i. 392-395;
relation of, to Attis, i. 396, 397

—— the name given to a song by the Phrygian reapers, i. 365, 366

Liver, the, thought to be the seat of the soul, ii. 88

Livonia, sacred grove in, i. 65

Llandebie, sin eating in, ii. 155

Loango, king of, deposed when the harvest fails, i. 47;
supernaturally endowed kings of, i. 116;
a capital offence to see the king eat, i. 161;
the king confined to his palace after coronation, i. 164;
food left by the king buried, i. 166;
food restrictions in, i. 207, 208;
girls secluded at puberty in, ii. 226

London, midsummer pageants in, ii. 281

Longnor, harvest custom at, ii. 25

Lost children, superstition concerning, i. 63

Loucheux Indians, abstinence from the sinew of the thigh by the, ii. 127, 128

Luchon, midsummer fire ceremony at, ii. 282

Lumley, Sir J., excavation of the site of the Diana Nemorensis by, i. 2 note

Lüneberg, harvest custom in, i. 377

Lusatia, ceremony of carrying out Death in, i. 259, 264

M'Bengas, life of a child supposed to be bound up with that of a tree by the, ii. 328, 329

Macusis of British Guiana, treatment of girls at the age of puberty by the, ii. 232 sq.

Madagascar, power ascribed to the souls of the dead in, i. 132;
blood of nobles may not be shed in, i. 181;
crocodile not killed in, ii. 109, 110

Madenassana bushmen, the goat sacred to the, ii. 56

Madi tribe, burying of the parings of the nails by the, i. 202;
lamb killed sacramentally by the, ii. 137, 138

Magic, sympathetic, i. 9-12

—— use of cut hair, i. 198-200

Maiden, a name given to the last handful of corn, i. 344, 345

Maize, mother of the, i. 350-352

Makololo, burning or burying of cut hair by the, i. 205

Malabar, reverence for the cow in, ii. 200

Malagasy, vehicle used by the, for the transference of ills, ii. 149, 150

Malay poem, the external soul in a, ii. 325, 326

Malays and the soul, i. 124; ii. 331;
do not touch a man's head, i. 189

Maldives, cuttings from the hair and nails buried by the natives of the, i. 200

Mamilian tower, ii. 67

Mamurius Veturius or the old Mars, ii. 208-210

Man in cow-skin, ii. 145, 146

—— gods in the South Sea Islands, i. 38, 39

Mandan Indians, and their portraits, i. 148;
expulsion of devils by the, ii. 183, 184

Maneros, the name given to the lament of the Egyptian reapers at the cutting of the first sheaf, i. 364

Mangaia, priests called gods in, i. 33;
spiritual and temporal government [pg 398] in, i. 120;
story of a warrior's shadow, i. 142, 143

Man-god, two types of, i. 12

Mania, i. 6

“Manii, there are many at Aricia,” explanation of the proverb, ii. 82, 83

Manius Egerius, traditional founder of the Arician Grove, etc., i. 5; ii. 84

Maori ceremonies on entering strange territory, i. 156;
the Maoris and dead bodies, i. 169;
fear of the blood of women, i. 186;
sacredness of the head amongst the, i. 191, 192;
ceremony at hair cutting, i. 196, 197;
fishing custom, ii. 120;
offerings of first-fruits, ii. 381, 382

Mare, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 24-26

Marimos, human sacrifices by the, i. 383, 384

Marktl, harvest ceremonies in the neighbourhood of, ii. 16, 17

Marquesas Islands, men deified in their life-time in the, i. 37, 38;
the Marquesans and the soul, i. 123;
shaving of the head in the, i. 195

Mars, chariot race on the field of, ii. 64-66

—— the old, ii. 208-210

Marseilles, human scapegoat in, ii. 212

Masuren, midsummer fire festival in, ii. 265, 266

May bride, i. 98

—— Day carols, i. 75, 76

—— Day customs, i. 72-86, 88, 89, 94, 95, 98-101; ii. 181, 182, 254, 255, 257, 258

—— king, i. 90, 91

—— poles, i. 78 sq., 230, 308; ii. 66

—— queen, i. 93, 94

—— sleeping bridegroom of, i. 95

—— trees, i. 74-82, 90, 91, 243, 247, 268, 269; ii. 8, 251

Mayenne, May Day custom in, i. 76

Mecklenburg, reaping custom in, i. 376

Meiningen, Ash Wednesday custom in, ii. 29;
sowing time custom, ii. 48

Melanesia, sunshine making in, i. 24;
bringing back the soul in, i. 136;
Melanesian stones and a man's shadow, i. 142

Meleager, ii. 305

Men eaten to obtain their qualities, ii. 88, 89

Menstruation, seclusion of women at periods of, ii. 238-242

Menstruous blood, primitive dread of, ii. 238, 241

Mentawej Islands, precautions against strangers in the, i. 152

Meroe, Ethiopian kings of, killed, i. 218

Metz, midsummer fires in, ii. 283

Mexican sacraments, paste images of the god eaten, ii. 79-82;
festivals, ii. 80-84

Mexico, oath of kings at accession in, i. 49;
sacrifice of new-born babes in, i. 307;
human sacrifice at harvest festival in, i. 381;
incarnate gods slain in, ii. 218-222

Miaotse, ceremony of driving away the devil by the, ii. 151

Mice, charm for ridding lands from, ii. 131

Mid-Lent customs, i. 82, 93, 254, 261-263, 268, 269

Midsummer customs, i. 78 sq., 89, 101, 272, 290-294; ii. 366, 367

—— European fire festivals at, ii. 258-267, 282, 283;
burning of effigies in the midsummer fires, ii. 266, 267

—— Eve superstitions, ii. 286, 287;
magic plants gathered on Midsummer Eve, ii. 286-288

—— omens, i. 294

Mikado, description of the life of the, i. 110-112;
cooking of his food, i. 166, 167;
effects of wearing his clothes without leave, i. 167;
cutting his hair and nails, i. 197;
not allowed to touch the ground, ii. 224, 225

Miklucho-Maclay, Baron, ceremony on his entering a village on the Maclay coast, i. 156

Milkmen worshipped by the Todas, i. 41

Minahassa, rain-charm used by the, i. 17;
blood drinking at festivals by the, i. 35;
custom in time of sickness, ii. 84;
driving away devils by the, ii. 158, 159

Mingrelia, rain-getting in, i. 15

Minnetaree Indians and the resurrection of the bison, ii. 122, 123

Miris, tree superstition of the, i. 63;
tiger's flesh eaten by the, ii. 86

Mirrors, covering up of, i. 147

Mistletoe, the, worshipped by the Celts and gathered by the Druids, ii. 285, 286, 288, 289, 295;
gathered on Midsummer Eve, ii. 286 sq.;
qualities of, ii. 289;
viewed as the seat of life, ii. 295;
life of the oak in the, ii. 360, 361;
not allowed to touch the ground, ii. 361;
a protection against witchcraft, ii. 362;
the Golden Bough the, ii. 363, 368;
reason it was called the Golden Bough, ii. 365;
why called golden, ii. 366, 367;
divining rods made from, in [pg 399] Sweden, ii. 367;
gathered at midsummer and Christmas, ii. 367

Mithraic mysteries, ii. 358

Mnevis, the bull, ii. 60, 61

Moa, expulsion of diseases to sea by the, ii. 192

Mock executions, i. 261

—— human sacrifices, i. 250-253

Mole, Le, i. 5

Moluccas, festivals in the, i. 40;
treatment of clove-trees in blossom in the, i. 60;
soul abduction in the, i. 133, 134;
ceremony in the, after a journey, i. 158

Mondard, the great, ii. 40

Mongolians, stuffing the skin of a sacrificed animal by the, ii. 124

Mongols, the, and the soul, i. 128

Monomotapa, precautions taken for the king of, i. 159

Montalto, Mid Lent custom in, i. 262

Mooris, custom at births by the, ii. 329

Moosheim, fire festival at, ii. 278

Moqui Indians, belief in the transmigration of human souls into turtles held by the, ii. 98, 99;
totem clans of the, ii. 99

Moresby, Captain, at Shepherd's Isle, i. 152, 153

Morocco, iron a protection against demons in, i. 175;
ants eaten in, ii. 87;
diverting evil spirits in, ii. 151

Mother-cotton, the, i. 353

—— of the maize, i. 350-352

Motumotu theory of storms, i. 27

——, the soul believed to be in the reflection by the, i. 145

Mowat, the chief of, supposed to have power of affecting crops, etc., i. 46;
boys beaten to make them grow in, ii. 216

Mozcas, weather kings of the, i. 44

Muato Jamwo, a capital offence to see him eat, i. 162

Mundaris, sacred groves of the, i. 63;
superstition concerning the felling of sacred groves, i. 67;
harvest festival, ii. 172

Mundas, ceremony at the planting of the rice by the, i. 288, 289

Munster, rain fountain in, i. 19

Münsterland, Easter fires in, ii. 252, 253

Murrain, cure for the, ii. 191

Murrams of Manipur, restrictions of food among the, i. 208

Muyscas, weather kings of the, i. 44

Nagual, the, of the Indians of Guatemala, ii. 333, 334

Nails, cutting the, i. 195, 196;
burying the first cuttings of a child's, i. 201;
cuttings of, preserved, i. 202-205

Namaquas, foods eaten and rejected by the, ii. 86

Nanumea, precautions against strangers in the island of, i. 151

Narrinyeri and their totems, i. 165, 166

Nass River, Indians of the, and the recall of the soul, i. 140, 141

Natchez, harvest festival by the, ii. 382-384

Nature, kings of, i. 52;
dependence of, upon the divine king, i. 109

Nauders, sacred larch-tree at, i. 61, 62

Naudowessies, initiatory ceremony amongst the, ii. 350

Navarre, rain-making in, i. 15

Ndembo, the, ii. 345

Need fires, ii. 269, 293

Negro idea of the soul, i. 125

Nemi, lake of, i. 1;
tree within the sanctuary, i. 4;
priest of, i. 249, 253, ii. 223;
unchanged, ii. 370, 371

Nerechta, Whitsuntide customs in, i. 96

Neuautz, custom at barley sowing in, ii. 28

Neuhausen, harvest custom in, i. 370

Neusaass, harvest custom in, i. 337

New Britain, rain-making in, i. 13, 14;
wind-charm, i. 26;
driving away evil in, ii. 158;
expulsion of devils in, ii. 203;
initiation ceremony in, ii. 352, 353

New Caledonia, rain-making in, i. 16;
charm for making sunshine in, i. 22-24

New fruits etc. eaten sacramentally, ii. 68-79

New Guinea, seclusion of girls in, ii. 228, 229

New Ireland, seclusion of girls in, ii. 226-228

New South Wales, ceremony of initiation in, i. 163;
first-born eaten in, i. 236

New Year's Day customs, ii. 170, 171, 179, 193, 194, 272, 273

New Zealand, sacredness of blood in, i. 183;
superstition concerning the head, i. 192;
hair cutting in, i. 197, 199;
clippings from the hair buried in, i. 200;
effects of sacred contagion in, ii. 55;
gods, ii. 89

Nias, the people of, and the soul, i. 122, 138;
precautions against strangers in, i. 154;
succession in, i. 238;
slaves sacrificed at the funeral [pg 400] of a chief in, i. 251;
exorcising the devil in, ii. 160, 161;
scapegoats in, ii. 196, 197

Nicobar Islands, ceremony in cases of epidemic in the, ii. 188, 189;
expulsion of devils in the, ii. 192

Nightjar, the, ii. 334, 335

Nisus, King of Megara, ii. 305

Nootka Indians, ceremony by the, at the killing of a bear, ii. 113;
initiatory ceremony by the, ii. 351

Nördlingen, threshing custom in, i. 371

Norse stories, the external soul in, ii. 312, 313

North American Indians, their idea with regard to strangers, i. 153;
restrictions upon women at certain times, i. 170;
cleansing after the slaying of enemies, i. 170, 171;
abstinence from blood, i. 179;
nail cutting amongst the, i. 196;
belief concerning the various properties of food, ii. 85, 86;
spare the rattlesnake, ii. 110;
ceremony at bear killing, ii. 115;
respect for the elan, deer and elk, ii. 117, 118;
regard for the bones of animals, ii. 125

Northamptonshire, May-day custom in, i. 75;
cure for cough, ii. 154

Norway, cut hair and nails buried or burned in, i. 205;
midsummer bonfires in, ii. 289

Nürnberg, ceremony of carrying out Death in, i. 259

Oak worship, ii. 291;
the chief sacred tree of the European Aryans, ii. 291-370;
sacred fires made of, ii. 292;
oak wood burnt on Midsummer Day, ii. 294;
Balder is the, ii. 295;
human representative of the, slain, ii. 294-296;
life of, in the mistletoe, ii. 360, 361;
superstition concerning the oak tree, ii. 368;
a store of solar fire, ii. 369

Oats-goat, ii. 13-15

Obermedlingen, threshing custom in, ii. 21, 22;
midsummer fires in, ii. 270

Oberpfalz, threshing custom in, i. 371

October horse, ii. 64-67

Offerings of first-fruits, ii. 373-384

Oil of St. John, ii. 288, 289

Ojebways, sunshine charm used by the, i. 22;
seldom fell living trees, i. 61

Olaf, King of Sweden, sacrificed, i. 47, 48

Old Calabar, revellings at the expulsion of devils in, ii. 193

Old man, a name given to the last sheaf, i. 337, 338

Old woman, a name given to the last sheaf, i. 337, 338

Oldenburg, superstition regarding the reflection in, i. 147;
custom with regard to clippings from the hair in, i. 201;
fire festival in, ii. 250

Omaha Indians, rain-making by the, i. 14;
wind clan of the Omahas, i. 26;
their totems, ii. 53, 56

Omens, neutralising bad, ii. 151

Onitsha, ceremony of eating the new yams at, ii. 74;

New Year festival in, ii. 170, 171;
human scapegoats in, ii. 195, 196

Oraon festival, i. 85, 86

Oraons, ceremony at rice planting by the, i. 288

Orchomenus, human sacrifice at the rites of Dionysus in, i. 329

Oregon, belief in the recall of the soul by the Salish Indians of, i. 136, 137

Orestes, the originator of the worship of Diana, i. 3

Orinoco rain-charm, i. 18, 93;
sunshine charm, i. 22

Orissa, worshippers of the Queen of England in, i. 41;
rice growing in, i. 61

Orkney Islands, transference of sickness in the, ii. 153

Osiris, myth of, i. 301 sq.;
ritual of, i. 303-305;
representation of the dead body of, in the temple of Isis, i. 305;
a corn-spirit, i. 305-307;
a tree-spirit, i. 307-309;
grave of, at Philae, i. 309;
arguments for and against his being the sun-god, i. 311-313, 316, 317, 318, 320;
a god of vegetation, i. 319;
rites of, similar to those of Dionysus and Adonis, i. 319, 320;
probable origin of the cult of, i. 363;
once represented by a human victim, i. 400-404;
on monuments, i. 403;
key to the mysteries of, i. 404;
as a pig, ii. 52-60;
death of, ii. 58, 59;
annual sacrifice of a pig to, ii. 58, 59;
as a bull, ii. 59-61

Osnabrück, harvest custom in, i. 336

Osterode, Easter fires in, ii. 253

Ostiaks, ceremony by the, at the killing of a bear, ii. 111, 112

Ot Damons, custom with regard to strangers by the, i. 151, 152;
seclusion of girls amongst the, ii. 229

Otawa Indians, ceremony at the killing of a bear by the, ii. 113;
do not burn fish bones, ii. 119

Oude, sin eating in, ii. 156

Owl, the, ii. 335, 336

Ox, ritual at the Athenian sacrifice of the, ii. 38, 39, 41;
as an embodiment [pg 401] of the corn-spirit, ii. 41-43;

Osiris and the, ii. 59-61

Ozieri, Gardens of Adonis at, i. 290

Pacific, human gods in the, i. 38, 39

Pádams of Assam, superstition concerning lost children by the, i. 63

Palermo, “sawing the old woman” in, i. 261

Palm-tree, the Dyaks and the, ii. 329

—— Sunday custom, ii. 216

Pan, representation of, ii. 34, 35;
the Lord of the Wood, ii. 35

Panes, festival of the, ii. 90, 91

Papuans, foods eaten by the, ii. 87;
belief in a child's life being bound up with that of a tree, ii. 329

Paris, procession of mock giant in, ii. 281

Parthian monarchs worshipped as deities, i. 49

Patagonians, burning of loose hair by the, i. 205

Pawnees, human sacrifices by the, at sowing, i. 381, 382

Payaguas, method of fighting the wind by the, i. 28

Pear-tree, the protector of cattle, i. 73

Pelew Islanders, god of the, i. 39, 40;
custom at tree-felling by the, i. 62, 63;
ceremony on the killing of a man by the, i. 178

Pembrokeshire, Twelfth Day custom in, ii. 143

Pepper Coast, high priest held responsible for the general welfare, i. 47

Permanent incarnation, i. 37-42

Persian kings not seen eating, i. 162

Peru, rain-charm in, i. 17;
charm for staying the sun in, i. 24;
preservation of the representative corn-spirit by the ancient Peruvians, i. 350, 351;
expulsion of devils in, ii. 203;
self-beating in, ii. 216.

See also under Incas.

Philippine Islands, belief in the souls of trees in the, i. 62;
cannibalism in the, ii. 88

Philosophy, primitive, defect of, i. 210-212;
rules of life of sacred men are the outcome of, ib.

Phoenician custom at vintage, i. 365;

Linus song, i. 398, 399

Phrygia, mock human sacrifices in, i. 300;
reapers' song in, i. 365, 366

Piedmont, midsummer peasant custom in, i. 288

Pig, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 26-31;
sacred, ii. 50-57;
Osiris as a, ii. 52-60

Pigs, Demeter and Proserpine as, ii. 44-49;

Attis and Adonis as, ii. 49, 50

Pilsen, Whitsuntide custom near, i. 92

Pine-tree sacred to Dionysus, i. 321

Pinsk, Whit Monday customs by Russian girls in, i. 87, 88

Plas, Whitsuntide custom in the neighbourhood of, i. 92

Po, excavations in the valley of the, i. 57

Poachers and the fir-cones, ii. 288

Point Barrow, hunting the evil spirit by the Eskimo of, ii. 164, 165

Poitou, midsummer fire festival in, ii. 261

Poland, ceremony of carrying out Death in, i. 261;
harvest custom in, i. 339, 340, 342, 343;

Christmas custom in, ii. 6, 7

Polynesians, superstition held by the, concerning the head, i. 189, 190;
and sacred contagion, ii. 55

Pomerania, cut hair buried in, i. 205;
reaping custom in, i. 205

Pomos of California, expulsions of devils by the, ii. 183

Pongol festival, ii. 73

Pont à Mousson, harvest ceremony at, ii. 21

Poplar, burning of a, on St. Peter's Day, i. 101

Portrait, the soul in the, i. 148, 149

Portraits, life in, i. 148

Potato-dog, ii. 4

—— wolf, ii. 2, 5

Potatoes, custom at the digging of new, in Sutherlandshire, ii. 71

Potniae, rites of Dionysus at, i. 329

Pouilly, harvest ceremony at, ii. 20, 21, 47

Preacher to the fish, ii. 119, 120

Pregnancy, i. 239

Priestly kings, i. 7, 8

Priests, Roman and Sabine, not shaved with iron razors, i. 172

Primitive man and the supernatural, i. 6-30

—— philosophy, rules of life are the outcome of, i. 208-210

Prophesying, drinking blood before, i. 34, 35

Propitiation of the fish, ii. 118, 119

Proserpine and the pig, ii. 44-49

Prussia, reverence for the oak in, i. 58;
high trees worshipped by the ancient Prussians, i. 64;
custom after a funeral by the old Prussians, i. 177;
self-immolation of the supreme ruler of the old Prussians, i. 223;
ceremony at spring ploughing in, i. 286;
corn drenching in, i. 287;
gardens of [pg 402] Adonis in, i. 294, 295;
harvest custom in, i. 336, 338, 343;
ceremony at the sowing of the winter corn by the Prussian Slavs, ii. 18, 19;
midsummer fire festival in, ii. 265

Puberty, girls at, not allowed to touch the ground or see the sun, ii. 225-253;
girls secluded at, ii. 225;
reasons for the seclusion, ii. 238 sq.

Pulverbatch, oak tree superstition at, ii. 368

Punjaub, Gen. Nicholson worshipped by a sect in the, i. 41;
ceremony at the bursting of the cotton boles in the, i. 353;
custom at the festival of lamps, ii. 176

Purification after travel, i. 157, 158

Pyrenees, customs in the, i. 101

Quauhtitlans, human sacrifices by the, ii. 221

Queen of the sacred rites, i. 7

Queensland, initiatory rites in, ii. 343, 344

Quilacare, self-immolation of the king of, i. 224

Quoja, initiatory rites in, ii. 347

Ra, the sun-god, i. 313-316

Rain-charm, i. 93, 199, 287, 289, 299, 333, 374, 390, 400; ii. 42

—— kings of, i. 52, 53

—— making, i. 13-22

Rajah, custom at the death of a, i. 232

Rajah Vijyanagram, his aversion to iron, i. 174

Rajamahall, offerings of first-fruits in, ii. 374, 375

Rali fair, the, i. 276, 277

Ram, sacred, ii. 63;

Egyptian sacrifice of the, ii. 92-94;
consecration of the white ram by the Kalmucks, ii. 136

Ramin, harvest custom in, i. 377

Raskolniks, the, and mirrors, i. 147

Rattlesnake not killed, ii. 110

Ratzeburg, harvest custom in, i. 376, 377

Red cock, ii. 9

—— haired victims, i. 306, 307

Reflection, the soul in the, i. 145-148

Religion, marks of a primitive, i. 348, 349

—— and magic, relation of, i. 30-32

Religious aspect of Peruvian, Parthian and Egyptian sovereigns, i. 48-50

Resurrection, the, of animals, ii. 123-125;
traces in folk-tales of the belief in, ii. 125;
simulation of death and resurrection at initiatory rites, ii. 342-358

Rhetra, priest tastes the sacrificial blood at, i. 35

Rhön mountains, fire festivals in the, ii. 249

Rice-bride, the, i. 355

Rice harvest, ceremonies at the, ii. 71, 72

Rio de la Plata, seclusion of girls amongst the Indians of, ii. 230, 231

Roman cure for fever, ii. 152

—— haircutting custom, i. 199

Romans, tree worship by the, i. 99

Rome, ceremony of driving out the old Mars from, ii. 208-210

Romove, sacred oak at, i. 58, 64

Rook, expulsion of evil in the island of, ii. 158;
initiation festival, ii. 352

Rosenheim, harvest custom in, ii. 20

Roti, haircutting ceremony in the island of, i. 201, 205, 206

Rottenburg, midsummer ceremony in, ii. 266, 267

Roumanians, rain-making by the, i. 16;
custom after a death by the, i. 176;
corn-drenching by the, i. 286

Rowan, the, effective against witchcraft, ii. 361

Royal and priestly taboos, i. 109-120, 149-209

—— blood not spilt upon the ground, i. 179-183

Ruhla, springtide custom in, i. 88

Rupture, cure for, ii. 330

Russia, Whitsuntide customs in, i. 76, 77;
first-born sacrificed by the heathen in, i. 237;

Eastertide customs in Little Russia, i. 272, 273;
harvest custom in, i. 341;
ceremony on the cutting of the first sheaf in, i. 364;

Easter custom in White Russia, ii. 29;
Russian wood-spirits, ii. 35, 36;
Russian corn-spirits, ii. 36;
beating as a charm in, ii. 216;
midsummer customs in, ii. 265, 267

Ruthenia, fire festival in, ii. 265

Rye-boar, ii. 26, 27

—— goat, ii. 12

—— wolf, ii. 1-3, 5

Sabaea, kings of, not allowed out of their palaces, i. 164

Sabarios, festival of, ii. 69

Sables, superstition about killing, ii. 115

Sacaea festival at Babylon, i. 226, 400

Sacramental bread, traces of the use of, at Aricia, ii. 82-84

—— character of the harvest supper, corn-spirit eaten in animal form, ii. 31

—— killing of an animal, two types of the, ii. 134 sq.

[pg 403]

Sacramental killing of sacred animal by pastoral peoples, ii. 135-138

Sacraments in ancient Mexico, ii. 78, 79

Sacred cattle in Egypt, ii. 60, 61

—— persons' vessels not to be used by others, i. 166;
sacred persons are dangerous, i. 166, 167;
not allowed to see the sun, ii. 225, 243 note;
not allowed to touch the ground, ii. 224, 243 note

Sacredness and uncleanness not distinguished by primitive man, i. 169-172

Sacrifices, human, i. 235-237, 251, 252

Sacrificial king, i. 7

Saddle Island, the reflection and the soul in the, i. 145

Saffron Walden, May-day custom in, i. 76

Sagar, influenza in, ii. 189, 190

Saligné, harvest custom in, i. 343

Salii, the, ii. 210 note

Salmon-catching, ii. 121, 122

Salza district, Shrove Tuesday custom in the, ii. 29

Salzwedel, Whitsuntide custom in, i. 90

Samoan gods, i. 39; ii. 54

Samoans, the, and bleeding trees, i. 61;
recall of the soul amongst the, i. 135;
turtle not eaten by the, i. 163;

Samoans and the butterfly, ii. 56;
presentation of first-fruits by the, ii. 381

Samogitians, tree superstition amongst the, i. 65;
birds and beasts of the wood held sacred by the, i. 105

Samorin kings, i. 225

Samoyed story, the external soul in a, ii. 321

Sankara and his shadow, i. 142

Santals, story of a soul by the, i. 126

Sardinia, Gardens of Adonis in, i. 290

Satyrs, representation of the, ii. 35

Savage, our debt to the, i. 210-212

Savage Island, kings killed in the, i. 48;
collapse of the monarchy in the, i. 118;
killing of strangers in the, i. 158

Savages and the soul, i. 121, 122

“Sawing the old woman,” i. 261, 262

Saxon villages, Whitsuntide custom in, i. 95

Saxons of Transylvania, charm for keeping sparrows from the corn used by the, ii. 130

Saxony, Whitsuntide ceremonies in, i. 243

Scandinavian Christmas custom, ii. 29

Scapegoat, ii. 182-217;
animal employed as a, ii. 189-191, 194 sq.;
human, ii. 191 sq.;
dog used as a, ii. 194, 195;
Tibetan ceremony of the, ii. 197, 198;
divine, ii. 199-201, 205;
cow and bull as, ii. 201, 202;
use of, in classical antiquity, ii. 208-217;
reason for beating the, ii. 213-215

Schaumburg, Easter fires in, ii. 253

Schluckenau, Shrovetide custom in, i. 244

Scotland, representation of spring in the Highlands of, i. 97;
iron as a charm in, i. 175, 176;
harvest custom in, i. 339, 345;
cowherd clothed in cow's hide in the Highlands of, ii. 145, 146;
midsummer fires in, ii. 264, 265

Scythian kings put in bonds in times of scarcity, i. 46

Sea-lion, respect for the, ii. 111

Seal, respect for the, ii. 111

Self-immolation, i. 216, 224

Semites, sacrifice of children by the, i. 235;
the king's son sacrificed, ib.;
worship of Adonis, i. 279

Senegambia, the Python clan in, ii. 95;
soul detention among the Sereres of, i. 139

Senjero, first-born sacrificed in, i. 236, 237

Servia, rain-making in, i. 16;
torchlight procession in, ii. 266

Seven Oaks, May-day custom in, i. 76

Sex-totems in Australia, ii. 334-337

Shadow, the soul in the, i. 141-149

Shamans, the, sacrifice their chief on account of pestilence, i. 48

Shans, expulsion of the fire-spirit by the, ii. 178, 179

Shark Point the home of the priestly King Kukulu, i. 112

Sharp instruments supposed to wound spirits, i. 176, 177

Sheaf, the last, various names given to, and ceremonies in connection with, i. 336-338, 340-346, 408; ii. 4, 7, 8, 68

Shepherd's Isle, precautions taken against strangers in, i. 152, 153

Shetland seamen and wind buying, i. 27

Shropshire, “Neck” the name given to the last handful of corn in, i. 407, 408;
harvest custom, ii. 24, 25;
sin-eating in, ii. 155

Shrovetide Bear, i. 254, 255

—— customs, i. 96, 244, 270; ii. 29, 250, 254-257, 283

Siam, soul superstition in, i. 59;
mode of royal executions in, i. 179, 180;
superstition concerning the head, i. 187, 188;
temporary king of, i. 229;

[pg 404]

banishment of demons in, ii. 178;
human scapegoats in, ii. 196;
the external soul in Siamese story, ii. 304, 305

Siberian sable hunters, ii. 115, 116

Sicily, Gardens of Adonis in, i. 294, 295

Silenus both a wood and corn spirit, ii. 35;
representation of, ib.

Silesia, driving out Death in, i. 260;
“carrying out Death” in, i. 267;
bringing back summer in, i. 263;
harvest custom in, i. 336, 346; ii. 8

Silvanus both a wood and corn spirit, ii. 35

Sin-bearers, ii. 151, 152

Sin-eating, ii. 154-157

“Sinew which shrank,” abstinence from the, ii. 126-128

Skye, harvest festival in, ii. 14;

Beltane fires in, ii. 255, 256

Slaves sacrificed, i. 251, 252

Slavonia, “carrying out Death” in, i. 260; ii. 209;
custom of “sawing the old woman” amongst the Slavs, i. 262;
reaping custom amongst the Slavs, i. 334, 355;
beating in, ii. 216;
midsummer fires in, ii. 265;
perpetual fire of the Slavs, ii. 293;
the external soul in Slavonic stories, ii. 309, 310

Slovenes of Oberkrain, Shrove Tuesday custom amongst the, i. 96

Small-pox, driving away the, ii. 161;
scapegoat used for, ii. 190, 191

Snake, communion with the, ii. 139

—— tribe, ii. 95;
ceremony performed with a dough snake by the, ii. 139, 140

Soest, custom of flax pullers at, i. 375

Sofala, kings of, killed, i. 219, 220

Sogamoso, restrictions on the heir to the throne in, ii. 225

Solör, harvest custom in, i. 375

Somersetshire, midsummer fires in, ii. 262

Sorcerers, the soul extracted or detained by, i. 135-141

Soul, perils of the, i. 109 sq.;
a miniature of the body, i. 121-123;
precautions to prevent its escape, i. 123;
conceived as a bird, i. 124;
its flight, i. 124, 125;
absent in sleep, i. 125-129;
its departure not always voluntary, i. 129;
carried off by ghosts, i. 129-132;
recall of the, i. 129-141;
stolen by demons, i. 132-135;
brought back in visible shape, i. 136-138;
extracted or detained by sorcerers, i. 138-141;
transference of the, i. 140;
the soul thought to be in the portrait, i. 148, 149;
in the shadow, i. 141-149;
in the reflection, i. 145-148;
in the blood, i. 178, 179;
transmigration of the human soul into that of a turtle, ii. 98;
the external soul in folk tales, ii. 296-326;
in folk custom, ii. 327-359

Souls, of trees, i. 59-61;
of divine persons transmitted to successors, i. 237-239;
plurality of, ii. 339

South American Indians, foods eaten and avoided by the, ii. 86;
beating by the, ii. 216

South Sea Islands, man-gods in the, i. 38, 39.

Sowing-time custom, ii. 28-30, 32, 48

Spachendorf, fire festivals in, ii. 249, 250

Spain, custom of “sawing the old woman” in, i. 261, 262;
midsummer fires in, ii. 266

Sparrows, the, and the corn, ii. 130

Sparta, state sacrifices offered by the kings of, i. 7

Spices, sprinkling the sick with, i. 154

Spirit, of vegetation, in human shape, i. 87, 88

—— robbing the, i. 380

Spirits, sharp instruments supposed to wound, i. 176, 177

Spitting as a protective charm, i. 205

Spring and harvest customs compared, i. 346, 347

—— ceremony in, in China, ii. 42, 43;

European fire festivals in, ii. 247-254

Storms, Motumotu theory of, i. 27

Strangers, precautions against the magic arts of, i. 150-160;
tied up in the sheaves by the reapers as representatives of the corn-spirit, i. 374-380

Straw goats, ii. 16

Sucla-Tirtha, expulsion of sins to sea by the, ii. 192

Suicide of Fijians at old age, i. 216

Sumatra, rain-charm in, i. 17;
tree-superstition in, i. 63;
reluctance to wound a tiger in, ii. 110

Summer, bringing back, i. 263, 268

—— tree, i. 268, 269

Sun, staying the, i. 24;
sacred person not allowed to see the, ii. 225, 243 note;
girls at puberty not allowed to see the, ii. 225-253;
traces in folktales of the rule which forbids girls at puberty to see the sun, ii. 235-237;
belief that the sun can impregnate women, ii. 236;
tabooed persons may not see the, ii. 243 note;
fires as sun charms, ii. 267-274

[pg 405]

Suni Mohammedans, covering up mirrors by the, i. 147

Sunshine, making, i. 22-24

Superb warbler, ii. 336, 337

Surenthal, midsummer fire ceremony in the, ii. 259, 260

Surinam, the bush negroes of, and their totems, ii. 53, 54

Sutherland, cure for cough in, ii. 154

Sutherlandshire, custom at the digging of new potatoes in, ii. 71

Swabia, burying of cut hair in, i. 202;
burying the carnival in, i. 254-257;
harvest custom, ii. 27;
fire festival, ii. 248-249;

Easter fires in, ii. 254; midsummer fires in, ii. 258

Sweden, harvest superstition in, i. 68;

King Domalde sacrificed on account of famine, i. 47, 48;

May Eve customs in, i. 78;
midsummer ceremonies, i. 78, 79;
Christmas customs in, ii. 29-31;
superstitious use of Yule straw in, ii. 30, 31;

May Day fires in, ii. 258;
midsummer bonfires in, ii. 289;
mistletoe superstition in, ib.;
divining rods made from the mistletoe in, ii. 367

Swineherds, restrictions on, in Egypt, ii. 52

Syleus, legend of, i. 398

Sympathetic eating, Savage belief that a man acquires the character of the animal or man whose flesh he eats, ii. 85-89

—— magic, i. 9-12

Syria, caterpillars in, ii. 132

Taboo, i. 121, 178;
fatal effects of, i. 167-170;
seclusion of tabooed persons, i. 170, 171;
the object of, is to preserve life, i. 149;
royal and priestly taboos, i. 109-120, 149-150, 209

Tabor, in Bohemia, ceremony of carrying out Death in, i. 258

Tahiti, abdication of kings of, i. 120;
the bodies of the king and queen not allowed to be touched, i. 172;
superstition concerning the head in, i. 190, 191;
burying of cut hair in, i. 200

Tâif, hair cut on returning from a journey in, i. 194

Tamaniu, the, of the Bank Islanders, ii. 331, 332

Tana, disposal of unconsumed food by the islanders, i. 166;
offerings of first-fruits in, ii. 378

Tarnow, reaping custom in, i. 335

Tartar Khan, ceremony on a visit by a stranger to a, i. 158, 159

—— poems, the external soul in, ii. 321-324

Ta-ta-thi tribe of New South Wales, rain-making by the, i. 14

Tâ-uz, festival in honour of, i. 283, 284

Temporary kings, i. 228-234;
sometimes hereditary, i. 228, 232

Tenedos, rites of Dionysus at, i. 329

Tenimber Islands, offering of first-fruits in the, ii. 376, 377

Teutonic kings exercised the powers of high priests, i. 8

Texas, initiatory ceremony among the Toukaway Indians of, ii. 352

Thammuz as a corn-spirit, i. 283, 288

Thann, May-Day customs in, i. 83

Theban ritual, ii. 92, 93;
rams sacred at Thebes, ii. 63

Thesmophoria, the, ii. 44-48

Thlinket of Alaska, festival to the halibut by the, ii. 121

Thuringen, Whitsuntide customs in, i. 90, 91, 243;

Mid-Lent customs in, i. 257, 258;
threshing custom in, i. 371

Tibetan New Year's day custom, ii. 193-195;
scapegoat, ii. 197-198

Tiger, flesh of, eaten, ii. 86;
reluctance to wound a, ii. 110

Tikopia islanders, ceremony by the, in cases of epidemic, ii. 188

Tillot, threshing custom in the canton of, i. 372

Timor, West, custom of a speaker in, i. 163

Timorese rain-charm, i. 18

Timorlaut, married men not allowed to cut their hair in, i. 194;
disease-boats in, ii. 186, 187

Tjumba, harvest festival in, ii. 375, 376

Todas, the dairy a sanctuary amongst the, i. 41;
buffalo held sacred by the, ii. 136, 137

Tom-cat, ii. 11

Tona, the, of the Zapotecs, ii. 332, 333

Tonga, king of, not seen eating, i. 162;
ceremony in, with regard to sacred contagion, ii. 55;
festival of the first-fruits in, ii. 379-381

Tongues of birds given to backward children to eat, ii. 87

Tonquin, the test of a suitable sacrificial victim in, i. 36;
selection of guardian spirits in, i. 40;
the monarchy, i. 119, 120;
kings not allowed to be viewed in public, i. 165;
mode of royal executions in, i. 180, 181;
expulsion of evil spirits in, ii. 176-178;
time of licence in, ii. 204

Toothache cure, ii. 149

Torchlight processions, ii. 266, 273

Totem, a, is an object (animal, plant, [pg 406] etc.) in which a man deposits his soul for safety, ii. 337-342

Totemism, ii. 38, 53, 54, 56, 133, 337-342, 358, 359

Totems, sex, ii. 334

Touaregs of the Sahara, custom of veiling the face amongst the, i. 163

Transmigration of divine spirit, i. 42-44

Transylvania, rain-charm in, i. 17;
burying the carnival amongst the Saxons of, i. 255;

“carrying out Death” in, i. 265, 266;
corn-drenching in, i. 286;
custom for preserving the crops from insects, etc. in, ii. 130

Transylvanian story of a soul, i. 126, 127

Traunstein district, harvest custom in the, ii. 27

Travancore, transference of sickness in, ii. 151

Travel, purification after, i. 157, 158

Tree-spirit represented by leaf-clad persons alone, i. 87-90;
killing the, i. 240-253;
reason for annually killing the, i. 247-249;
the goat as an embodiment of the, ii. 34-37;
burnt in effigy, ii. 274-277;
human beings burnt as representatives of the, ii. 277-285

—— spirits give rain and sunshine, i. 66;
cause the crops to grow, i. 67-70;
influence of, on women and cattle, i. 70-74

—— worship, i. 56-98;
in antiquity, 98-108

Trees, bleeding, i. 61;
souls of, i. 59-61;
souls of the dead believed to animate, i. 62;
inhabited by spirits, i. 62-65;
planted at the births of children, ii. 329, 330;
regarded as storehouses of the sun's fire, ii. 369 sq.

—— and cattle, i. 72 sq.

Trier, harvest custom in, ii. 6

Tukaitawa and his shadow, i. 142, 143

Turks, parings from the nails preserved by the, i. 204;

Turks of Central Asia give backward children tongues of birds to eat, ii. 87

Turner's picture of the Golden Bough, i. 1

Turtle, the, not eaten, i. 163;
sacrifice of the sacred, ii. 95-99;
belief in the transmigration of human souls into, ii. 98, 99

Twelfth Day customs, ii. 143, 144, 182

Tycoons, the, i. 119

Types, two, of animal worship, ii. 133, 134

Typhon, ii. 57-60

Tyrol, expulsion of witches in the, i. 181, 182;
witches said to make use of the hair cut in the, i. 199;
midsummer customs in the, ii. 267

Ualaroi, ceremony at initiatory rites in, ii. 344

Uapes of Brazil, treatment of girls at the age of puberty in, ii. 334

Udvarhely, harvest home in, i. 370, 371;
ceremony with the last sheaf in, ii. 9, 48

Uea, power ascribed to the souls of the dead in, i. 132

Uelzen, harvest ceremony in, ii. 13

Uganda, custom of burning the king's brothers in, i. 181;
king of, and his courtiers, i. 222

Ugi, dread of women's blood in, i. 186;
burying of cut hair in, i. 202

Uliase, sprinkling the sick with spices in, i. 154

Unyoro, kings killed in, i. 218

Upsala, sacred grove at, i. 58

Utch Kurgan, sin eating in, ii. 156, 157

Val di Ledro, fire festival in, ii. 251

Vaté, burying alive at, i. 217

Vegetation, spirit of, in human shape, i. 87, 88;
slain at midsummer, i. 274, 275

Veiling, i. 162, 163

Venison not eaten, ii. 86, 87

Vermin, respect shown by primitive people for, ii. 129-132

Vestal fire, i. 5

—— virgins, hair of, i. 200

Victoria, Queen, worshipped by a sect in Orissa, i. 41

Vine, not to walk under a, i. 183;
sacred to Dionysus, i. 321

Vintage, Phoenician custom at, i. 365

Virbius, legend of, i. 6;
possible explanation of his relation to the Arician Diana, i. 362;
and the horse, ii. 62-67;
reason why he was confounded with the sun, ii. 369

Volders, threshing custom at, i. 374

Vorarlberg, fire festival at, ii. 248

Vosges Mountains, May Day customs in the, i. 76

Wadai, veiling of the Sultan of, i. 163;
he must have no bodily defect, i. 221

Waganda, worship in, i. 45

Walber, the, i. 84, 86

Wallachia, corn-drenching in, i. 286

Wanika, the, believers in the souls of trees, i. 59;
do not shed the blood of animals, i. 182

Wanyoro, secretion of cut hair and nails by the, i. 203

[pg 407]

Wanzleben, harvest custom in, ii. 5

Warts, cure for, ii. 153

Warua, the, not seen eating, i. 160, 161

Wa-teita, the, their reluctance to be photographed, i. 148

Water, kings of, i. 53-56

—— fairy, English superstition regarding the, i. 146

Watjobaluk, the, and the bat, ii. 334

Weather kings, i. 44-46

—— omens, ii. 270, 271

Weevil, the, ii. 129, 130

Weiden, harvest custom in, i. 338

Welsh custom of sin eating, ii. 154, 155

Wends dancing round the oak-tree, i. 72

Wermland, custom among the threshers in, i. 378;
ceremony with regard to the last sheaf in, ii. 68

West African rain-makers, i. 20

Westerhüsen, reaping custom in, i. 334

Westphalia, Whitsuntide customs in, i. 98;
harvest custom in, i. 336; ii. 8, 9

Wetar, men injured by attacking their shadows in, i. 142;
superstition concerning the blood of women in, i. 187;
opinion of the inhabitants as to their descent, ii. 53

Wheat-bride, a name given to the binder of the last sheaf, i. 346

—— dog, a name given to the binder of the last sheaf, ii. 4

White dog, sacrifice of the, ii. 166

—— mice spared, ii. 131, 132

Whitsuntide basket, i. 89

—— bride, i. 98

—— customs, i. 76, 77, 80, 87, 88, 90-96, 98, 242, 243-247

—— flower, i. 88

—— king, i. 90

—— queen, i. 93

Wiedingharde, threshing custom in, i. 378

Wild man, i. 243, 244, 248, 250, 270; ii. 41

Wind, buying and selling, i. 27;
fighting the, i. 28-30;
wind-making, i. 26, 27

Wine the blood of the vine, i. 184, 185;
abstention from, ib.

Winenthal, midsummer fire ceremony in the, ii. 259, 260

Witchcraft, protection against, ii. 361, 362

Witches, expulsion of, ii. 181

Wolf, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 3-7

Wolfeck, midsummer bonfire in, ii. 277

Women, superstition concerning the blood of, i. 185-187

—— secluded, ii. 238-242

—— and tree-spirits, i. 70-74

Wotjaks, sacred groves of the, i. 65;
driving out Satan by the, ii. 179, 180

Wren, hunting the, ii. 140-144;

English tradition concerning the hunting of the, ii. 140, 141

Wurmlingen, Whit Monday custom in, i. 242, 243;
threshing custom in, ii. 21

Yakut charm for making wind, i. 26;
sacrifices, i. 36

Yawning, Hindoo custom when, i. 123

Yarilo, funeral of, i. 273

Yorkshire custom of the clergyman cutting the first corn, ii. 71

Yoruba, precautions against strangers in, i. 151

Yucutan charm for staying the sun, i. 25;

New Year's festival, ii. 272, 273

Yule boar, ii. 29-32, 48

—— straw, ii. 30, 31

Zabern, May Day custom in, i. 77;
harvest custom in, ii. 18

Zacynthus, strength thought to be in the hair by the people of, ii. 328

Zafimanelo, the, not seen eating, i. 160

Zaparo Indians of South America, foods eaten and avoided by the, ii. 86

Zapotecs, high pontiff of the, i. 113, 114; ii. 224;
harvest custom, i. 352, 353;
the tona of the, ii. 332

Zealand, custom at the madder harvest in, i. 378, 379

Zend Avesta, directions by the, concerning the clippings of hair and nails, i. 202

Zeus, a man's shadow lost on entering the sanctuary of, i. 143;
represented by an oak at Dodona, ii. 291

—— and Hera, representation of the marriage of, i. 103

Zoolas, qualities required for the king of the, i. 219

Zulu rain-charm, i. 19;
belief in the reflection as the soul, i. 145;
kings put to death, i. 218, 219;
custom in time of disease, ii. 86;
cannibalism, ii. 89;
girls secluded at puberty, ii. 226;
the Ihlozi of the, ii. 332

Zuni sacrifice of the turtle, ii. 95-99;
totem clans, ii. 99

Zürich, fire festival in, ii. 250, 251

Footnotes

1.

W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, pp. 1-6.

2.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund (Danzig, 1865), p. 5; id., Antike Wald-und Feldkulte, p. 318 sq.; id., Mythol. Forsch. p. 103; Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, p. 213.

3.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf u. Roggenhund, p. 7 sqq.; id., A. W. F. p. 319.

4.

W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf, etc. p. 10.

5.

W. Mannhardt, M. F. p. 104.

6.

Ib.

7.

Ib. p. 104 sq. On the Harvest-May, see above, vol. i. p. 68.

8.

Ib. p. 105.

9.

Ib. p. 30.

10.

Ib. pp. 30, 105.

11.

Ib. p. 105 sq.

12.

A. W. F. p. 320; Roggenwolf, p. 24.

13.

Roggenwolf, p. 24.

14.

Roggenwolf, p. 24.

15.

Ib. p. 25.

16.

Ib. p. 28; A. W. F. p. 320.

17.

Roggenwolf, p. 25.

18.

Ib. p. 26.

19.

Ib. p. 26; A. W. F. p. 320.

20.

A. W. F. p. 321.

21.

A. W. F. p. 321 sq.

22.

A. W. F. p. 320.

23.

A. W. F. p. 320 sq.

24.

A. W. F. p. 322.

25.

Ib. p. 323.

26.

Die Korndämonen, p. 13.

27.

Ib.; Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen des Eifler Volkes, i. p. 95; Kuhn, Westfälische Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, ii. p. 181; Kuhn und Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, p. 398.

28.

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 21.

29.

Die Korndämonen, p. 13. Cp. Kuhn and Schwartz, l.c.

30.

Die Korndämonen, p. 13.

31.

Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, p. 220.

32.

Die Korndämonen, p. 13 sq.; Kuhn, Westfälische Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, ii. p. 180 sq.; Pfannenschmid, Germanische Erntefeste, p. 110.

33.

Die Korndämonen, p. 14; Pfannenschmid, op. cit. pp. 111, 419 sq.

34.

Die Korndämonen, p. 15. So in Shropshire, where the corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander (see above, vol. i. p. 407), the expression for overthrowing a load at harvest is “to lose the goose,” and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose at the harvest supper (Burne and Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 375); and in some parts of England the harvest supper was called the Harvest Gosling, or the Inning Goose (Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 23, 26, Bohn's ed.)

35.

Die Korndämonen, p. 14.

36.

Ib. p. 15.

37.

M. F. p. 30.

38.

Die Korndämonen, p. 15.

39.

Ib. p. 15 sq.

40.

Ib. p. 15; M. F. p. 30.

41.

Die Korndämonen, p. 1.

42.

Folk-lore Journal, vii. 47.

43.

Die Korndämonen, p. 3.

44.

Lemke, Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen, i. 24.

45.

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 21.

46.

Above, vol. i. p. 408.

47.

M. F. p. 29.

48.

M. F. p. 29 sq.; Die Korndämonen, p. 5.

49.

A. W. F. pp. 172-174; M. F. p. 30.

50.

W. Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 155 sq.

51.

Ib. p. 157 sq.

52.

Ib. p. 159.

53.

Ib. p. 161 sq.

54.

W. Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 162.

55.

Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 232 sq. No. 426; A. W. F. p. 162.

56.

Panzer, op. cit. ii. p. 228 sq. No. 422; A. W. F. p. 163.

57.

A. W. F. p. 163.

58.

Ib. p. 164.

59.

A. W. F. p. 164.

60.

Ib. p. 164 sq.

61.

Ib. p. 165.

62.

Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 24, Bohn's ed.; A. W. F. p. 165.

63.

Above, vol. i. p. 380.

64.

A. W. F. p. 165.

65.

A. W. F. p. 166; M. F. p. 185.

66.

A. W. F. p. 166.

67.

Above, p. 11.

68.

Holzmayer, Osiliana, p. 107.

69.

G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten u. Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 19. Cp. B. K. p. 482 sqq.

70.

Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 225 sqq. No. 421; A. W. F. p. 167 sq.

71.

A. W. F. p. 168.

72.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 445, No. 162; A. W. F. p. 168.

73.

A. W. F. p. 169.

74.

Panzer, op. cit. ii. p. 224 sq. No. 420; A. W. F. p. 169.

75.

A. W. F. p. 169.

76.

Ib. p. 170.

77.

Ib. p. 170.

78.

Praetorius, Deliciae Prussicae, p. 23 sq.; B. K. p. 394 sq.

79.

M. F. p. 58.

80.

Ib.

81.

M. F. p. 62.

82.

M. F. p. 59.

83.

Above, p. 6.

84.

M. F. p. 59.

85.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 440 sq. Nos. 151, 152, 153; Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 234, No. 428; M. F. p. 59.

86.

Panzer, op. cit. ii. p. 233, No. 427; M. F. p. 59.

87.

M. F. p. 59 sq.

88.

M. F. p. 58.

89.

M. F. p. 58 sq.

90.

M. F. p. 60.

91.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 444 sq. No. 162; M. F. p. 61.

92.

Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 233, No. 427.

93.

M. F. p. 61 sq.

94.

M. F. p. 62.

95.

M. F. p. 62.

96.

E. Meier, op. cit. p. 445 sq. No. 163.

97.

M. F. p. 60.

98.

M. F. p. 62.

99.

Above, vol. i. p. 343 sq.

100.

Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France, ii. 135.

101.

M. F. p. 62, “Il fait le veau.”

102.

M. F. p. 62.

103.

M. F. p. 63.

104.

M. F. p. 167.

105.

Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 24, Bohn's ed.

106.

Burne and Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 373 sq.

107.

M. F. p. 167.

108.

Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France, ii. 133; M. F. p. 167 sq.

109.

Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, p. 213, No. 4.

110.

Holzmayer, Osiliana, p. 107; M. F. p. 187.

111.

Birlinger, Aus Schwaben, ii. 328.

112.

Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. pp. 223, 224, Nos. 417, 419.

113.

M. F. p. 112.

114.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 445, No. 162.

115.

Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. 425, No. 379.

116.

Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. pp. 221-224, Nos. 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 418.

117.

M. F. p. 186 sq.

118.

Above, p. 3.

119.

Above, p. 26 sq.

120.

M. F. p. 187.

121.

M. F. p. 187 sq.; Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, pp. 189, 218; W. Kolbe, Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche (Marburg, 1888), p. 35.

122.

M. F. p. 188; Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 220.

123.

A. W. F. p. 197 sq.; Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 491; Jamieson, Dictionary of the Scottish Language, s.v. “Maiden”; Afzelius, Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und neuerer Zeit, übersetzt von Ungewitter, i. 9.

124.

Above, p. 6 sq.

125.

L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, pp. 169 sq., 182. On Christmas night children sleep on a bed of the Yule straw (ib. p. 177).

126.

Jahn, Deutsche Opfergebräuche, p. 215. Cp. above, vol. i. p. 60.

127.

Afzelius, op. cit. i. 31.

128.

Afzelius, op. cit. i. 9; Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, pp. 181, 185.

129.

Above, pp. 8 sq., 11, 12, 15 sq., 21, 23, 28. In regard to the hare the substitution of brandy for hare's blood is doubtless comparatively modern.

130.

Die Korndämonen, p. 1.

131.

Herodotus, ii. 46.

132.

Preller, Griechische Mythologie, 3 i. 600; A. W. F. p. 138.

133.

A. W. F. p. 139.

134.

Pollux, iv. 118.

135.

A. W. F. p. 142 sq.

136.

Ovid, Fasti, ii. 361; iii. 312; v. 101; id., Heroides, iv. 49.

137.

Macrobius, Sat. i. 22, 3.

138.

Homer, Hymn to Aphrodite, 262 sqq.

139.

Pliny, N. H. xii. 3; Ovid, Metam. vi. 392; id., Fasti, iii. 303, 309; Gloss. Isid. Mart. Cap. ii. 167, cited by Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 113.

140.

Pliny, N. H. xii. 3; Martianus Capella, ii. 167; Augustine, Civ. Dei, xv. 23; Aurelius Victor, Origo gentis Romanae, iv. 6.

141.

Servius on Virgil, Ecl. vi. 14; Ovid, Metam. vi. 392 sq.; Martianus Capella, ii. 167.

142.

B. K. p. 138 sq.; A. W. F. p. 145.

143.

Servius on Virgil, Georg. i. 10.

144.

Above, p. 12 sqq.

145.

A. W. F. ch. iii.

146.

Above, vol. i. p. 379 sq.

147.

Above, vol. i. p. 326 sq.

148.

Above, vol. i. p. 325 sq.

149.

Above, p. 19 sqq.

150.

A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, ii. 232.

151.

Pausanias, i. 24, 4; id., i. 28, 10; Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 29 sq.; Aelian, Var. Hist. viii. 3; Schol. on Aristophanes, Peace, 419; Hesychius, Suidas, and Etymol. Magnum, s.v. βούφονια. The date of the sacrifice (14th Skirophorion) is given by the Schol. on Aristophanes and the Etym. Magn.; and this date corresponds, according to Mannhardt (M. F. p. 68), with the close of the threshing in Attica. No writer mentions the trial of both the axe and the knife. Pausanias speaks of the trial of the axe, Porphyry and Aelian of the trial of the knife. But from Porphyry's description it is clear that the slaughter was carried out by two men, one wielding an axe and the other a knife, and that the former laid the blame on the latter. Perhaps the knife alone was condemned. That the King Archon (on whom see above, vol. i. p. 7), presided at the trial of all lifeless objects, is mentioned by Pollux, viii. 90; cp. id. viii. 120.

152.

The real import of the name bouphonia was first perceived by Prof. W. Robertson Smith. See his Religion of the Semites, i. 286 sqq.

153.

Varro, De re rustica, ii. 5, 4. Cp. Columella, vi. praef. § 7. Perhaps, however, Varro's statement may be merely an inference drawn from the ritual of the bouphonia and the legend told to explain it.

154.

B. K. p. 409.

155.

See above, vol. i. p. 243.

156.

Hecquard, Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika, pp. 41-43.

157.

Above, p. 3, and vol. i. p. 408.

158.

China Review, i. 62, 154, 162, 203 sq.; Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, p. 375 sq., ed. Paxton Hood; Gray, China, ii. 115 sq.

159.

Above, vol. i. pp. 261, 267.

160.

See above, p. 26 sqq.

161.

Schol. on Aristophanes, Acharn. 747.

162.

Overbeck, Griechische Kunstmythologie, ii. 493; Müller-Wieseler, Denkmäler d. alt. Kunst, ii. pl. viii. 94.

163.

Hyginus, Fab. 277; Cornutus, De nat. deor. c. 28; Macrobius, Sat. i. 12, 23; Schol. on Aristophanes, Acharn. 747; id. on Frogs, 338; id. on Peace, 374; Servius on Virgil, Georg. ii. 380; Aelian, Nat. Anim. x. 16.

164.

For the authorities on the Thesmophoria and a discussion of some doubtful points in the festival, I may be permitted to refer to my article “Thesmophoria” in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, ninth ed.

165.

Photius, s.v. στήνια, speaks of the ascent of Demeter from the lower world; and Clement of Alexandria speaks of both Demeter and Proserpine as having been engulfed in the chasm (Protrept. ii. § 17). The original equivalence of Demeter and Proserpine must be borne steadily in mind.

166.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 69; Photius, s.v. στήνια.

167.

E. Rohde, “Unedirte Luciansscholien, die attischen Thesmophorien und Haloen betreffend,” in Rheinisches Museum, N. F. xxv. (1870) 548 sqq. Two passages of classical writers (Clemens Alex., Protrept. ii. § 17 and Pausanias, ix. 8, 1) refer to the rites described by the Scholiast on Lucian, and had been rightly interpreted by Lobeck (Aglaophamus, p. 827 sqq.)

168.

The scholiast speaks of them as megara and adyta. Megara (from a Phoenician word meaning “cavern,” “subterranean chasm,” Movers, Die Phoenizier, i. 220) were properly subterranean vaults or chasms sacred to the gods. See Hesychius, quoted by Movers, l.c. (the passage does not appear in M. Schmidt's minor edition of Hesychius); Porphyry, De antro nymph. 6.

169.

We infer this from Pausanias, ix. 8, 1, though the passage is incomplete and apparently corrupt. For ἐν Δωδώνῃ Lobeck proposes to read ἀναδῦναι or ἀναδοθῆναι. At the spring and autumn festivals of Isis at Tithorea geese and goats were thrown into the adyton and left there till the following festival, when the remains were removed and buried at a certain spot a little way from the temple. Pausanias, x. 32, 14 (9). This analogy supports the view that the pigs thrown into the caverns at the Thesmophoria were left there till the next festival.

170.

Ovid, Fasti, iv. 461-466, upon which Gierig remarks, “Sues melius poeta omisisset in hac narratione.” Such is the wisdom of the commentator.

171.

Pausanias, i. 14, 3.

172.

Schol. on Aristophanes, Frogs, 338.

173.

Above, p. 15 sq.

174.

Above, p. 20 sq.

175.

Above, p. 9.

176.

Above, p. 29.

177.

Above, p. 29 sq.

178.

In Clemens Alex., Protrept. ii. 17, for μεγαρίζοντες χοίρους ἐκβάλλουσι Lobeck (Aglaophamus, p. 831) would read μεγάροις ζῶντας χοίρους ἐμβάλλουσι. For his emendation of Pausanias, see above, p. 45.

179.

It is worth noting that in Crete, which was an ancient seat of Demeter worship (see above, vol. i. p. 331), the pig was esteemed very sacred and was not eaten, Athenaeus, 375 f·376 a. This would not exclude the possibility of its being eaten sacramentally, as at the Thesmophoria.

180.

Pausanias, viii. 42.

181.

Above, p. 24 sqq.

182.

Pausanias, viii. 25 and 42. On the Phigalian Demeter, see W. Mannhardt, M. F. p. 244 sqq.

183.

Above, vol. i. p. 296 sq.

184.

Above, vol. i. p. 296.

185.

Demosthenes, De corona, p. 313.

186.

Above, vol. i. p. 281.

187.

Cureton, Spicilegium Syriacum, p. 44.

188.

Lucian, De dea Syria, 54.

189.

The heathen Harranians sacrificed swine once a year and ate the flesh; En-Nedim, in Chwolsohn's Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, ii. 42. My friend Professor W. Robertson Smith has conjectured that the wild boars annually sacrificed in Cyprus on 2d April (Joannes Lydus, De mensibus, iv. 45) represented Adonis himself. See his Religion of the Semites, i. 272 sq., 392.

190.

Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. iv. 5.

191.

Isaiah lxv. 3, 4, lxvi. 3, 17.

192.

Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 8; Aelian, Nat. Anim. x. 16.

193.

Herodotus, l.c.

194.

Plutarch and Aelian, ll.cc.

195.

Herodotus, l.c.

196.

Herodotus, ii. 47 sq.; Aelian and Plutarch, ll.cc. Herodotus distinguishes the sacrifice to the moon from that to Osiris. According to him, at the sacrifice to the moon, the extremity of the pig's tail, together with the spleen and the caul, were covered with fat and burned; the rest of the flesh was eaten. On the evening (not the eve, see Stein on the passage) of the festival the sacrifice to Osiris took place. Each man slew a pig before his door, then gave it to the swineherd, from whom he had bought it, to take away.

197.

Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, pp. 432, 452.

198.

Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington), p. 225.

199.

Ib. p. 231.

200.

J. Crevaux, Voyages dans l'Amérique au Sud, p. 59.

201.

Turner, Samoa, pp. 17 sq., 50 sq.

202.

Leviticus xvi. 23 sq.

203.

Porphyry, De abstin. ii. 44. For this and the Jewish examples I am indebted to my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith.

204.

Mariner, Tonga Islands, i. 434, note; ii. 82, 222 sq.

205.

Above, vol. i. p. 167 sqq.

206.

Casalis, The Basutos, p. 211; Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, p. 255; John Mackenzie, Ten Years north of the Orange River, p. 135 note.

207.

J. Mackenzie, l.c.

208.

Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington), p. 225.

209.

Ib. p. 275.

210.

Turner, Samoa, p. 76.

211.

Ib. p. 70.

212.

Diogenes Laertius, Vitae Philos. viii. 8.

213.

Aelian, Nat. Anim. x. 16. The story is repeated by Pliny, Nat. Hist. xviii. 168.

214.

Lefébure, Le mythe Osirien, i. 44.

215.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 8. Lefébure (op. cit. p. 46) recognises that in this story the boar is Typhon himself.

216.

This important principle was first recognised by Prof. W. Robertson Smith. See his article “Sacrifice,” Encycl. Britann. 9th ed. xxi. 137 sq. Cp. his Religion of the Semites, pp. 353 sq., 391 sq.

217.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 31.

218.

Lefébure, Le mythe Osirien, p. 48 sq.

219.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 33, 73; Diodorus, i. 88.

220.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 31; Diodorus, i. 88. Cp. Herodotus, ii. 38.

221.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 20, 29, 33, 43; Strabo, xvii. 1, 31; Diodorus, i. 21, 85; Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums,5 i. 55 sqq. On Apis and Mnevis, see also Herodotus, ii. 153, iii. 27 sq.; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14, 7; Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 184 sqq.; 17.; Solinus, xxxii. 17-21; Cicero, De nat. deor. i. 29; Aelian, Nat. Anim. xi. 10 sq.; Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. viii. 1, 3; id., Isis et Osiris, 5, 35: Eusebius, Praepar. Evang. iii. 13, 1 sq.; Pausanias, i. 18, 4, vii. 22, 3 sq. Both Apis and Mnevis were black bulls, but Apis had certain white spots.

222.

Diodorus, i. 21.

223.

On the religious reverence of pastoral peoples for their cattle, and the possible derivation of the Apis and Isis-Hathor worship from the pastoral stage of society, see W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, i. 277 sqq.

224.

Herodotus, ii. 41.

225.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 184; Solinus, xxxii. 18; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14, 7. The spring or well in which he was drowned was perhaps the one from which his drinking water was procured; he might not drink the water of the Nile. Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 5.

226.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 56.

227.

Maspero, Histoire ancienne,4 p. 31. Cp. Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums,5 i. 56.

228.

See above, p. 24 sqq.

229.

Athenaeus, 587 a; Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 204. Cp. Encycl. Britann. 9th ed. art. “Sacrifice,” xxi. 135.

230.

Varro, De agri cult. i. 2, 19 sq.

231.

Herodotus, ii. 42.

232.

Festus, ed. Müller, pp. 178, 179, 220; Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 97; Polybius, xii. 4 B. The sacrifice is referred to by Julian, Orat. 176 d.

233.

Ovid, Fasti, iv. 731 sqq., cp. 629 sqq.; Propertius, v. 1, 19 sq.

234.

Above, p. 41 sq.

235.

Above, vol. i. p. 408, vol. ii. p. 3.

236.

Above, p. 30.

237.

Livy, ii. 5.

238.

Festus, ed. Müller, pp. 130, 131.

239.

The October horse is the subject of an essay by Mannhardt (Mytholog. Forsch. pp. 156-201), of which the above account is a summary.

240.

M. F. p. 179.

241.

B. K. p. 205. It is not said that the dough-man is made of the new corn; but probably this is, or once was, the case.

242.

Praetorius, Deliciae Prussicae, pp. 60-64; A. W. F. p. 249 sqq.

243.

Bezzenberger, Litauische Forschungen (Göttingen, 1882), p. 89.

244.

Simon Grunau, Preussische Chronik, ed. Perlbach, i. 91.

245.

Holzmayer, Osiliana, p. 108.

246.

On iron as a charm against spirits, see above, vol. i. p. 175 sq.

247.

Folk-lore Journal, vii. 54.

248.

Communicated by the Rev. J. J. C. Yarborough, of Chislehurst, Kent. See Folk-lore Journal, vii. 50.

249.

G. A. Wilken, Bijdrage tot de kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland Boeroe, p. 26.

250.

P. N. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” in Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, vii. (1863) p. 127.

251.

N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaang Mongondou,” in Mededeel. v. w. h. Nederl. Zendelinggen. xi. 369 sq.

252.

H. Harkness, Description of a Singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills, p. 56 sq.

253.

Gover, Folk-songs of Southern India, p. 105 sqq.; Folk-lore Journal, vii. 302 sqq.

254.

Gover, “The Pongol Festival in Southern India,” Journ. R. Asiatic Society, N. S. v. (1871) p. 91 sqq.

255.

Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, p. 103.

256.

Crowther and Taylor, The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger, p. 287 sq. Mr. Taylor's information is repeated in West African Countries and Peoples, by J. Africanus B. Horton (London, 1868), p. 180 sq.

257.

Speckmann, Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika, p. 150 sq. On the Zulu feast of first-fruits, see also N. Isaacs, Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa, ii. 291 sq.; Arbousset et Daumas, Voyage d'exploration, etc. p. 308 sq.; Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu, p. 389 note; South African Folk-lore Journal, i. 135 sqq.; Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas, p. 143; Lewis Grout, Zululand, p. 160 sqq. From Mr. Grout's description it appears that a bull is killed and its gall drunk by the king and people. In killing it the men must use nothing but their naked hands. The flesh of the bull is given to the boys to eat what they like and burn the rest; the men may not taste it. As a final ceremony the king breaks a green calabash in presence of the people, “thereby signifying that he opens the new year, and grants the people leave to eat of the fruits of the season.” If a man eats the new fruits before the festival, he will die or is actually put to death.

258.

The ceremony is described independently by James Adair, History of the American Indians (London, 1775), pp. 96-111; W. Bartram, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida (London, 1792), p. 507 sq.; B. Hawkins, “Sketch of the Creek country,” in Collections of the Georgia Historical Society, iii. (Savannah, 1848), pp. 75-78; A. A. M'Gillivray, in Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, v. 267 sq. Adair's description is the fullest and has been chiefly followed in the text. In Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, by William Bartram (1789), with prefatory and supplementary notes, by E. G. Squier, p. 75, there is a description—extracted from an MS. of J. H. Payne (author of Home, Sweet Home)—of the similar ceremony observed by the Cherokees. I possess a copy of this work in pamphlet form, but it appears to be an extract from the transactions or proceedings of a society, probably an American one. Mr. Squier's preface is dated New York, 1851.

259.

W. Bartram, Travels, p. 507.

260.

So amongst the Cherokees, according to J. H. Payne, an arbour of green boughs was made in the sacred square; then “a beautiful bushy-topped shade-tree was cut down close to the roots, and planted in the very centre of the sacred square. Every man then provided himself with a green bough.”

261.

So Adair. Bartram, on the other hand, as we have seen, says that the old vessels were burned and new ones prepared for the festival.

262.

B. Hawkins, “Sketch,” etc., p. 76.

263.

See Note on “Offerings of first-fruits” at the end of the volume.

264.

Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, bk. v. c. 24, vol. ii. pp. 356-360 (Hakluyt Society, 1880).

265.

Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, iii. 297-300 (after Torquemada); Clavigero, History of Mexico, trans. by Cullen, i. 309 sqq.; Sahagun, Histoire générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne, traduite et annotée par Jourdanet et Siméon (Paris, 1880), p. 203 sq.; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 605.

266.

Clavigero, i. 311; Sahagun, pp. 74, 156 sq.; Müller, p. 606; Bancroft, iii. 316. This festival took place on the last day of the 16th month (which extended from 23d December to 11th January). At another festival the Mexicans made the semblance of a bone out of paste and ate it sacramentally as the bone of the god. Sahagun, p. 33.

267.

See above, vol. i. p. 5 sq.

268.

Festus, ed. Müller, pp. 128, 129, 145. The reading of the last passage is, however, uncertain (“et Ariciae genus panni fieri; quod manici † appelletur”).

269.

Varro, De ling. lat. ix. 61; Arnobius, Adv. nationes, iii. 41; Macrobius, Saturn, i. 7, 35; Festus, p. 128, ed. Müller. Festus speaks of the mother or grandmother of the larvae; the other writers speak of the mother of the lares.

270.

Macrobius, l.c.; Festus, pp. 121, 239, ed. Müller. The effigies hung up for the slaves were called pilae, not maniae. Pilae was also the name given to the straw-men which were thrown to the bulls to gore in the arena. Martial, Epigr. ii. 43, 5 sq.; Asconius, In Cornel. p. 55, ed. Kiessling and Schoell.

271.

The ancients were at least familiar with the practice of sacrificing images made of dough or other materials as substitutes for the animals themselves. It was a recognised principle that when an animal could not be easily obtained for sacrifice, it was lawful to offer an image of it made of bread or wax. Servius on Virgil, Aen. ii. 116. (Similarly a North-American Indian dreamed that a sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary for the recovery of a sick girl; but the elans could not be procured, and the girl's parents were allowed to sacrifice twenty loaves instead. Relations des Jesuites, 1636, p. 11, ed. 1858). Poor people who could not afford to sacrifice real animals offered dough images of them. Suidas, s.v. βοῦς ἕβδομος; cp. Hesychius, s. vv. βοῦς, ἕβδομος βοῦς. Hence bakers made a regular business of baking cakes in the likeness of all the animals which were sacrificed to the gods. Proculus, quoted and emended by Lobeck, Aglaophamus, p. 1079. When Cyzicus was besieged by Mithridates and the people could not procure a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of Proserpine, they made a cow of dough and placed it at the altar. Plutarch, Lucullus, 10. In a Boeotian sacrifice to Hercules, in place of the ram which was the proper victim, an apple was regularly substituted, four chips being stuck in it to represent legs and two to represent horns. Pollux, i. 30 sq. The Athenians are said to have once offered to Hercules a similar substitute for an ox. Zenobius, Cent. v. 22. And the Locrians, being at a loss for an ox to sacrifice, made one out of figs and sticks, and offered it instead of the animal. Zenobius, Cent. v. 5. At the Athenian festival of the Diasia cakes shaped like animals were sacrificed. Schol. on Thucydides, i. 126, quoted by Lobeck, l.c. We have seen above (p. 53) that the poorer Egyptians offered dough images of pigs and ate them sacramentally.

272.

P. J. Veth, Borneo's Wester Afdeeling, ii. 309.

273.

N. Graafland, De Minahassa, i. 326.

274.

Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 138.

275.

James Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 133.

276.

Alfred Simson, Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador (London, 1887), p. 168; id. in Journal of the Anthrop. Institute, vii. 503.

277.

Theophilus Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi, p. 106. Compare John Buchanan, The Shire Highlands, pg. 138; Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu, p. 438 note.

278.

Jerome Becker, La Vie en Afrique, (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 366.

279.

Callaway, Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus, p. 175 note.

280.

Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 33.

281.

St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East,2 i. 186, 206.

282.

Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, pp. 10, 262.

283.

James Chalmers, Pioneering in New Guinea, p. 166.

284.

Proceedings Royal Geogr. Society, N. S. viii. (1886) p. 307.

285.

J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” Journ. North China Branch R. Asiatic Society, New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) p. 35 sq.

286.

Müller on Saxo Grammaticus, vol. ii. p. 60.

287.

Leared, Morocco and the Moors, p. 281.

288.

Vambery, Das Türkenvolk, p. 218.

289.

Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vi. 8.

290.

Felkin, “Notes on the For tribe of Central Africa,” in Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xiii. (1884-1886) p. 218.

291.

W. Ridley, Kamilaroi, p. 160.

292.

Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, ii. 313.

293.

Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” in Mittheilungen d. Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft, 1882, p. 154.

294.

Magyar, Reisen in Süd-Afrika in den Jahren 1849-1857, pp. 273-276.

295.

Casalis, The Basutos, p. 257 sq.

296.

Callaway, Nursery Tales, Traditions and Histories of the Zulus, p. 163 note.

297.

John Buchanan, The Shire Highlands, p. 138.

298.

Journal of the North China Branch Royal Asiatic Society, l.c.

299.

R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants (London, 1870), p. 352. Cp. ib. p. 173; Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. 358; J. Dumont D'Urville, Voyage autour du Monde sur la corvette Astrolabe, ii. 547; Journal of the Anthrop. Inst. xix. 108.

300.

On the custom of eating a god, see also a paper by Felix Liebrecht, “Der aufgegessene Gott,” in Zur Volkskunde, pp. 436-439; and especially W. R. Smith, art. “Sacrifice,” Encycl. Britann. 9th ed. vol. xxi. p. 137 sq. On wine as the blood of a god, see above, vol. i. p. 183 sqq.

301.

This does not refer to the Californian peninsula, which is an arid and treeless wilderness of rock and sand.

302.

Boscana, in Alfred Robinson's Life in California (New York, 1846), p. 291 sq.; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, iii. 168.

303.

Turner, Samoa, p. 21, cp. pp. 26, 61.

304.

Herodotus, ii. 42. The custom has been already referred to, above, p. 63.

305.

Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums, i. § 58. Cp. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, iii. 1 sqq. (ed. 1878).

306.

Above, p. 61 sq.

307.

Above, p. 15 sq.

308.

The Italmens of Kamtchatka, at the close of the fishing season, used to make the figure of a wolf out of grass. This figure they carefully kept the whole year, believing that it wedded with their maidens and prevented them from giving birth to twins; for twins were esteemed a great misfortune. Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka, p. 327 sq. According to Hartknoch (Dissertat. histor. de variis rebus Prussicis, p. 163; Altpreussen, p. 161) the image of the old Prussian god Curcho was annually renewed. But see Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 27.

309.

Above, vol. i. p. 81.

310.

T. J. Hutchinson, Impressions of Western Africa (London, 1858), p. 196 sq. The writer does not expressly state that a serpent is killed annually, but his statement implies it.

311.

Revue d'Ethnographie, iii. 397.

312.

Varro in Priscian, x. 32, vol. i. p. 524, ed. Keil; Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. § 14. Pliny's statement is to be corrected by Varro's.

313.

Mr. Frank H. Cushing, “My Adventures in Zuñi,” in The Century, May 1883, p. 45 sq.

314.

Mr. Cushing, indeed, while he admits that the ancestors of the Zuni may have believed in transmigration, says, “Their belief, to-day, however, relative to the future life is spiritualistic.” But the expressions in the text seem to leave no room for doubting that the transmigration into turtles is a living article of Zuni faith.

315.

Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, iv. 86. On the totem clans of the Moquis, see J. G. Bourke, Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona, pp. 116 sq., 334 sqq.

316.

For this information I am indebted to the kindness of Captain J. G. Bourke, 3d. Cavalry, U.S. Army, author of the work mentioned in the preceding note.

317.

The old Prussian and Japanese customs are typical. For the former, see above, vol. i. p. 177. For the latter, Charlevoix, Histoire et Description générale du Japon, i, 128 sq. Thunberg, Voyages au Japon, etc. iv. 18 sqq. A general account of such customs must be reserved for another work.

318.

B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” in Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens (Yokama), Heft xxii. p. 45.

319.

Transactions of the Ethnological Society, iv. 36.

320.

Rein, Japan, i. 446.

321.

H. von Siebold, Ethnologische Studien über die Ainos auf der Insel Yesso, p. 26.

322.

Miss Bird, Unbeaten Tracks in Japan (new ed. 1885), p. 275.

323.

Trans. Ethnol. Soc. l.c.

324.

Miss Bird, op. cit. p. 269.

325.

Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 4.

326.

Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc. p. 45; Joest, in Verhandlungen d. Berliner Gesell. f. Anthropologie, 1882, p. 188.

327.

Trans. Ethnol. Soc. l.c.

328.

Miss Bird, op. cit. p. 277.

329.

Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 15; Siebold, op. cit. p. 26; Trans. Ethnol. Soc. l.c.; Rein, Japan, i. 447; Von Brandt, “The Ainos and Japanese,” in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. iii. 134; Miss Bird, op. cit. pp. 275, 276.

330.

Scheube, Die Ainos, pp. 15, 16; Journ. Anthrop. Inst. iii. 134.

331.

Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 16.

332.

Reclus (Nouvelle Géographie Universelle, vii. 755) mentions a (Japanese?) legend which attributes the hairiness of the Ainos to the fact of their first ancestor having been suckled by a bear. But in the absence of other evidence this is no proof of totemism.

333.

Rein, Japan, i. 447.

334.

“Der Baerencultus,” etc. See above.

335.

Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc. p. 46; id., Die Ainos, p. 15; Miss Bird, op. cit. p. 273 sq.

336.

Miss Bird, op. cit. p. 276 sq. Miss Bird's information must be received with caution, as there are grounds for believing that her informant deceived her.

337.

Siebold, Ethnolog. Studien über die Ainos, p. 26.

338.

“Baerencultus,” etc. p. 50 note.

339.

They inhabit the banks of the lower Amoor and the north of Saghalien. E. G. Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur, p. 389.

340.

“Notes on the River Amur and the adjacent districts,” translated from the Russian, Journal Royal Geogr. Soc. xxviii. (1858) p. 396.

341.

Compare the custom of pinching the frog before cutting off his head, above vol. i. p. 93. In Japan sorceresses bury a dog in the earth, tease him, then cut off his head and put it in a box to be used in magic. Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, i. 475 note, who adds “wie im ostindischen Archipelago die Schutzseele gereizt wird.” He probably refers to the Batta Pang-hulu-balang. See Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, p. 59 sq.; W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” in Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xii. (1885) 478 sq.; Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” in Tijdschrift v. h. Nederl. Aardrijks Genootsch. ii. series, dl. iii. Afdeeling: meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 306.

342.

W. Joest, in Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 17; Revue d'Ethnographie, ii. 307 sq. (on the authority of Mr. Seeland); Internationales Archiv für Ethnologie, i. 102 (on the authority of Captain Jacobsen). What exactly is meant by “dancing as bears” (“tanzen beide Geschlechter Reigentänze, wie Bären,” Joest, l.c.) does not appear.

343.

Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur, p. 379 sq.; T. W. Atkinson, Travels in the Regions of the Upper and Lower Amoor (London, 1860), p. 482 sq.

344.

A Bushman, questioned by the Rev. Mr. Campbell, “could not state any difference between a man and a brute—he did not know but a buffalo might shoot with bows and arrows as well as a man, if it had them.” John Campbell, Travels in South Africa, being a Narrative of a Second Journey in the Interior of that Country, ii. 34. When the Russians first landed on one of the Alaskan islands the people took them for cuttle-fish, “on account of the buttons on their clothes.” Petroff, Alaska, p. 145.

345.

Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 10, p. 221. Cp. C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” in Tijdschrift voor Neêrland's Indië, 1846, dl. iii. 160; S. Müller, Reizen en onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel, i. 238; Perelaer, Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dayaks, p. 7.

346.

Sibree, The Great African Island, p. 269.

347.

Raffenel, Voyage dans l'Afrique Occidentale (Paris, 1846), p. 84 sq.

348.

Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, v. 65.

349.

Marsden, History of Sumatra, p. 292.

350.

Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka, pp. 280, 331.

351.

Voyages au Nord (Amsterdam, 1727), viii. 41, 416; Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs, iii. 64; Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs, p. 83.

352.

Erman, Travels in Siberia, ii. 43. For the veneration of the polar bear by the Samoyedes, who nevertheless kill and eat it, see ib. 54 sq.

353.

Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte, iii. 26.

354.

Max Buch, Die Wotjäken, p. 139.

355.

Scheffer, Lapponia (Frankfort, 1673), p. 233 sq. The Lapps “have still an elaborate ceremony in hunting the bear. They pray and chant to his carcase, and for several days worship before eating it.” E. Rae, The White Sea Peninsula (London, 1881), p. 276.

356.

Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, v. 173 sq.; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 172-181 (Paris, Michel Lévy, 1870).

357.

Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, vi. 171. Morgan states that the names of the Otawa totem clans had not been obtained (Ancient Society, p. 167). From the Lettres édifiantes, vi. 168-171, he might have learned the names of the Hare, Carp, and Bear clans, to which may be added the Gull clan, as I learn from an extract from The Canadian Journal (Toronto) for March 1858, quoted in the Academy, 27th September 1884, p. 203.

358.

A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt, p. 117 (Middletown, 1820), p. 133 (Edinburgh, 1824).

359.

Stephen Kay, Travels and Researches in Caffraria (London, 1833), p. 138.

360.

Alberti, De Kaffers aan de Zuidkust van Afrika (Amsterdam, 1810), p. 95. Alberti's information is repeated by Lichtenstein (Reisen im südlichen Afrika, i. 412), and by Rose (Four Years in Southern Africa, p. 155). The burial of the trunk is also mentioned by Kay, l.c.

361.

Jerome Becker, La Vie en Afrique (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 298 sq. 305.

362.

Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste, ii. 243.

363.

Im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, p. 352.

364.

Mouhot, Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China, i. 252; Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge, i. 422.

365.

Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, v. 420.

366.

J. G. Gmelin, Reise durch Sibirien, ii. 278.

367.

W. Dall, Alaska and its Resources, p. 89.

368.

Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 24, ed. 1858. Nets are regarded by the Indians as living creatures who not only think and feel but also eat, speak, and marry wives. Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 256 (p. 178 sq. of the Paris reprint, Librairie Tross, 1865); S. Hearne, Journey to the Northern Ocean, p. 329 sq.; Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 109; ib. 1639, p. 95; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, v. 225; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, p. 140 sqq.

369.

Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 175, 178. They will not let the blood of beavers fall on the ground, or their luck in hunting them would be gone. Relations des Jésuites, 1633, p. 21. Compare the rule about not allowing the blood of kings to fall on the ground, above, vol. i. p. 179 sqq.

370.

Hennepin, Nouveau voyage d'un pais plus grand que l'Europe (Utrecht, 1698), p. 141 sq.; Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 109; Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 255 (p. 178 of the Paris reprint). Not quite consistently the Canadian Indians used to kill every elan they could overtake in the chase, lest any should escape to warn their fellows (Sagard, l.c.)

371.

Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, viii. 339.

372.

Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, iii. 230.

373.

Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 26.

374.

Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, v. 443.

375.

Garcilasso de la Vega, Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, First Part, bk. i. ch. 10, vol. i. p. 49 sq., Hakluyt Society. Cp. id., ii. p. 148.

376.

Relations des Jésuites, 1667, p. 12.

377.

Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 255 sqq. (p. 178 sqq. of the Paris reprint).

378.

Schleiden, Das Salz, p. 47. For this reference I am indebted to my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith.

379.

W. Powell, Wanderings in a Wild Country, p. 66 sq.

380.

R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its Inhabitants, p. 200; A. S. Thomson, The Story of New Zealand, i. 202; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” Journal Anthrop. Inst. xix. 109.

381.

Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation,4, p. 277, quoting Metlahkatlah, p. 96.

382.

W. Dall, Alaska and its Resources, p. 413.

383.

Stephen Powers, Tribes of California, p. 31 sq.

384.

Alex. Ross, Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River, p. 97.

385.

Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, iv. 324, v. 119, where it is said, “a dog must never be permitted to eat the heart of a salmon; and in order to prevent this, they cut the heart of the fish out before they sell it.”

386.

H. C. St. John, “The Ainos,” in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. ii. 253; id. Notes and Sketches from the Wild Coasts of Nipon, p. 27 sq.

387.

Scheffer, Lapponia, p. 242 sq.; Journ. Anthrop. Inst. vii. 207; Revue d'Ethnographie, ii. 308 sq.

388.

James, Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, i. 257.

389.

Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 278.

390.

Keating, Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, i. 452.

391.

E. J. Jessen, De Finnorum Lapponumque Norwegicorum religione pagana tractatus singularis, pp. 46 sq., 52 sq., 65. The work of Jessen is bound up (paged separately) with the work of C. Leem, De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita, et religione pristina commentatio (Latin and Danish), Copenhagen, 1767. Compare Leem's work, pp. 418-420 (Latin), 428 sq., also Acerbi, Travels through Sweden, Finnland, and Lapland, ii. 302.

392.

Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka, p. 269; Kraschennikow, Kamtschatka, p. 246.

393.

See Erman, referred to above, p. 111 sq.; Gmelin, Reise durch Sibirien, i. 274, ii. 182 sq., 214; Vambery, Das Türkenvolk, p. 118 sq. When a fox, the sacred animal of the Conchucos in Peru, had been killed, its skin was stuffed and set up. Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, i. 443. Cp. the bouphonia, above, p. 38 sq.

394.

At the annual sacrifice of the White Dog, the Iroquois were careful to strangle the animal without shedding its blood or breaking its bones. The dog was afterwards burned. L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois, p. 210. It is a rule with some of the Australian blacks that in killing the native bear they must not break his bones. They say that the native bear once stole all the water of the river, and that if they were to break his bones or take off his skin before roasting him, he would do so again. Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 447 sqq. When the Tartars whom Carpini visited killed animals for eating, they might not break their bones but burned them with fire. Carpini, Historia Mongalorum (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. § i. 2, p. 620. North American Indians might not break the bones of the animals which they ate at feasts. Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vi. 72. In the war feast held by Indian warriors after leaving home, a whole animal was cooked and had to be all eaten. No bone of it might be broken. After being stripped of the flesh the bones were hung on a tree. Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, p. 287. On St. Olaf's Day (29th July) the Karels of Finland kill a lamb, without using a knife, and roast it whole. None of its bones may be broken. The lamb has not been shorn since spring. Some of the flesh is placed in a corner of the room for the house-spirits, some is deposited on the field and beside the birch-trees which are destined to be used as May-trees next year. W. Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 160 sq. note. The Innuit (Esquimaux) of Point Barrow, Alaska, carefully preserve unbroken the bones of the seals which they have caught and return them to the sea, either leaving them in an ice-crack far out from the land or dropping them through a hole in the ice. By doing so they think they secure good fortune in the pursuit of seals. Report of the International Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska (Washington, 1885), p. 40. In this last custom the idea probably is that the bones will be reclothed with flesh and the seals come to life again. The Mosquito Indians of Central America carefully preserved the bones of deer and the shells of eggs, lest the deer or chickens should die or disappear. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 741. The Yurucares of Bolivia “carefully put by even small fish bones, saying that unless this is done the fish and game will disappear from the country.” Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 278.

395.

Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 25, ed. 1858; A. Mackenzie, Voyages through the Continent of America, civ; J. Dunn, History of the Oregon Territory, p. 99; Whymper in Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc. xxxviii. (1868) p. 228; id. in Transact. Ethnolog. Soc. vii. 174; A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. iii. 111. After a meal the Indians of Costa Rica gather all the bones carefully and either burn them or put them out of reach of the dogs. W. M. Gabb, On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica (read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th Aug. 1875), p. 520 (Philadelphia, 1875). The fact that the bones are often burned to prevent the dogs getting them does not contradict the view suggested in the text. It may be a way of transmitting the bones to the spirit-land. The aborigines of Australia burn the bones of the animals which they eat, but for a different reason; they think that if an enemy got hold of the bones and burned them with charms, it would cause the death of the person who had eaten the animal. Native Tribes of South Australia, pp. 24, 196.

396.

Mannhardt, Germanische Mythen, pp. 57-74; id., B. K. p. 116; Cosquin, Contes populaires de Lorraine, ii. 25; Hartland, “The physicians of Myddfai,” Archaeological Review, i. 30 sq. In folk-tales, as in primitive custom, the blood is sometimes not allowed to fall on the ground. See Cosquin, l.c.

397.

W. Mannhardt, Germ. Myth. p. 66.

398.

Jamblichus, Vita Pythag. §§ 92, 135, 140; Porphyry, Vit. Pythag. § 28.

399.

Pindar, Olymp. i. 37 sqq., with the Scholiast.

400.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 18. This is one of the sacred stories which the pious Herodotus (ii. 48) concealed and the pious Plutarch divulged.

401.

Adam Hodgson, Letters from North America, i. 244.

402.

Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 137 sq.

403.

Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié? (Paris, 1867), pp. 77, 81 sq.; id., Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-ouest (Paris, 1886), p. 132 sqq., cp. pp. 41, 76, 213, 264.

404.

The first part of this suggestion is that of my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith. See his Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, first series, p. 360, note 2. The Faleshas, a Jewish sect of Abyssinia, after killing an animal for food, “carefully remove the vein from the thighs with its surrounding flesh.” Halévy, “Travels in Abyssinia,” in Publications of the Society of Hebrew Literature, second series, vol. ii. p. 220.

405.

It seems to be a common custom with hunters to cut out the tongues of the animals which they kill. Omaha hunters remove the tongue of a slain buffalo through an opening made in the animal's throat. The tongues thus removed are sacred and may not touch any tool or metal except when they are boiling in the kettles at the sacred tent. They are eaten as sacred food. Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington), p. 289 sq. Indian bear-hunters cut out what they call the bear's little tongue (a fleshy mass under the real tongue) and keep it for good luck in hunting or burn it to determine from its crackling, etc., whether the soul of the slain bear is angry with them or not. Kohl, Kitschi-Gami, ii. 251 sq.; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, v. 173; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 179 sq., 184. In folk-tales the hero commonly cuts out the tongue of the wild beast which he has slain and preserves it as a token. The incident serves to show that the custom was a common one, since folk-tales reflect with accuracy the customs and beliefs of a primitive age. For examples of the incident, see Blade, Contes populaires recueillis en Agenais, pp. 12, 14; Dasent, Tales from the Norse, p. 133 sq. (“Shortshanks”); Schleicher, Litauische Märchen; Sepp, Altbayerischer Sagenschatz, p. 114; Köhler on Gonzenbach's Sicilianische Märchen, ii. 230; Apollodorus, iii. 13, 3; Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 53; Poestion, Lapplandische Märchen, p. 231 sq. It may be suggested that the cutting out of the tongues is a precaution to prevent the slain animals from telling their fate to the live animals and thus frightening away the latter. At least this explanation harmonises with the primitive modes of thought revealed in the foregoing customs.

406.

Holzmayer, Osiliana, p. 105 note.

407.

Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 15 sq.

408.

E. Krause, “Aberglaubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xv. (1883) p. 93.

409.

Geoponica, xiii. 5. According to the commentator, the field assigned to the mice is a neighbour's, but it may be a patch of waste ground on the farmer's own land.

410.

R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” in Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N.S. viii. (1879) p. 125.

411.

Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, § 405.

412.

Lagarde, Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae, p. 135. For this passage I am indebted to my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith, who kindly translated it for me from the Syriac.

413.

Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 255.

414.

Compare Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 280, with the customs referred to in the following note.

415.

Catlin, O-Kee-pa, Folium reservatum; Lewis and Clarke, Travels to the Source of the Missouri River (London, 1815), i. 205 sq.

416.

A. Bastian, in Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte, 1870-71, p. 59. Reinegg (Beschreibung des Kaukasus, ii. 12 sq.) describes what seems to be a sacrament of the Abghazses (Abchases). It takes place in the middle of autumn. A white ox called Ogginn appears from a holy cave, which is also called Ogginn. It is caught and led about amongst the assembled men (women are excluded) amid joyful cries. Then it is killed and eaten. Any man who did not get at least a scrap of the sacred flesh would deem himself most unfortunate. The bones are then carefully collected, burned in a great hole, and the ashes buried there.

417.

Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vi. 632 note. On the Kalmucks as a people of shepherds and on their diet of mutton, see Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs, p. 406 sq., cp. 207; B. Bergmann, Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmücken, ii. 80 sqq., 122; Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs, i. 319, 325. According to Pallas, it is only rich Kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep or cattle for eating; ordinary Kalmucks do not usually kill them except in case of necessity or at great merry-makings. It is, therefore, especially the rich who need to make expiation.

418.

W. E. Marshall, Travels amongst the Todas, p. 129 sq. On the Todas, see also above, vol. i. p. 41.

419.

Marshall, op. cit. pp. 80 sq. 130.

420.

R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Madi or Moru tribe of Central Africa,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xii. (1882-84) p. 336 sq.

421.

The fact that the flesh of sheep appears to be now eaten by the tribe as a regular article of food (Felkin, op. cit. p. 307), is not inconsistent with the original sanctity of the sheep.

422.

See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, i. p. 325 sq.

423.

Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. No. 555.

424.

See Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 195 sq., Bohn's ed.; Swainson, Folk-lore of British Birds, p. 36; E. Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 288 sqq. The names for it are βασιλίσκος, regulus, rex avium (Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 90; x. 203), re di siepe, reyezuelo, roitelet, roi des oiseaux, Zaunkönig, etc.

425.

Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 194.

426.

Chambers, Popular Rhymes of Scotland, p. 188.

427.

Ib. p. 186.

428.

P. Sébillot, Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute Bretagne, ii. 214.

429.

Rolland, op. cit. ii. 294 sq.; Sébillot, l.c.; Swainson, op. cit. p. 42.

430.

G. Waldron, Description of the Isle of Man (reprinted for the Manx Society, Douglas, 1865), p. 49 sqq.; J. Train, Account of the Isle of Man, ii. 124 sqq. 141.

431.

Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 195; Swainson, Folk-lore of British Birds, p. 36 sq.; Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 297; Professor W. Ridgeway in Academy, 10th May 1884, p. 332; Dyer, British Popular Customs, p. 497.

432.

Henderson, Folk-lore of the Northern Counties, p. 125.

433.

Swainson, op. cit. p. 40 sq.

434.

Rolland, op. cit. ii. 295 sq.; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 437 sq.

435.

Rolland, op. cit. ii. 296 sq.

436.

Brand's Popular Antiquities, iii. 198. The “hunting of the wren” may be compared with a Swedish custom. On the 1st of May children rob the magpies' nests of both eggs and young. These they carry in a basket from house to house in the village and show them to the housewives, while one of the children sings some doggerel lines containing a threat that, if a present is not given, the hens, chickens, and eggs will fall a prey to the magpie. They receive bacon, eggs, milk, etc., upon which they afterwards feast. L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 237 sq. The resemblance of such customs to the “swallow song” and “crow song” of the ancient Greeks (on which see Athenaeus, pp. 359, 360) is obvious and has been remarked before now. Probably the Greek swallow-singers and crow-singers carried about dead swallows and crows or effigies of them. In modern Greece it is said to be still customary for children on 1st March to go about the streets singing spring songs and carrying a wooden swallow, which is kept turning on a cylinder. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 636.

437.

John Ramsay, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, ii. 438 sq.; cp. Chambers, Popular Rhymes of Scotland, p. 166 sq.; Samuel Johnson, Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, p. 228 sq. (first American edition, 1810). The custom is clearly referred to in the “Penitential of Theodore,” quoted by Kemble, Saxons in England, i. 525; Elton, Origins of English History, p. 411; “Si quis in Kal. Januar. in cervulo vel vitula vadit, id est in ferarum habitus se communicant, et vestiuntur pellibus pecudum et assumunt capita bestiarum,” etc.

438.

Chambers, l.c.

439.

Such are the Bohemian processions at the Carnival when a man called the Shrovetide Bear, swathed from head to foot in peas-straw and sometimes wearing a bear's mask, is led from house to house. He dances with the women of the house, and collects money and food. Then they go to the alehouse, where all the peasants assemble with their wives. For at the Carnival, especially on Shrove Tuesday, it is necessary that every one should dance, if the flax, the corn, and the vegetables are to grow well. The higher they leap the better will be the crops. Sometimes the women pull out some of the straw in which the Shrovetide Bear is swathed, and put it in the nests of the geese and fowls, believing that this will make them lay well. Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 49-52. On similar customs, see W. Mannhardt, A. W. F. pp. 183-200.

440.

J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, pp. 266 sq., 305, 357 sq.; cp. id. pp. 141, 340.

441.

J. Dawson, Australian Aborigines, p. 59.

442.

Dapper, Description de l'Afrique, p. 117.

443.

John Campbell, Travels in South Africa (second journey), ii. 207 sq.

444.

Ellis, History of Madagascar, i. 422 sq.; cp. id. pp. 232, 435, 436 sq.; Sibree, The Great African Island, p. 303 sq.

445.

Ellis, op. cit. i. 374; Sibree, op. cit. p. 304; Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, iii. 263.

446.

Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xii. (1885) 478.

447.

Leviticus xiv. 7, 53. For a similar use in Arabia see Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 156; W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, i. 402.

448.

R. Andree, Ethnographische Parallele und Vergleiche, p. 29 sq.

449.

A. Leared, Morocco and the Moors, p. 301.

450.

J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” in Journ. Straits Branch Royal Asiatic Soc. No. 10, p. 232.

451.

S. Mateer, Native Life in Travancore, p. 136.

452.

H. Harkness, Singular Aboriginal Race of the Neilgherry Hills, p. 133; Metz, The Tribes Inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills, p. 78; Jagor, “Ueber die Badagas im Nilgiri-Gebirge,” Verhandl. d. Berlin. Gesell. f. Anthropol. (1876), p. 196 sq. For the custom of letting a bullock go loose after a death, compare also Grierson, Bihar Peasant Life, p. 409; Ibbetson, Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal Parganah of the Karnal district (Allahabad, 1883) p. 137. In the latter case it is said that the animal is let loose “to become a pest.” Perhaps the older idea was that the animal carried away death from the survivors. The idea of sin is not primitive.

453.

Geoponica, xiii. 9, xv. 1; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. § 155. The authorities for these cures are respectively Apuleius and Democritus. The latter is probably not the atomic philosopher. See Archaeological Review, i. 180, note.

454.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. § 86.

455.

Plato, Laws, xi. c. 12, p. 933 b.

456.

Ch. Rogers, Social Life in Scotland, iii. 226.

457.

G. Lammert, Volkmedizin und medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern, p. 264.

458.

Ib. p. 263.

459.

Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, i. § 85.

460.

Carl Meyer, Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters, p. 104.

461.

Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 979.

462.

Henderson, Folk-lore of the Northern Counties, p. 143. Collections of cures by transference will be found in Strackerjan's work, cited above, i. § 85 sqq.; W. G. Black, Folk-medicine, ch. ii. Cp. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. c. 36.

463.

Blackwood's Magazine, February 1886, p. 239.

464.

Aubrey, Remains of Gentilisme and Judaisme (Folk-lore Society, 1881), p. 35 sq.

465.

Bagford's letter in Leland's Collectanea, i. 76, quoted by Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 246 sq., Bohn's ed.

466.

In the Academy, 13th Nov. 1875, p. 505, Mr. D. Silvan Evans stated that he knew of no such custom anywhere in Wales; and Miss Burne knows no example of it in Shropshire. Burne and Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 307 sq.

467.

The authority for the statement is a Mr. Moggridge, reported in Archaeologia Cambrensis, second series, iii. 330. But Mr. Moggridge did not speak from personal knowledge, and as he appears to have taken it for granted that the practice of placing bread and salt upon the breast of a corpse was a survival of the custom of “sin-eating,” his evidence must be received with caution. He repeated his statement, in somewhat vaguer terms, at a meeting of the Anthropological Institute, 14th December 1875. See Journ. Anthrop. Inst. v. 423 sq.

468.

Dubois, Moeurs des Peuples de l'Inde, ii. 32.

469.

R. Richardson, in Panjab Notes and Queries, i. No. 674.

470.

Panjab Notes and Queries, i. No. 674; ii. No. 559. Some of these customs have been already referred to in a different connection. See above, vol. i. p. 232.

471.

Op. cit. iii. No. 745.

472.

E. Schuyler, Turkistan, ii. 28.

473.

E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, p. 356 sq.

474.

Paul Reina, “Ueber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, N. F. iv. 356.

475.

R. Parkinson, Im Bismarck-Archipel, p. 142.

476.

[P. N. Wilken], “De godsdienst en godsdienstplegtigheden der Alfoeren in de Menahassa op het eiland Celebes,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, December 1849, pp. 392-394; id., “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” Mededeelingen v. w. het Nederland. Zendelinggenootsch. vii. (1863) 149 sqq.; J. G. F. Riedel, “De Minahasa in 1825,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xviii. (1872), 521 sq. Wilken's first and fuller account is reprinted in Graafland's De Minahassa, i. 117-120.

477.

Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” in Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie, xvii. (1885) 82; G. A. Wilken, Het Shamanisme bij de Volken van de Indischen Archipel, p. 58.

478.

Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 239.

479.

Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias, p. 116 sq., Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, p. 174 sq. Cp. Chatelin, “Godsdienst en Bijgeloof der Niassers,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxvi. 139. The Dyaks also drive the devil at the point of the sword from a house where there is sickness. See Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers” in Tijdschrift voor Neêrland's Indië, viii. (1846) dl. iii. p. 149.

480.

Forbes, British Burma, p. 233; Shway Yoe, The Burman, i. 282, ii. 105 sqq.; Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, ii. 98.

481.

Lewin, Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India, p. 226.

482.

Hecquard, Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West Afrika, p. 43.

483.

Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 279 sqq. (195 sq. of the Paris reprint). Compare Relations des Jésuites, 1639, pp. 88-92 (Canadian reprint), from which it appears that each man demanded the subject of his dream in the form of a riddle, which the hearers tried to solve. The propounding of riddles is not uncommon as a superstitious observance. Probably enigmas were originally a kind of divination. Cp. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk, p. 232 sq.; Riedel, De sluiken kroesharige rassen, etc. p. 267 sq. In Bolang Mongondo (Celebes) riddles may never be asked except when there is a corpse in the village. N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaäng Mongondou,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsch. Zendelinggenootschap, xi. (1867) p. 357.

484.

The Rev. W. Ridley, in J. D. Lang's Queensland, p. 441; cp. Ridley, Kamilaroi, p. 149.

485.

Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska (Washington, 1885), p. 42 sq.

486.

Franz Boas, “The Eskimo,” Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada for 1887, vol. v. (Montreal, 1888), sect. ii. 36 sq.

487.

Above, p. 162.

488.

Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vi. 82 sqq.; Timothy Dwight, Travels in New England and New York, iv. 201 sq.; L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois, p. 207 sqq.; Mrs. E. A. Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1883), p. 112 sqq.; Horatio Hale, “Iroquois sacrifice of the White Dog,” American Antiquarian, vii. 7 sqq.; W. M. Beauchamp, “Iroquois White Dog feast,” ib. p. 235 sqq.

489.

Squier's notes upon Bartram's Creek and Cherokee Indians, p. 78, from the MS. of Mr. Payne. See above, p. 75 note.

490.

Garcilasso de la Vega, Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, pt. i. bk. vii. ch. 6, vol. ii. p. 228 sqq., Markham's translation; Molina, “Fables and Rites of the Yncas,” in Rites and Laws of the Yncas (Hakluyt Society, 1873), p. 20 sqq.; Acosta, History of the Indies, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. p. 375 sq. (Hakluyt Society, 1880). The accounts of Garcilasso and Molina are somewhat discrepant, but this may be explained by the statement of the latter that “in one year they added, and in another they reduced the number of ceremonies, according to circumstances.” Molina places the festival in August, Garcilasso and Acosta in September. According to Garcilasso there were only four runners in Cuzco; according to Molina there were four hundred. Acosta's account is very brief. In the description given in the text features have been borrowed from all three accounts, where these seemed consistent with each other.

491.

Bosman's “Guinea,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, xvi. 402. Cp. Pierre Bouche, La Côte des Esclaves, p. 395.

492.

S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor. The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger, p. 320.

493.

Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia, p. 285 sqq.

494.

Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 196 sq.

495.

Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, p. 103.

496.

W. Macpherson, Memorials of Service in India, p. 357 sq. Possibly this case belongs more strictly to the class of mediate expulsions, the devils being driven out upon the car. Perhaps, however, the car with its contents is regarded rather as a bribe to induce them to go than as a vehicle in which they are actually carted away. Anyhow it is convenient to take this case along with those other expulsions of demons which are the accompaniment of an agricultural festival.

497.

R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N. S. viii. (1879) 58-60. Van Eck's account is reprinted in J. Jacobs's Eenigen tijd onder de Baliërs (Batavia, 1883), p. 190 sqq.

498.

U.S. Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology, by H. Hale, p. 67 sq.; Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, iii. 90 sq. According to the latter, the sea-slug was eaten by the men alone, who lived during the four days in the temple, while the women and boys remained shut up in their houses.

499.

Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, v. 367.

500.

Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. No. 792; D. C. J. Ibbetson, Outlines of Panjab Ethnography, p. 119.

501.

Baron, “Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen,” Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, ix. 673, 695 sq.; cp. Richard, “History of Tonquin,” ib. p. 746. The account of the ceremony by Tavernier (whom Baron criticises very unfavourably) is somewhat different. According to him the expulsion of wicked souls at the New Year is combined with sacrifice to the honoured dead. See Harris, Voyages and Travels, i. 823.

502.

Aymonier, Notice sur le Cambodge, p. 62.

503.

Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iii. 237, 298, 314, 529 sq.; Pallegoix, Royaume Thai ou Siam, i. 252. Bastian (p. 314), with whom Pallegoix seems to agree, distinctly states that the expulsion takes place on the last day of the year. Yet both state that it occurs in the fourth month of the year. According to Pallegoix (i. 253) the Siamese year is composed of twelve lunar months, and the first month usually begins in December. Hence the expulsion of devils would commonly take place in March, as in Cambodia.

504.

J. Anderson, Mandalay to Momien, p. 308.

505.

Max Buch, Die Wotjäken, p. 153 sq.

506.

Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte, ii. 94.

507.

J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien, i. 160. Cp. above, vol. i. p. 276.

508.

Vincenzo Dorsa, La tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore, p. 42 sq.

509.

Von Alpenburg, Mythen und Sagen Tirols, p. 260 sq. A Westphalian form of the expulsion of evil is the driving out the Süntevögel, Sunnenvögel, or Sommervögel, i.e., the butterfly. On St. Peter's Day, 22d February, children go from house to house knocking on them with hammers and singing doggerel rhymes in which they bid the Sommervögel to depart. Presents are given to them at every house. Or the people of the house themselves go through all the rooms, knocking on all the doors, to drive away the Sunnenvögel. If this ceremony is omitted, it is thought that various misfortunes will be the consequence. The house will swarm with rats, mice, and other vermin, the cattle will be sick, the butterflies will multiply at the milk-bowls, etc. Woeste, Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark, p. 24; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, i. 87; A. Kuhn, Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen, ii. §§ 366-374; Montanus, Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche, etc., p. 21 sq.; Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht, pp. 94-96.

510.

Usener, “Italische Mythen,” in Rheinisches Museum, N. F. xxx. 198.

511.

S. Powers, Tribes of California, p. 159.

512.

G. Catlin, North American Indians, i. 166 sqq.; id., O-kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans.

513.

Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge, i. 172. Cp. above, p. 178.

514.

A. Bastian, in Verhandl. d. Berlin. Gesellsch. f. Anthropol. 1881, p. 151; cp. id., Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra, p. 6 sq. Amongst the Chukmas of South-east India the body of a priest is conveyed to the place of cremation on a car; ropes are attached to the car, the people divide themselves into two equal bodies and pull at the ropes in opposite directions. “One side represents the good spirits; the other, the powers of evil. The contest is so arranged that the former are victorious. Sometimes, however, the young men representing the demons are inclined to pull too vigorously, but a stick generally quells this unseemly ardour in the cause of evil.” Lewin, Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India, p. 185. The contest is like that between the angels and devils depicted in the frescoes of the Campo Santo at Pisa. In Burma a similar contest takes place at the funeral of a holy man; but there the original meaning of the ceremony appears to be forgotten. See Sangermano, Description of the Burmese Empire (ed. 1885), p. 98; Forbes, British Burma, p. 216 sq.; Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 334 sq., 342. Sometimes ceremonies of this sort are instituted for a different purpose. In some East Indian islands when the people want a rainy wind from the west, the population of the village, men, women, and children, divide into two parties and pull against each other at the ends of a long bamboo. But the party at the eastern end must pull the harder, in order to draw the desired wind out of the west. Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 282. The Cingalese perform a ceremony like “French and English” in honour of the goddess Patiné. Forbes, Eleven Years in Ceylon (London, 1840), i. 358.

515.

Folk-lore Journal, vii. 174.

516.

François Valentyn, Oud-en nieuw Ost-Indiën, iii. 14. Backer, L'Archipel Indien, p. 377 sq., copies from Valentyn.

517.

Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 304 sq.

518.

Ib. p. 25 sq.

519.

Ib. p. 141.

520.

Riedel, op. cit. p. 78.

521.

Ib. p. 357.

522.

Ib. pp. 266, 304 sq., 327, 357. For other examples of sending away disease-laden boats in these islands, ib. pp. 181, 210; Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N.S. viii. (1879) p. 104; Bastian, Indonesien, i. 147; Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” Tijdschrift voor Neêrland's Indië, 1846, dl. iii. 150; Campen, “De godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche Alfoeren,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxvii. (1882) p. 441; Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 12, pp. 229-231; Van Hasselt, Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra, p. 98.

523.

J. Dumont D'Urville, Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse, sur la corvette Astrolabe, v. 311.

524.

Roepstorff, “Ein Geisterboot der Nicobaresen,” Verhandl. der Berlin. Gesellsch. f. Anthropologie (1881), p. 401. For Siamese applications of the same principle to the cure of individuals, see Bastian, Die Volker des östlichen Asien, iii. 295 sq., 485 sq.

525.

Panjab Notes and Queries, i. No. 418.

526.

Id. iii. No. 373.

527.

Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. No. 1127.

528.

Id. ii. No. 1123.

529.

F. Fawcett, “On the Saoras (or Savaras),” Journ. Anthrop. Soc. Bombay, i. 213 note.

530.

Journ. Anthrop. Soc. Bombay, i. 37.

531.

R. Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche (first series), p. 30.

532.

J. H. Gray, China, ii. 306.

533.

Panjab Notes and Queries, i. 598.

534.

Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 393.

535.

Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte, ii. 93.

536.

Id. ii. 91.

537.

Asiatic Researches, ix. 96 sq.

538.

J. H. Gray, China, ii. 306 sq.

539.

T. J. Hutchinson, Impressions of Western Africa, p. 162.

540.

Bogle and Manning, Tibet, edited by C. R. Markham, p. 106 sq.

541.

E. T. Atkinson, “Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalaya of the North-West Provinces,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, liii. pt. i. (1884), p. 62.

542.

Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, from the MSS. of John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 439.

543.

W. M. Beauchamp, “The Iroquois White Dog Feast,” American Antiquarian, vii. 237.

544.

Ib. p. 236; T. Dwight, Travels in New England and New York, iv. 202.

545.

Above, p. 165 sq.

546.

Leviticus xvi. Modern Jews sacrifice a white cock on the eve of the Festival of Expiation, nine days after the beginning of their New Year. The father of the family knocks the cock thrice against his own head, saying, “Let this cock be a substitute for me, let it take my place, let death be laid upon this cock, but a happy life bestowed on me and on all Israel.” Then he cuts its throat and dashes the bird violently on the ground. The intestines are thrown on the roof of the house. The flesh of the cock was formerly given to the poor. Buxtorf, Synagoga Judaica, c. xxv.

547.

S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger, pp. 343-345. Cp. J. F. Schon and S. Crowther, Journals, p. 48 sq. The account of the custom by J. Africanus B. Horton (West African Countries and Peoples p. 185 sq.) is entirely from Taylor.

548.

Turpin, “History of Siam,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, ix. 579.

549.

Ködding, “Die Bataksche Götter,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xii. (1885) pp. 476, 478.

550.

The ceremony referred to is probably the one performed on the tenth day, as described in the text.

551.

“Report of a Route Survey by Pundit—from Nepal to Lhasa,” etc., Journal Royal Geogr. Soc. xxxviii. (1868) pp. 167, 170 sq.; “Four Years' Journeying through Great Tibet, by one of the Trans-Himalayan Explorers,” Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc. N.S. vii. (1885) p. 67 sq.

552.

Aeneas Sylvius, Opera (Bâle, 1571), p. 423 sq.

553.

Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, N.F. xxx. 198.

554.

J. Thomas Phillips, Account of the Religion, Manners, and Learning of the People of Malabar, pp. 6, 12 sq.

555.

Herodotus, ii. 39.

556.

Herodotus, ii. 38-41; Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, iii. 403 sqq. (ed. 1878).

557.

Herodotus, l.c.

558.

See above, pp. 95 sqq., 137 sq.

559.

Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. No. 335.

560.

Strabo, xi. 4, 7. For the custom of standing upon a sacrificed victim, cp. Demosthenes, p. 642; Pausanias, iii. 20, 9.

561.

In the Dassera festival, as celebrated in Nepaul, we seem to have another instance of the annual expulsion of demons preceded by a time of licence. The festival occurs at the beginning of October and lasts ten days. “During its continuance there is a general holiday among all classes of the people. The city of Kathmandu at this time is required to be purified, but the purification is effected rather by prayer than by water-cleansing. All the courts of law are closed, and all prisoners in jail are removed from the precincts of the city.... The Kalendar is cleared, or there is a jail-delivery always at the Dassera of all prisoners.” This seems a trace of a period of licence. At this time “it is a general custom for masters to make an annual present, either of money, clothes, buffaloes, goats, etc., to such servants as have given satisfaction during the past year. It is in this respect, as well as in the feasting and drinking which goes on, something like our ‘boxing-time’ at Christmas.” On the seventh day at sunset there is a parade of all the troops in the capital, including the artillery. At a given signal the regiments commence firing, the artillery takes it up, and a general firing goes on for about twenty minutes, when it suddenly ceases. This probably represents the expulsion of the demons. “The grand cutting of the rice-crops is always postponed till the Dassera is over, and commences all over the valley the very day afterwards.” See the description of the festival in Oldfield's Sketches from Nipal, ii. 342-351. On the Dassera in India, see Dubois, Moeurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l'Inde, ii. 329 sqq. Amongst the Wasuahili of East Africa New Year's Day was formerly a day of general licence, “every man did as he pleased. Old quarrels were settled, men were found dead on the following day, and no inquiry was instituted about the matter.” Ch. New, Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa, p. 65. In Ashantee the annual festival of the new yams is a time of general licence. See the Note on “Offerings of first fruits” at the end of the volume.

562.

See above, vol. i. p. 275 sq.

563.

Above, pp. 186 sq., 192.

564.

H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, N. F. (1875) xxx. 194.

565.

Joannes Lydus, De mensibus, iii. 29, iv. 36. Lydus places the expulsion on the Ides of March, that is 15th March. But this seems to be a mistake. See Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, xxx. 209 sqq. Again, Lydus does not expressly say that Mamurius Veturius was driven out of the city, but he implies it by mentioning the legend that his mythical prototype was beaten with rods and expelled the city. Lastly, Lydus only mentions the name Mamurius. But the full name Mamurius Veturius is preserved by Varro, Ling. Lat. vi. 45; Festus, ed. Muller, p. 131; Plutarch, Numa, 13.

566.

Usener, op. cit. p. 212 sq.; Roscher, Apollon und Mars, p. 27; Preller, Römische Mythologie,3 i. 360; Vaniček, Griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, p. 715. The three latter scholars take Veturius as = annuus, because vetus is etymologically equivalent to ἔτος. But, as Usener argues, it seems quite unallowable to take the Greek meaning of the word instead of the Latin.

567.

Cato, De agri cult. 141.

568.

Varro, De lingua latina, v. 85.

569.

See the song of the Arval Brothers in Acta Fratrum Arvalium, ed. Henzen, p. 26 sq.; Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, p. 158.

570.

Above, p. 64.

571.

Cato, De agri cult. 83.

572.

Above, vol. i. p. 70 sqq. p. 105 sq.

573.

Preller, Römische Mythologie,3 i. 360; Rosscher, Apollon und Mars, p. 49; Usener, op. cit. The ceremony also closely resembles the Highland New Year ceremony described above, p. 145 sq.

574.

Propertius, v. 2, 61 sq.; Usener, op. cit. p. 210. One of the functions of the Salii or dancing priests, who during March went up and down the city dancing, singing, and clashing their swords against their shields (Livy, i. 20; Plutarch, Numa, 13; Dionysius Halicarn. Antiq. ii. 70) may have been to rout out the evils or demons from all parts of the city, as a preparation for transferring them to the scapegoat Mamurius Veturius. Similarly, as we have seen (above, p. 194 sq.), among the Iroquois, men in fantastic costume went about collecting the sins of the people as a preliminary to transferring them to the scapegoat dogs. We have had many examples of armed men rushing about the streets and houses to drive out demons and evils of all kinds. The blows which were showered on Mamurius Veturius seem to have been administered by the Salii (Servius on Virgil, Aen. vii. 188; Minucius Felix, 24, 3; Preller, Röm. Myth.3 i. 360, note 1; Rosscher, Apollon und Mars, p. 49). The reason for beating the scapegoat will be explained presently. As priests of Mars, the god of agriculture, the Salii probably had also certain agricultural functions. They were named from the remarkable leaps which they made. Now dancing and leaping high are common sympathetic charms to make the crops grow high. See Peter, Volksthümliches aus Oesterreichisch Schlesien, ii. 266; E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 499, No. 333; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 49; O. Knoop, Volkssagen, etc., aus dem östlichen Hinterpommern, p. 176, No. 197; E. Sommer, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen, p. 148; Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, p. 190, No. 13; Woeste, Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark, p. 56; Bavaria, ii. 298; id., iv. Abth. ii. pp. 379, 382; Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten u. Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 11 sq.; Schulenberg, Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche, p. 252; Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2 § 657; Jahn, Die deutsche Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht, p. 194 sq.; cp. Schott, Walachische Mährchen, p. 301 sq.; Gerard, The Land beyond the Forest, i. 264; Cieza de Leon, Travels (Hakluyt Soc. 1864), p. 413. Was it one of the functions of the Salii to dance and leap on the fields at the spring or autumn sowing, or at both? The dancing processions of the Salii took place in October as well as in March (Marquardt, Sacralwesen,2 p. 436 sq.), and the Romans sowed both in spring and autumn (Columella, ii. 9, 6 sq.) In their song the Salii mentioned Saturnus or Saeturnus the god of sowing (Festus, p. 325, ed. Müller. Saeturnus is an emendation of Ritschl's. See Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, p. 405). The weapons borne by the Salii, while effective against demons in general, may have been especially directed against the demons who steal the seed corn or the ripe grain. Compare the Khond and Hindoo Koosh customs described above, p. 173. In Western Africa the field labours of tilling and sowing are sometimes accompanied by dances of armed men on the field. See Labat, Voyage du Chevalier des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne, ii. p. 99 of the Paris ed., p. 80 of the Amsterdam ed.; Olivier de Sanderval, De l'Atlantique au Niger par le Foulah-Djallon (Paris, 1883), p. 230. In Calicut (Southern India) “they plough the land with oxen as we do, and when they sow the rice in the field they have all the instruments of the city continually sounding and making merry. They also have ten or twelve men clothed like devils, and these unite in making great rejoicing with the players on the instruments, in order that the devil may make that rice very productive.” Varthema, Travels (Hakluyt Soc. 1863), p. 166 sq. The resemblance of the Salii to the sword-dancers of northern Europe has been pointed out by K. Müllenhoff, “Ueber den Schwerttanz,” in Festgaben für Gustav Homeyer (Berlin, 1871). In England the Morris Dancers who accompanied the procession of the plough through the streets on Plough Monday (the first Monday after Twelfth Day) sometimes wore swords (Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 505, Bohn's ed.), and sometimes they “wore small bunches of corn in their hats, from which the wheat was soon shaken out by the ungainly jumping which they called dancing.... Bessy rattled his box and danced so high that he showed his worsted stockings and corduroy breeches.” Chambers, Book of Days, i. 94. It is to be observed that in the “Lord of Misrule,” who reigned from Christmas till Twelfth Night (see Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 497 sqq.), we have a clear trace of one of those periods of general licence and suspension of ordinary government which so commonly occur at the end of the old year or beginning of the new one in connection with a general expulsion of evils. The fact that this period of licence immediately preceded the procession of the Morris Dancers on Plough Monday seems to indicate that the functions of these dancers were like those which I have attributed to the Salii. But the parallel cannot be drawn out here. Cp. meantime Dyer, British Popular Customs, pp. 31, 39. The Salii were said to have been founded by Morrius, King of Veii (Servius on Virgil, Aen. viii. 285). Morrius seems to be etymologically the same with Mamurius and Mars (Usener, Italische Mythen, p. 213). Can the English Morris (in Morris dancers) be the same? Analogy suggests that at Rome the Saturnalia, which fell in December when the Roman year began in January, may have been celebrated in February when the Roman year began in March. Thus at Rome, as in so many places, the public expulsion of evils at the New Year would be preceded by a period of general licence, such as the Saturnalia was. A trace of the former celebration of the Saturnalia in February or the beginning of March may perhaps be seen in the Matronalia, celebrated on 1st March, at which mistresses feasted their slaves, just as masters feasted theirs at the Saturnalia. Macrobius, Saturn. i. 12, 7; Solinus, i. 35, p. 13, ed. Mommsen; Joannes Lydus, De mensibus, iii. 15.

575.

Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. vi. 8.

576.

See above, pp. 176, 194.

577.

Servius on Virgil, Aen. iii. 57, from Petronius.

578.

Helladius, in Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 534 a, ed. Bekker; Schol. on Aristophanes, Frogs, 734, and on Knights, 1136; Hesychius, s.v. φαρμακοί; cp. Suidas, s.vv. κάθαρμα, φαρμακοός, and φαρμακούς; Lysias, Orat. vi. 53. That they were stoned is an inference from Harpocration. See next note.

579.

Harpocration, s.v. φαρμακός, who says δύο ἄνδρας Ἀθήνησιν ἑξῆγον καθάρσια ἐσομένους τῆς πόλεως ἐν τοῖς Θαργηλίοις, ἕνα μὲν ὑπερ τῶν ἀνδρῶν, ἕνα δὲ ὑπερ τῶν γυναικῶν. He does not expressly state that they were put to death; but as he says that the ceremony was an imitation of the execution of a mythical Pharmacus who was stoned to death, we may infer that the victims were killed by being stoned. Suidas (sv. φάρμακος) copies Harpocration.

580.

Strabo, x. 2, 9. I do not know what authority Wordsworth (Greece, Pictorial, Historical, and Descriptive, p. 354) has for saying that the priests of Apollo, whose temple stood near the edge of the cliff, sometimes flung themselves down in this way.

581.

Tzetzes, Chiliades, v. 726-761. Tzetzes's authority is the satyrical poet Hipponax.

582.

This may be inferred from the verse of Hipponax, quoted by Athenaeus, 370 b, where for φαρμάκου we should perhaps read φαρμακοῦ with Schneidewin (Poetae lyr. Gr.3 ed. Bergk, ii. 763).

583.

See his Mytholog. Forschungen, p. 113 sqq., especially 123 sq. 133.

584.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. xx. 101; Dioscorides, De mat. med. ii. 202; Lucian, Necyom. 7; id., Alexander, 47; Theophrastus, Superstitious Man.

585.

Theocritus, vii. 106 sqq. with the scholiast.

586.

Cp. Aug. Mommsen, Heortologie, 414 sqq.; W. Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 215.

587.

At certain sacrifices in Yucatan blood was drawn from the genitals of a human victim and smeared on the face of the idol. De Landa, Relation des choses de Yucatan, ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864) p. 167. Was the original intention of this rite to transfuse into the god a fresh supply of reproductive energy?

588.

Aelian, Nat. Anim. ix. 26.

589.

De Santa-Anna Nery, Folk-lore Brésilien (Paris, 1889) p. 253.

590.

Above, pp. 148 sq. 187. Compare Plutarch, Parallela, 35, where a woman is represented as going from house to house striking sick people with a hammer and bidding them be whole.

591.

Acosta, History of the Indies, ii. 375 (Hakluyt Soc.) See above, p. 169.

592.

Osculati, Esplorazione delle regioni equatoriali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle Amazzoni (Milan, 1854), p. 118.

593.

Ed. Beardmore, Anthropological Notes collected at Mowat, Dandai, New Guinea (1888) (in manuscript).

594.

Hahn, Albanesische Studien, i. 155.

595.

F. S. Krauss, Kroatien und Slavonien (Vienna, 1889), p. 108.

596.

W. Mannhardt, B. K. p. 257.

597.

W. Mannhardt, B. K. p. 258-263. See his whole discussion of such customs, pp. 251-303, and Myth. Forsch. pp. 113-153.

598.

Acosta, History of the Indies, ii. 323 (Hakluyt Soc. 1880).

599.

Sahagun, Histoire des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne (Paris, 1880), pp. 61 sq., 96-99, 103; Acosta, History of the Indies, ii. 350 sq.; Clavigero, History of Mexico, trans. by Cullen, i. 300; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, ii. 319 sq. For other Mexican instances of persons representing deities and slain in that character, see Sahagun, pp. 75, 116 sq., 123, 158 sq., 164 sq., 585 sqq., 589; Acosta, ii. 384 sqq.; Clavigero, i. 312; Bancroft, ii. 325 sqq., 337 sq.

600.

Sahagun, pp. 18 sq., 68 sq., 133-139; Bancroft, iii. 353-359.

601.

Sahagun, p. 584 sq. For this festival see also id. pp. 37 sq. 58 sq. 60, 87 sqq. 93; Clavigero, i. 297; Bancroft, ii. 306 sqq.

602.

Clavigero, i. 283.

603.

Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, ii. 142.

604.

Memorials of Japan (Hakluyt Society, 1850), pp. 14, 141; Varenius, Descriptio regni Japoniae, p. 11; Caron, “Account of Japan,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, vii. 613; Kaempfer, “History of Japan,” in id., vii. 716.

605.

Ellis, Polynesian Researches, iii. 102 sq. ed. 1836; James Wilson, Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean, p. 329.

606.

Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte, iii. 81.

607.

Athenaeus, 514 C.

608.

Bancroft, l.c.

609.

Kaempfer, “History of Japan,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, vii. 717; Caron, “Account of Japan,” id. vii. 613; Varenius, Descriptio regni Japoniae, p. 11, “Radiis solis caput nunquam illustrabatur: in apertum aërem non procedebat.”

610.

Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, iv. 359.

611.

Alonzo de Zurita, “Rapport sur les differentes classes de chefs de la Nouvelle-Espagne,” p. 30, in Ternaux-Compans's Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux (Paris, 1840); Waitz, l.c.; Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, ii. 204.

612.

Cieza de Leon, Second Part of the Chronicle of Peru (Hakluyt Soc. 1883), p. 18.

613.

Pechuel-Loesche, “Indiscretes aus Loango,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, x. (1878) 23.

614.

Rev. James Macdonald (Reay Free Manse, Caithness), Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of South African Tribes (in manuscript).

615.

The Rev. G. Brown, quoted by the Rev. B. Danks, “Marriage Customs of the New Britain Group,” Journ. Anthrop. Institute, xviii. 284 sq.; cp. Rev. G. Brown, “Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain, and New Ireland,” Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc. xlvii. (1877) p. 142 sq. Powell's description of the New Ireland custom is similar (Wanderings in a Wild Country, p. 249). According to him the girls wear wreaths of scented herbs round the waist and neck; an old woman or a little child occupies the lower floor of the cage: and the confinement lasts only a month. Probably the long period mentioned by Mr. Brown is that prescribed for chiefs' daughters. Poor people could not afford to keep their children so long idle. This distinction is sometimes expressly stated; for example, among the Goajiras of Colombia rich people keep their daughters shut up in separate huts at puberty for periods varying from one to four years, but poor people cannot afford to do so for more than a fortnight or a month. F. A. Simons, “An exploration of the Goajira Peninsula,” Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc. N.S. vii. (1885) p. 791. In Fiji, brides who were being tattooed were kept from the sun. Williams, Fiji and the Fijians, i. 170. This was perhaps a modification of the Melanesian custom of secluding girls at puberty. The reason mentioned by Mr. Williams, “to improve her complexion,” can hardly have been the original one.

616.

Chalmers and Gill, Work and Adventure in New Guinea, p. 159.

617.

Schwaner, Borneo, Beschrijving van het stroomgebied van den Barito, etc. ii. 77 sq.; Zimmerman, Die Inseln des Indischen und Stillen Meeres, ii. 632 sq.; Otto Finsch, Neu Guinea und seine Bewohner, p. 116.

618.

Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 138.

619.

Sproat, Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, p. 93 sq.

620.

Erman, “Ethnographische Wahrnehmungen u. Erfahrungen an den Küsten des Berings-Meeres,” Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie, ii. 318 sq.; Langsdorff, Reise um die Welt, ii. 114 sq.; Holmberg, “Ethnogr. Skizzen über die Völker d. russischen Amerika,” Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae, iv. (1856) p. 320 sq.; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 110 sq.; Krause, Die Tlinkit-Indianer, p. 217 sq.; Rev. Sheldon Jackson, “Alaska and its Inhabitants,” American Antiquarian, ii. 111 sq.; W. M. Grant, in Journal of American Folk-lore, i. 169. For caps, hoods, and veils worn by girls at such seasons, compare G. H. Loskiel, History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians, i. 56; Journal Anthrop. Institute, vii. 206; G. M. Dawson, Report of the Queen Charlotte Islands, 1878 (Geological Survey of Canada), p. 130 B; Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié, pp. 72, 75; id., Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest, p. 258.

621.

Holmberg, op. cit. p. 401; Bancroft, i. 82; Petroff, Report on the Population, etc. of Alaska, p. 143.

622.

Lafitau, Moeurs des Sauvages amériquains i. 262 sq.

623.

Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, viii. 333. On the Chiriguanos see Von Martius, Zur Ethnographie Amerika's zumal Brasiliens, p. 212 sqq.

624.

Thevet, Cosmographie Universelle (Paris, 1575) ii. 946 B sq.; Lafitau, op. cit. i 290 sqq.

625.

Schomburgk, Reisen in Britisch Guiana, ii. 315 sq.; Martius, Zur Ethnographie Amerika's, p. 644.

626.

Labat, Voyage du Chevalier des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne, iv. p. 365 sq. (Paris ed.), p. 17 sq. (Amsterdam ed.)

627.

Above, p. 213 sq., vol. i. p. 153 sq.

628.

This interpretation of the custom is supported by the fact that beating or scourging is inflicted on inanimate objects expressly for the purpose indicated in the text. Thus the Indians of Costa Rica hold that there are two kinds of ceremonial uncleanness, nya and bu-ku-rú. Anything that has been connected with a death is nya. But bu-ku-rú is much more virulent. It can not only make one sick but kill. “The worst bu-ku-rú of all is that of a young woman in her first pregnancy. She infects the whole neighbourhood. Persons going from the house where she lives carry the infection with them to a distance, and all the deaths or other serious misfortunes in the vicinity are laid to her charge. In the old times, when the savage laws and customs were in full force, it was not an uncommon thing for the husband of such a woman to pay damages for casualties thus caused by his unfortunate wife.... Bu-ku-rú emanates in a variety of ways; arms, utensils, even houses become affected by it after long disuse, and before they can be used again must be purified. In the case of portable objects left undisturbed for a long time, the custom is to beat them with a stick before touching them. I have seen a woman take a long walking stick and beat a basket hanging from the roof of a house by a cord. On asking what that was for, I was told that the basket contained her treasures, that she would probably want to take something out the next day, and that she was driving off the bu-ku-rú. A house long unused must be swept, and then the person who is purifying it must take a stick and beat not only the movable objects, but the beds, posts, and in short every accessible part of the interior. The next day it is fit for occupation. A place not visited for a long time or reached for the first time is bu-ku-rú. On our return from the ascent of Pico Blanco, nearly all the party suffered from little calenturas, the result of extraordinary exposure to wet and cold and want of food. The Indians said that the peak was especially bu-ku-rú, since nobody had ever been on it before.” One day Mr. Gabb took down some dusty blow-guns amid cries of bu-ku-rú from the Indians. Some weeks afterwards a boy died, and the Indians firmly believed that the bu-ku-rú of the blow-guns had killed him. “From all the foregoing, it would seem that bu-ku-rú is a sort of evil spirit that takes possession of the object, and resents being disturbed; but I have never been able to learn from the Indians that they consider it so. They seem to think of it as a property the objects acquires.” W. M. Gabb, Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica (read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th August 1875), p. 504 sq.

629.

A. R. Wallace, Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, p. 496.

630.

Bose, The Hindoos as they are, p. 86. Similarly, after a Brahman boy has been invested with the sacred thread, he is for three days strictly forbidden to see the sun. He may not eat salt, and he is enjoined to sleep either on a carpet or a deer's skin, without a mattress or mosquito curtain. Ib. p. 186. In Bali, boys who have had their teeth filed, as a preliminary to marriage, are kept shut up in a dark room for three days. Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N. S. ix. (1880) 428 sq.

631.

Moura, Royaume du Cambodge, i. 377.

632.

Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” Cochinchine Française, Excursions et Reconnaissances, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), p. 193 sq. Cp. id. Notice sur le Cambodge, p. 50.

633.

B. Schmidt, Griechische Märchen, Sagen und Volkslieder, p. 98.

634.

Schneller, Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol, No. 22.

635.

J. G. von Hahn, Griechische und albanesische Märchen, No. 41.

636.

Gonzenbach, Sicilianische Märchen, No. 28. The incident of the bone occurs in other folk-tales. A prince or princess is shut up for safety in a tower and makes his or her escape by scraping a hole in the wall with a bone which has been accidentally conveyed into the tower; sometimes it is expressly said that care was taken to let the princess have no bones with her meat. Hahn, op. cit. No. 15; Gonzenbach, Nos. 26, 27; Pentamerone, No. 23. From this we should infer that it is a rule with savages not to let women handle the bones of animals during their monthly seclusions. We have already seen the great respect with which the savage treats the bones of game (see above, p. 116 sqq.); and women in their courses are specially forbidden to meddle with the hunter or fisher, as their contact or neighbourhood would spoil his sport (see below, p. 238 sqq.) In folk-tales the hero who uses the bone is sometimes a boy; but the incident might easily be transferred from a girl to a boy after its real meaning had been forgotten. Amongst the Hare-skin Indians a girl at puberty is forbidden to break the bones of hares. Petitot, Traditions indiennes du Canada Nordouest, p. 258. On the other hand, she drinks out of a tube made of a swan's bone (Petitot, l.c. and id., Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié, p. 76), and we have seen that a Thlinkeet girl in the same circumstances used to drink out of the wing-bone of a white-headed eagle (Langsdorff, Reise um die Welt, ii. 114).

637.

W. Radloff, Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme Süd-Sibiriens, iii. 82 sq.

638.

Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, i. 416, vi. 25; Turner, Samoa, p. 200; Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. No. 797.

639.

Amongst the Chaco Indians of South America a newly-married couple sleep the first night on a skin with their heads towards the west; “for the marriage is not considered as ratified till the rising sun shines on their feet the succeeding morning.” T. J. Hutchinson, “The Chaco Indians,” Transact. Ethnolog. Soc. iii. 327. At old Hindoo marriages, the first ceremony was the “Impregnation-rite” (Garbhādhāna). “During the previous day the young married woman was made to look towards the sun, or in some way exposed to its rays.” Monier Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, p. 354. Amongst the Turks of Siberia it was formerly the custom on the morning after marriage to lead the young couple out of the hut to greet the rising sun. The same custom is said to be still practised in Iran and Central Asia, the belief being that the beams of the rising sun are the surest means of impregnating the new bride. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk, p. 112.

640.

Above, vol. i. p. 170.

641.

Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 186; E. J. Eyre, Journals, ii. 295, 304; W. Ridley, Kamilaroi, p. 157; Journ. Anthrop. Inst. ii. 268, ix. 459 sq.; Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 65, 236. Cp. Sir George Grey, Journals, ii. 344; J. Dawson, Australian Aborigines, ci. sq.

642.

Bleek, Brief Account of Bushman Folk-lore, p. 14; cp. ib. p. 10.

643.

Gumilla, Histoire de l'Orénoque, i. 249.

644.

James Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 123 sq.

645.

S. Hearne, Journey to the Northern Ocean, p. 314 sq.; Alex. Mackenzie, Voyages through the Continent of North America, cxxiii.; Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié, p. 75 sq.

646.

C. Leemius, De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua vita et religione pristina (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 494.

647.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. § 64 sq., xxviii. § 77 sqq. Cp. Geoponica, xii. c. 20, 5, and c. 25, 2; Columella, xi. 3, 50.

648.

A. Schleicher, Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg; p. 134; B. Souché, Croyances, Présages et Traditions diverses, p. 11; V. Fossel, Volksmedicin und medicinischer Aberglaube in Steiermark (Graz, 1886), p. 124. The Greeks and Romans thought that a field was completely protected against insects if a menstruous woman walked round it with bare feet and streaming hair. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xvii. 266, xxviii. 78; Columella, x. 358 sq., xi. 3, 64; Palladius, De re rustica, i. 35, 3; Geoponica, xii. 8, 5 sq.; Aelian, Nat. Anim. vi. 36. A similar remedy is employed for the same purpose by North American Indians and European peasants. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, v. 70; Wiedemann, Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten, p. 484. Cp. Haltrich, Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen, p. 280; Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 14; Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 iii. 468.

649.

For an example of the beneficent application of the menstrual energy, see note on p. 241.

650.

The rules just discussed do not hold exclusively of the persons mentioned in the text, but are applicable in certain circumstances to other tabooed persons and things. Whatever, in fact, is permeated by the mysterious virtue of taboo may need to be isolated from earth and heaven. Mourners are taboo all the world over; accordingly in mourning the Ainos wear peculiar caps in order that the sun may not shine upon their heads. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, v. 366. During a solemn fast of three days the Indians of Costa Rica eat no salt, speak as little as possible, light no fires, and stay strictly indoors, or if they go out during the day they carefully cover themselves from the light of the sun, believing that exposure to the sun's rays would turn them black. W. M. Gabb, Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica, p. 510. On Yule night it has been customary in parts of Sweden from time immemorial to go on pilgrimage, whereby people learn many secret things and know what is to happen in the coming year. As a preparation for this pilgrimage, “some secrete themselves for three days previously in a dark cellar, so as to be shut out altogether from the light of heaven. Others retire at an early hour of the preceding morning to some out-of-the way place, such as a hayloft, where they bury themselves in the hay, that they may neither hear nor see any living creature; and here they remain, in silence and fasting, until after sundown; whilst there are those who think it sufficient if they rigidly abstain from food on the day before commencing their wanderings. During this period of probation a man ought not to see fire.” L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 194. During the sixteen days that a Pima Indian is undergoing purification for killing an Apache he may not see a blazing fire. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 553. Again warriors on the war-path are strictly taboo; hence Indians may not sit on the bare ground the whole time they are out on a warlike expedition. J. Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 382; Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, p. 123. The holy ark of the North American Indians is deemed “so sacred and dangerous to be touched” that no one, except the war chief and his attendant, will touch it “under the penalty of incurring great evil. Nor would the most inveterate enemy touch it in the woods for the very same reason.” In carrying it against the enemy they never place it on the ground, but rest it on stones or logs. Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 162 sq. The sacred clam shell of the Elk clan among the Omahas is kept in a sacred bag, which is never allowed to touch the ground. E. James, Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, ii. 47; J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1884), p. 226. Newly born infants are strongly taboo; accordingly in Loango they are not allowed to touch the earth. Pechuel-Loesche, “Indiscretes aus Loango,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, x. (1878) p. 29 sq. In Laos the hunting of elephants gives rise to many taboos; one of them is that the chief hunter may not touch the earth with his foot. Accordingly when he alights from his elephant, the others spread a carpet of leaves for him to step upon. E. Aymonier, Notes sur le Laos, p. 26. In some parts of Aberdeenshire, the last bit of standing corn (which, as we have seen, is very sacred) is not allowed to touch the ground; but as it is cut, it is placed on the lap of the “gueedman.” W. Gregor, “Quelques coutumes du Nord-Est du Comté d'Aberdeen,” Revue des Traditions populaires, iii. (1888) 485 b. Sacred food may not, in certain circumstances, touch the ground. F. Grabowsky, “Der Distrikt Dusson Timor in Südost-Borneo und seine Bewohner,” Ausland (1884), No. 24, p. 474; Ch. F. Hall, Narrative of the Second Arctic Expedition, edited by Prof. J. E. Nourse (Washington, 1879), p. 110; Gerard, The Land beyond the Forest, ii. 7. In Scotland, when water was carried from sacred wells to sick people, the water-vessel might not touch the ground. C. F. Gordon Cumming, In the Hebrides, p. 211. On the relation of spirits to the ground, compare Denzil Ibbetson in Panjab Notes and Queries, i. No. 5.

651.

Die Edda, übersetzt von K. Simrock,8 pp. 286-288, cp. pp. 8, 34, 264. In English the Balder story is told at length by Prof. Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 529 sqq.

652.

It is strange to find so learned and judicious a student of custom and myth as H. Usener exactly inverting their true relation to each other. After showing that the essential features of the myth of the marriage of Mars and Nerio have their counterpart in the marriage customs of peasants at the present day, he proceeds to infer that these customs are the reflection of the myth. “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, N. F. xxx. 228 sq. Surely the myth is the reflection of the custom. Men not only fashion gods in their own likeness (as Xenophanes long ago remarked) but make them think and act like themselves. Heaven is a copy of earth, not earth of heaven.

653.

See Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 502, 510, 516.

654.

Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 518 sq.

655.

In the following survey of these fire-customs I follow chiefly W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, kap. vi. p. 497 sqq. Compare also Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 500 sqq.

656.

Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen etc. des Eifler Volkes, i. pp. 21-25; B. K. p. 501.

657.

B. K. p. 501.

658.

Vonbun, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, p. 20; B. K. p. 501.

659.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 380 sqq.; Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. 59 sq. , 66 sq.; Bavaria, ii. 2, p. 838 sq.; Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, i. p. 211, No. 232, B. K. p. 501 sq.

660.

Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, p. 189; Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 207; B. K. p. 500 sq.

661.

Th. Vernalcken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich, p. 293 sq.; B. K. p. 498. See above, vol. i. p. 267.

662.

Schmitz, Sitten, u. Sagen des Eifler Volkes, i. p. 20; B. K. p. 499.

663.

Strackerjan, Aberglaube u. Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, ii. 39, No. 306; B. K. p. 499.

664.

B. K. p. 499.

665.

B. K. p. 498 sq.

666.

B. K. p. 499.

667.

Schneller, Märchen u. Sagen aus Wälschtirol, p. 234 sq.; B. K. p. 499 sq.

668.

B. K. pp. 502-505; Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2 § 81; Zingerle, Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes,2 p. 149, §§ 1286-1289; Bavaria, i. 1, p. 371.

669.

Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, i. p. 212 sq., ii. p. 78 sq.; B. K. p. 505.

670.

Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, ii. p. 43 sq., No. 313; B. K. p. 505 sq.

671.

Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, i. 75 sq.; B. K. p. 506.

672.

Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 512; B. K. p. 506 sq.

673.

H. Pröhle, Harzbilder, p. 63; Kuhn und Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, p. 373; B. K. p. 507.

674.

Kuhn, Markische Sagen und Märchen, p. 312 sq.; B. K. p. 507.

675.

Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, i. p. 211 sq.; B. K. p. 507 sq.

676.

Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. p. 82, No. 106; B. K. p. 508.

677.

B. K. p. 508; cp. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutsch. Myth. i. 74; Grimm, Deutsche Myth.4 i. 512. The two latter writers only state that before the fires were kindled it was customary to hunt squirrels in the woods.

678.

Kuhn, l.c.; B. K. p. 508.

679.

Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 224 sq., Bohn's ed., quoting Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland, 1794, xi. 620; Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, from the MSS. of John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce, ii. 439-445; B. K. p. 508.

680.

Pennant, “Tour in Scotland,” Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, iii. 49; Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 226.

681.

L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 233 sq.

682.

B. K. p. 509; Brand, Pop. Antiq. i. 298 sq.; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 516.

683.

Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. p. 96 sqq. No. 128, p. 103 sq. No. 129; E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 423 sqq.; B. K. p. 510.

684.

Leoprechting, Aus dem Lechrain, p. 182 sq.; B. K. p. 510. Cp. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, i. 210; Bavaria, iii. 956.

685.

Panzer, op. cit. ii. 549.

686.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 306-311; B. K. p. 510. For the custom of burning a tree in the midsummer bonfires, see vol. i. p. 79.

687.

Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch, ii. 144 sqq.

688.

Grimm, D. M.4 i. 515 sq.; B. K. p. 510 sq.

689.

Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 393; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 517; B. K. p. 511.

690.

Sébillot, Coutumes populaires de la Haute Bretagne, p. 193 sq. Wolf, op. cit. ii. 392 sq.

691.

Zingerle, Sitten, etc. des Tiroler Volkes,2 p. 159, No. 1354; Panzer, Beitrag, i. 210; B. K. p. 511.

692.

Kuhn u. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, p. 390; B. K. 511.

693.

Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 300 sq., 318, cp. pp. 305, 306, 308 sq.; B. K. p. 512.

694.

Aubrey, Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 96, cp. id. p. 26.

695.

Brand, op. cit. i. 311.

696.

Id. i. 303, 318, 319; Dyer, British Popular Customs, p. 315.

697.

Brand, op. cit. i. 318.

698.

J. Train, Account of the Isle of Man, ii. 120.

699.

Brand, i. 303, quoting Sir Henry Piers's Description of Westmeath.

700.

Brand, l.c., quoting the author of the Survey of the South of Ireland.

701.

Brand, i. 305, quoting the author of the Comical Pilgrim's Pilgrimage into Ireland.

702.

Brand, i. 304, quoting The Gentleman's Magazine, February 1795, p. 124.

703.

Quoted by Dyer, British Popular Customs, p. 321 sq.

704.

Brand, i. 311, quoting Statistical Account of Scotland, xxi. 145.

705.

B. K. p. 512.

706.

Brand, i. 337.

707.

J. Ramsay and A. Allardyce, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, ii. 436.

708.

Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 240; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 519.

709.

Ralston. l.c.

710.

Tettau und Temme, Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens, p. 277; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 519.

711.

Töppen, Aberglauben aus Masuren,2 p. 71.

712.

Grimm, l.c.; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 307 note.

713.

Grimm, l.c.

714.

Grimm, l.c.

715.

Grimm, D. M.4 i. 518.

716.

Above, vol. i. p. 291.

717.

Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes, i. 185.

718.

Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 317; Grimm, l.c.

719.

G. Ferraro, Superstizioni, usi e proverbi Monferrini, p. 34 sq., referring to Alvise da Cadamosto, Relazion dei viaggi d'Africa, in Ramusio.

720.

Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. 100 sq.; B. K. p. 513 sq.

721.

Zingerle, Sitten, etc., des Tiroler Volkes,2 p. 159, No. 1353, cp. No. 1355; B. K. p. 513.

722.

Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 392; B. K. p. 513.

723.

B. K. p. 513.

724.

Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 240.

725.

Above, vol. i. p. 272 sq.

726.

Above, vol. i. p. 22 sqq.

727.

Above, p. 262.

728.

Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. 57, 97; B. K. p. 510; cp. Panzer, Beitrag, ii. 240.

729.

Cp. Grimm, D. M.4 i. 521; Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 389; Ad. Kuhn, Herabkunft des Feuers,2 pp. 41 sq., 47; W. Mannhardt, B. K. p. 521.

730.

See above, pp. 254, 255, 260, 265.

731.

On the need-fires, see Grimm, D. M. i. 501 sqq.; Wolf, op. cit. i. 116 sq., ii. 378 sqq.; Kuhn, op. cit. p. 41 sqq.; B. K. p. 518 sqq.; Elton, Origins of English History, p. 293 sq.; Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht, p. 26 sqq.

732.

This is the view of Grimm, Wolf, Kuhn, and Mannhardt.

733.

Herabkunft des Feuers,2 p. 47.

734.

Panzer, Beitrag, ii. 240.

735.

Ch. E. Gover, “The Pongol festival in Southern India,” Journ. Royal Asiatic Society, N.S. v. (1870) p. 96 sq.

736.

Diego de Landa, Relation des choses de Yucatan (Paris, 1864), p. 233.

737.

Kolben, Present State of the Cape of Good Hope, i. 129 sqq.

738.

P. 253. The torches of Demeter, which figure so largely in her myth and on the monuments, are perhaps to be explained by this custom. To regard, with Mannhardt (B. K. p. 536), the torches in the modern European customs as imitations of lightning seems unnecessary.

739.

Above, vol. i. p. 70 sqq.

740.

Pp. 250, 267.

741.

Pp. 247, 248, 253, 259, 266.

742.

P. 250 sq.

743.

Pp. 247, 248.

744.

Vol. i. p. 272.

745.

B. K. p. 524.

746.

Bavaria, iii. 956; B. K. p. 524.

747.

Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. 121 sq., No. 146; B. K. p. 524 sq.

748.

Caesar, Bell. Gall. vi. 15; Strabo, iv. 4, 5, p. 198; Casaubon; Diodorus, v. 32. See Mannhardt, B. K. p. 525 sqq.

749.

Strabo, iv. 4, 4, p. 197, τὰς δὲ φονικὰς δίκας μάλιστα τούτοις [i.e. the Druids] ἐπετέτραπτο δικάζειν, ὅταν τε φορὰ τούτων ἧ, φορὰν καὶ τῆς χώρας νομίζουσιν ὐπάρχειν. On this passage see Mannhardt, B. K. p. 529 sqq.

750.

See vol. i. p. 88 sqq.

751.

B. K. p. 523, note.

752.

B. K. p. 523, note; John Milner, The History, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Antiquities of Winchester, i. 8 sq.; Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 325 sq.; James Logan, The Scottish Gael, ii. 358 (new ed.); Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Calendrier Belge, p. 123 sqq.

753.

Puttenham, Arte of English Poesie, 1589, p. 128, quoted by Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 323.

754.

King's Vale Royal of England, p. 208, quoted by Brand, l.c.

755.

Liebrecht, Gervasius von Tilbury, p. 212 sq.; B. K. p. 514.

756.

B. K. pp. 514, 523.

757.

Athenaeum, 24th July 1869, p. 115; B. K. p. 515 sq.

758.

Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 388; B. K. p. 515.

759.

B. K. p. 515.

760.

Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 519; B. K. p. 515.

761.

B. K. p. 515.

762.

Ib.

763.

Above, vol. i. p. 408, vol. ii. p. 1 sqq.

764.

Some of the serpents worshipped by the old Prussians lived in hollow oaks, and as oaks were sacred among the Prussians, the serpents may have been regarded as genii of the trees. Simon Grunau, Preussische Chronik, ed. Perlbach, i. p. 89; Hartknoch, Altund Neues Preussen, pp. 143, 163. Serpents, again, played an important part in the worship of Demeter, as we have seen. But that they were regarded as embodiments of her can hardly be assumed. In Siam the spirit of the takhien tree is believed to appear, sometimes in the form of a woman, sometimes in the form of a serpent. Bastian, Die Volker des östlichen Asien, iii. 251.

765.

Pliny derives the name Druid the Greek drūs, “oak.” He did not know that the Celtic word for oak was the same (daur), and that therefore Druid, in the sense of priest of the oak, was genuine Celtic, not borrowed from the Greek. See Curtius, Griech. Etymologie,5 p. 238 sq.; Vaniček, Griechisch-lateinisches etymolog. Wörterbuch, p. 368 sqq.; Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 221 sqq. In the Highlands of Scotland the word is found in place-names like Bendarroch (the mountain of the oak), Craigandarroch, etc.

766.

It is still a folk-lore rule not to cut the mistletoe with iron; some say it should be cut with gold. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie4 ii. 1001. On the objection to the use of iron in such cases, see Liebrecht, Gervasius von Tilbury, p. 103; and above, vol. i. p. 177 sqq.

767.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. xvi. § 249 sqq. On the Celtic worship of the oak, see also Maximus Tyrius, Dissert. viii. 8, Κελτοὶ σέβουσι μὲν Δία ἄγαλμα δὲ Διὸς Κελτικὸν ὐψηλὴ δρῦς. With this mode of gathering the mistletoe compare the following. In Cambodia when a man perceives a certain parasitic plant growing on a tamarind-tree, he dresses in white and taking a new earthen pot climbs the tree at mid-day. He puts the plant in the pot and lets the whole fall to the ground. Then in the pot he makes a decoction which renders invulnerable. Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” in Cochinchine Française, Excursions et Reconnaissances, No. 16, p. 136.

768.

Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2 § 123; Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, §§ 673-677; Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes, ii. 144 sqq.; Friend, Flowers and Flower Lore, p. 362; Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 314 sqq.; Vonbun, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, p. 133 sqq.; Burne and Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 242. Cp. Archaeological Review, i. 164 sqq.

769.

Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 307, 312; Dyer, Folk-lore of Plants, pp. 62, 286; Friend, Flowers and Flower Lore, pp. 147, 149, 150, 540; Wuttke, § 134.

770.

Grimm, D. M.4 i. 514 sq., ii. 1013 sq., iii. 356; Grohmann, op. cit. § 635-637; Friend, op. cit. p. 75; Gubernatis, Myth. des Plantes, i. 189 sq., ii. 16 sqq.

771.

Aubrey, Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 25 sq.; Brand, Pop. Ant. i. 329 sqq.; Friend, p. 136.

772.

Brand, i. 333.

773.

Grohmann, § 1426.

774.

Grohmann, § 648.

775.

Grohmann, § 681; Wuttke, § 134; Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch, i. 9; Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes, i. 190.

776.

Grimm, D. M.4 iii. 78, 353.

777.

Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes, ii. 73.

778.

Friend, Flowers and Flower Lore, p. 378. Hunters believe that the mistletoe heals all wounds and brings luck in hunting. Kuhn, Herabkunjt des Feuers,2 p. 206.

779.

Grimm, D. M.4 ii. 1009.

780.

L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 269.

781.

Lloyd, op. cit. p. 259; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 517 sq.

782.

Lloyd, l.c.

783.

Grimm, D. M.4 iii. 78, who adds, “Mahnen die Johannisfeuer an Baldrs Leichenbrand?” This pregnant hint, which contains in germ the solution of the whole myth, has been quite lost on the mythologists who since Grimm's day have enveloped the subject in a cloud of learned dust.

784.

Above, p. 285, and vol. i. pp. 58, 64.

785.

Grimm, D. M.4 i. 55 sq., 58 sq., ii. 542, iii. 187 sq.

786.

Preller, Röm. Mythol.3 i. 108.

787.

Livy, i. 10. Cp. C. Bötticher, Der Baumkultus der Hellenen, p. 133 sq.

788.

Bötticher, op. cit. p. 111 sqq.; Preller, Griech. Mythol.4 ed. C. Robert, i. 122 sqq.

789.

Without hazarding an opinion on the vexed question of the primitive home of the Aryans, I may observe that in various parts of Europe the oak seems to have been formerly more common than it is now. In Denmark the present beech woods were preceded by oak woods and these by the Scotch fir. Lyell, Antiquity of Man, p. 9; J. Geikie, Prehistoric Europe, p. 486 sq. In parts of North Germany it appears from the evidence of archives that the fir has ousted the oak. O. Schrader, Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte,2 (Jena, 1890), p. 394. In prehistoric times the oak appears to have been the chief tree in the forests which clothed the valley of the Po; the piles on which the pile villages rested were of oak. W. Helbig, Die Italiker in der Poebene, p. 25 sq. The classical tradition that in the olden time men subsisted largely on acorns is borne out by the evidence of the pile villages in Northern Italy, in which great quantities of acorns have been discovered. See Helbig, op. cit. pp. 16 sq., 26, 72 sq.

790.

Above, p. 265 sq.

791.

Praetorius, Deliciae Prussicae, p. 19 sq. Mr. Ralston states (on what authority I do not know) that if the fire maintained in honour of the Lithuanian god Perkunas went out, it was rekindled by sparks struck from a stone which the image of the god held in his hand. Songs of the Russian People, p. 88.

792.

Grimm, D. M.4 i. 502, 503; Kuhn, Herabkunft des Feuers,2 p. 43; Pröhle, Harzbilder, p. 75; Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg, ii. 150; Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch, ii. 148. The writer who styles himself Montanus says (Die deutschen Volksfeste, etc., p. 127) that the need-fire was made by the friction of oak and fir. Sometimes it is said that the need-fire should be made with nine different kinds of wood (Grimm, D. M.4 i. 503, 505; Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 380; Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche, p. 27); but the kinds of wood are not specified.

793.

John Ramsay, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, ii. 442; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 506. See above, p. 255.

794.

Above, vol. i. p. 58.

795.

Montanus, Die deutschen Volksfeste, etc., p. 127.

796.

Above, vol. i. p. 100.

797.

Mary Frere, Old Deccan Days, p. 12 sqq.

798.

Maive Stokes, Indian Fairy Tales, p. 58 sqq. For similar stories, see id. p. 187 sq.; Lal Behari Day, Folk-tales of Bengal, p. 121 sq.; F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, Wide-awake Stories, p. 58 sqq.

799.

Old Deccan Days, p. 239 sqq.

800.

Lal Behari Day, op. cit. p. 1 sqq. For similar stories of necklaces, see Old Deccan Days, p. 233 sq.; Wide-awake Stories, p. 83 sqq.

801.

J. H. Knowles, Folk-tales of Kashmir (London, 1888), p. 49 sq.

802.

J. H. Knowles, Folk-tales of Kashmir (London, 1888), p. 134.

803.

Id. p. 382 sqq.

804.

Lal Behari Day, op. cit. p. 85 sq., cp. id. p. 253 sqq.; Indian Antiquary, i. (1872) 117. For an Indian story in which a giant's life is in five black bees, see Clouston, Popular Tales and Fictions, i. 350.

805.

Indian Antiquary, i. 171.

806.

A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iv. 340 sq.

807.

Lal Behari Day, op. cit. p. 189.

808.

Wide-awake Stories, pp. 52, 64.

809.

G. W. Leitner, The Languages and Races of Dardistan, p. 9.

810.

Apollodorus, i. 8; Diodorus, iv. 34; Pausanias, x. 31, 4; Aeschylus, Choeph. 604 sqq.

811.

Apollodorus, iii. 15, 8; Aeschylus, Choeph. 612 sqq.; Pausanias, i. 19, 4. According to Tzetzes (Schol. on Lycophron, 650) not the life but the strength of Nisus was in his golden hair; when it was pulled out, he became weak and was slain by Minos. According to Hyginus (Fab. 198) Nisus was destined to reign only so long as he kept the purple lock on his head.

812.

Apollodorus, ii. 4, §§ 5, 7.

813.

Hahn, Griechische und Albanesische Märchen, i. p. 217; a similar story, id. ii. p. 282.

814.

Hahn, op. cit. ii. p. 215 sq.

815.

Id. ii. p. 275 sq. Similar stories, id. ii. pp. 204, 294 sq. In an Albanian story a monster's strength is in three pigeons, which are in a hare, which is in the silver tusk of a wild boar. When the boar is killed, the monster feels ill; when the hare is cut open, he can hardly stand on his feet; when the three pigeons are killed, he expires. Dozon, Contes albanais, p. 132 sq.

816.

Hahn, op. cit. ii. p. 260 sqq.

817.

Id. i. p. 187.

818.

Id. ii. p. 23 sq.

819.

Legrand, Contes populaires grecs, p. 191 sqq.

820.

Plutarch, Parallela, 26. In both the Greek and Italian stories the subject of quarrel between nephew and uncles is the skin of a boar, which the nephew presented to his lady-love and which his uncles took from her.

821.

Basile, Pentamerone, ii. p. 60 sq. (Liebrecht's German trans.)

822.

R. H. Busk, Folk-lore of Rome, p. 164 sqq.

823.

Ralston, Russian Folk-tales, p. 103 sq.; so Dietrich, Russian Popular Tales, p. 23 sq.

824.

Ralston, op. cit. p. 109.

825.

Ib.

826.

Ralston, Russian Folk-tales, p. 113 sq.

827.

Id., p. 114.

828.

Id., p. 110.

829.

Mijatovics, Serbian Folk-lore, edited by the Rev. W. Denton, p. 172; F. S. Krauss, Sagen und Märchen der Südslaven, i. (No. 34) p. 168 sq.

830.

A. H. Wraitslaw, Sixty Folk-Tales from exclusively Slavonic sources (London, 1889), p. 225.

831.

Haltrich, Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen,4 No. 34 (No. 33 of the first ed.), p. 149 sq.

832.

J. W. Wolf, Deutsche Marchen und Sagen, No. 20, p. 87 sqq.

833.

Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, ii. p. 306 sq.

834.

K. Müllenhoff, Sagen, Märchen und Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig-Holstein und Lauenburg, p. 404 sqq.

835.

Asbjörnsen og Moe, Norske Folke-Eventyr, No. 36; Dasent, Popular Tales from the Norse, p. 55 sqq.

836.

Asbjörnsen og Moe, Norske Folke-Eventyr, Ny Samling, No. 70; Dasent, Tales from the Fjeld, p. 229 (“Boots and the Beasts.”)

837.

Mannhardt, Germanische Mythen, p. 592; Jamieson, Dictionary of the Scottish Language, s.v. “Yule.”

838.

J. F. Campbell, Popular Tales of the West Highlands, i. p. 10 sq.

839.

J. F. Campbell, Popular Tales of the West Highlands, i. p. 80 sqq.

840.

Sébillot, Contes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1885), p. 63 sqq.

841.

F. M. Luzel, Contes populaires de Basse-Bretagne (Paris, 1887), i. 445-449.

842.

Maspero, Contes populaires de l'Égypte ancienne (Paris, 1882), p. 5 sqq.

843.

Lane's Arabian Nights, iii. 316 sq.

844.

G. Spitta-Bey, Contes arabes modernes (Leyden and Paris, 1883), No. 2, p. 12 sqq. The story in its main outlines is identical with the Cashmeer story of “The Ogress Queen” (J. H. Knowles, Folk-tales of Kashmir, p. 42 sqq.) and the Bengalee story of “The Boy whom Seven Mothers Suckled” (Lal Behari Day, Folk-tales of Bengal, p. 117 sqq.; Indian Antiquary, i. 170 sqq.) In another Arabian story the life of a witch is bound up with a phial: when it is broken, she dies. W. A. Clouston, A Group of Eastern Romances and Stories, p. 30. A similar incident occurs in a Cashmeer story. Knowles, op. cit. p. 73. In the Arabian story mentioned in the text, the hero, by a genuine touch of local colour, is made to drink the milk of an ogress's breasts and hence is regarded by her as her son. Cp. W. Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, p. 149; and for the same mode of creating kinship among other races, see D'Abbadie, Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie, p. 272 sq.; Tausch, “Notices of the Circassians,” Journ. Royal Asiatic Soc. i. (1834) p. 104; Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, pp. 77, 83 (cp. Leitner, Languages and Races of Dardistan, p. 34); Denzil Ibbetson, Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal Parganah of the Karnal District, p. 101; Moura, Royaume du Cambodge, i. 427; F. S. Krauss, Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven, p. 14.

845.

Rivière, Contes populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura, p. 191.

846.

W. H. Jones and L. L. Kropf, The Folk-tales of the Magyar (London, 1889), p. 205 sq.

847.

R. H. Busk, The Folk-lore of Rome, p. 168.

848.

Castren, Ethnologische Vorlesungen über die Altaischen Völker, p. 173 sqq.

849.

Schiefner, Heldensagen der Minussinschen Tataren, pp. 172-176.

850.

Schiefner, op. cit. pp. 108-112.

851.

Schiefner, op. cit. pp. 360-364; Castren, Vorlesungen über die finnische Mythologie, p. 186 sq.

852.

Schiefner, op. cit. pp. 189-193. In another Tartar poem (Schiefner, op. cit. p. 390 sq.) a boy's soul is shut up by his enemies in a box. While the soul is in the box, the boy is dead; when it is taken out, he is restored to life. In the same poem (p. 384) the soul of a horse is kept shut up in a box, because it is feared the owner of the horse will become the greatest hero on earth. But these cases are, to some extent, the converse of those in the text.

853.

Schott, “Ueber die Sage von Geser Chan,” Abhandlungen d. Königl. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1851, p. 269.

854.

W. Radloff, Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme Süd-Siberiens, ii. 237 sq.

855.

W. Radloff, op. cit. ii. 531 sqq.

856.

Id., iv. 88 sq.

857.

W. Radloff, op. cit. i. 345 sq.

858.

G. A. Wilken, “De Simsonsage,” De Gids, 1888, No. 5, p. 6 sqq. (of the separate reprint). Cp. Backer, L'Archipel Indien, pp. 144-149.

859.

Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,” Verhandel. van het Batav. Genootsch. v. Kunsten en Wetenschappen, xxx. p. 111; Sundermann, “Die Insel Nias,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xi. (1884) p. 453.

860.

Above, vol. i. p. 134.

861.

B. F. Matthes, Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes, p. 54.

862.

F. Valentyn, Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indiën, ii. 143 sq.; G. A. Wilken, De Simsonsage, p. 15 sq.

863.

Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 137.

864.

B. Schmidt, Das Volksleben der Neugriechen, p. 206.

865.

Above, pp. 305, 307, 309, 311.

866.

Revue d'Ethnographie, ii. 223.

867.

Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste, i. 165.

868.

Bastian, Ein Besuch in San Salvador, p. 103 sq.; id., Der Mensch in der Geschichte, iii. 193.

869.

R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its Inhabitants,2 p. 184; Dumont D'Urville, Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse sur la corvette Astrolabe, ii. 444.

870.

Matthes, Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes, p. 59.

871.

Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N. S. ix. (1880) p. 417 sq.

872.

G. A. Wilken, De Simsonsage, p. 26.

873.

Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes, i. xxviii. sq.

874.

W. Mannhardt, B. K. p. 50; Ploss, Das Kind,2 i. 79.

875.

K. Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg, ii. 43, No. 63.

876.

Gentleman's Magazine, October 1804, p. 909, quoted by Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 289; W. G. Black, Folk-medicine, pp. 31 sq., 67.

877.

Moore's Life of Lord Byron, i. 101.

878.

Cedrenus, Compend. Histor. p. 625 b, vol. ii. p. 308, ed. Bekker.

879.

F. Mason, “Physical Character of the Karens,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1866, pt. ii. p. 9.

880.

Matthes, Makassarsch-Hollandsch Woordenboek, s.v. soemâñgá, p. 569; G. A. Wilken, “Het animísme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” De Indische Gids, June 1884, p. 933.

881.

R. H. Codrington, “Notes on the Customs of Mota, Banks Islands” (communicated by the Rev. Lorimer Fison), Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria, xvi. 136.

882.

F. Speckmann, Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika (Hermannsburg, 1876), p. 167.

883.

Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific Coast, i. 661. The words quoted by Bancroft (p. 662, note) “Consérvase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida está unida à la de un animal, y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando éste muere,” are not quite accurately represented by the statement of Bancroft in the text.

884.

Otto Stoll, Die Ethnologie der Indianerstämme von Guatemala (Leyden, 1889), p. 57 sq.; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 740 sq.; Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, ii. 282.

885.

A. W. Howitt, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xviii. 58.

886.

Gerard Krefft, “Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Lower Murray and Darling,” Transact. Philos. Soc. New South Wales, 1862-65, p. 359 sq.

887.

A. W. Howitt, l.c.

888.

Dawson, Australian Aborigines, p. 52.

889.

Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xiv. 350, xv. 416, xviii. 57 (the “nightjar” is apparently an owl).

890.

Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, pp. 194, 201 sq., 215; Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xv. 416, xviii. 56 sq.

891.

The chief facts of totemism have been collected by the present writer in a little work, Totemism (Edinburgh, A. and C. Black, 1887).

892.

(Sir) George Grey, Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western Australia, ii. 228 sq.

893.

Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 169.

894.

De la Borde, “Relation de l'Origine, etc. des Caraibes,” p. 15, in Recueil de divers Voyages faits en Afrique et en l'Amérique (Paris, 1684).

895.

Washington Matthews, The Hidatsa Indians, p. 50.

896.

Bastian, Die Volker des ostlichen Asien, iii. 248.

897.

I. B. Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijks, Genootsch., Tweede Serie, dl. iii. Afdeeling: meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 311 sq.; id., dl. iv. No. 1, p. 8 sq.; Van Hoëvell, “Iets over 't oorlogvoeren der Batta's,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indie, N. S. vii. (1878) p. 434; G. A. Wilken, Over de verwantschap en het huwelijks-en erfrecht bij de volken van het maleische ras, pp. 20 sq., 36; id., Iets over de Papoewas van de Geelvunksbaai, p. 27 sq. (reprint from Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned.-Indië, 5e Volgreeks ii.); Journal Anthrop. Inst. ix. 295; Backer, L'Archipel Indien, p. 470.

898.

B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde xxviii. 514. J. B. Neumann (op. cit. dl. iii. No. 2, p. 299) is the authority for the seven souls.

899.

Th. Benfey, Pantschatantra, i. 128 sq.

900.

A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,” Journ. Anthrop. Instit. xiv. 358.

901.

A. W. Howitt, “On Australian Medicine Men,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xvi. 47 sq. On the Bullroarer (a piece of wood fastened to a cord or thong and swung round so as to produce a booming sound), see A. Lang, Custom and Myth, p. 29 sqq. The religious use of the Bullroarer is best known in Australia, but in the essay just referred to Mr. Andrew Lang has shown that the instrument has been similarly employed not only in South Africa and by the Zunis of New Mexico, but also by the ancient Greeks in their religious mysteries. As a sacred instrument it also occurs in Western Africa (R. F. Burton, Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains, i. 197 sq.; Bouche, La Côte des Esclaves, p. 124), and in New Guinea (J. Chalmers, Pioneering in New Guinea, p. 85).

902.

A. W. Howitt, “On some Australian ceremonies of initiation,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xiii. 453 sq. The “class-name” is the name of the totemic division to which the man belongs.

903.

L. Fison, “The Nanga, or sacred stone enclosure of Wainimala, Fiji,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xiv. 22.

904.

W. H. Bentley, Life on the Congo (London, 1887), p. 78 sq.

905.

A. Bastian, Ein Besuch in San Salvador, pp. 82 sq. 86.

906.

Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste, ii. 183; cp. id., pp. 15-18, 30 sq. On these initiatory rites in the Congo region see also H. H. Johnston in Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc. N. S. v. (1883) p. 572 sq., and in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xiii. 472; E. Delmar Morgan, in Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc. N. S. vi. 193.

907.

Dapper, Description de l'Afrique, p. 268 sq. Dapper's account has been abbreviated in the text.

908.

(Beverley's) History of Virginia (London, 1722), p. 177 sq.

909.

J. Carver, Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, pp. 271-275.

910.

Carver, op. cit. p. 277 sq.; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, iii. 287, v. 430 sqq.; Kohl, Kitschi-Gami, i. 64-70.

911.

Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt (Middletown, 1820), p. 119.

912.

Id., p. 44. For the age of the prince, see id., p. 35.

913.

Holmberg, “Ueber die Völker des russischen Amerika,” Acta Soc. Scient. Fennicae, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 292 sqq., 328; Petroff, Report on the Population, etc. of Alaska, p. 165 sq.; A. Krause, Die Tlinkit-Indianer, p. 112; R. C. Mayne, Four years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island, p. 257 sq., 268.

914.

Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, v. 683. In a letter dated 16th Dec. 1887, Mr. A. S. Gatschet, of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, writes to me: “Among the Toukawe whom in 1884 I found at Fort Griffin [?], Texas, I noticed that they never kill the big or gray wolf, hatchukunän, which has a mythological signification, ‘holding the earth’ (hatch). He forms one of their totem clans, and they have had a dance in his honor, danced by the males only, who carried sticks.”

915.

Reina, “Ueber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, N. F. iv. (1858) p. 356 sq.

916.

R. Parkinson, Im Bismarck Archipel, pp. 129-134; Rev. G. Brown, “Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain, and New Ireland,” Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc. xlvii. (1878) p. 148 sq.; H. H. Romilly, “The Islands of the New Britain Group,” Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc. N. S. ix. (1887) p. 11 sq.; Rev. G. Brown, ib. p. 17; W. Powell, Wanderings in a Wild Country, pp. 60-66; C. Hager, Kaiser Wilhelm's Land und der Bismarck Archipel, pp. 115-128. The inhabitants of these islands are divided into two exogamous classes, which in the Duke of York Island have two insects for their totems. One of the insects is the mantis religiosus; the other is an insect that mimicks the leaf of the horse-chestnut tree very closely. Rev. B. Danks, “Marriage customs of the New Britain Group,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xviii. 281 sq.

917.

J. G. F. Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie, xvii. (1885) p. 81 sq.

918.

The Kakian association and its initiatory ceremonies have often been described. See Valentyn, Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën, iii. 3 sq.; Von Schmid, “Het Kakihansch Verbond op het eiland Ceram,” Tijdschrift v. Neêrlands Indië, v. dl. ii. (1843) 25-38; Van Ekris, “HetCeramsche Kakianverbond,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederland. Zendelinggenootschap, (1865) ix. 205-226 (repeated with slight changes in Tijdschrift v. Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xvi. 1866, pp. 290-315); F. Fournier, “De Zuidkust van Ceram,” Tijdschrift v. Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xvi. 154 sqq.; Van Rees, Die Pionniers der Beschaving in Neêrlands Indië, pp. 92-106; Van Hoëvell, Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers, p. 153 sqq.; Schulze, “Ueber Ceram und seine Bewohner,” Verhandl. d. Berliner Gesell. f. Anthropologie, etc. (1877) p. 117; W. Joest, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Eingebornen der Insel Formosa und Ceram,” id. (1882), p. 64; Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, p. 318; Bastian, Indonesien, i. 145-148; Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, pp. 107-111. The best accounts are those of Valentyn, Von Schmid, Van Ekris, Van Rees, and Riedel, which are accordingly followed in the text.

919.

Laws of Manu, ii. 169, trans. by Bühler; Dubois, Moeurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l'Inde, i. 125; Monier Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, pp. 360 sq. 366 sq.

920.

Lampridius, Commodus, 9; C. W. King, The Gnostics and their Remains,2 pp. 127, 129.

921.

Above, p. 309.

922.

Above, p. 312 sq.

923.

Above, p. 308 sq.

924.

Above, p. 324 sq. In the myth the throwing of the weapons and of the mistletoe at Balder and the blindness of Hödur who slew him remind us of the custom of the Irish reapers who kill the corn-spirit in the last sheaf by throwing their sickles blindfold at it. (See above, vol. i. p. 339). In Mecklenburg a cock is sometimes buried in the ground and a man who is blindfolded strikes at it with a flail. If he misses it, another tries, and so on till the cock is killed. Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg, ii. 280. In England on Shrove Tuesday a hen used to be tied upon a man's back, and other men blindfolded struck at it with branches till they killed it. Dyer, British Popular Customs, p. 68. Mannhardt (Die Korndämonen, p. 16 sq.) has made it probable that such sports are directly derived from the custom of killing a cock upon the harvest-field as a representative of the corn-spirit (see above, p. 9). These customs, therefore, combined with the blindness of Hödur in the myth suggest that the man who killed the human representative of the oak-spirit was blindfolded, and threw his weapon or the mistletoe from a little distance. After the Lapps had killed a bear—which was the occasion of many superstitious ceremonies—the bear's skin was hung on a post, and the women, blindfolded, shot arrows at it. Scheffer, Lapponia, p. 240.

925.

Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 1001, 1010.

926.

Folk-lore Journal, vii. 61.

927.

Col. E. T. Dalton, “The Kols of Chota-Nagpore,” Trans. Ethnol. Soc. vi. 36.

928.

Jens Kamp, Danske Folkeminder (Odense, 1877), pp. 172, 65 sq. referred to in Feilberg's Bidrag til en Ordbog over Jyske Almuesmål, Fjerde hefte (Copenhagen, 1888), p. 320. For a sight of Feilberg's work I am indebted to the kindness of the Rev. Walter Gregor, M.A., Pitsligo, who pointed out the passage to me.

929.

E. T. Kristensen, Iydske Folkeminder, vi. 380, referred to by Feilberg, l.c.

930.

Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2 § 128; L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 269.

931.

Extract from a newspaper, copied and sent to me by the Rev. Walter Gregor, M.A., Pitsligo. Mr. Gregor does not mention the name of the newspaper.

932.

Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, iii. 661

933.

Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch, i. 9.

934.

Virgil, Aen. vi. 203 sqq., cp. 136 sqq. On the mistletoe (viscum) see Pliny, Nat. Hist. xvi. 245 sqq.

935.

Virgil (Aen. vi. 201 sqq.) places the Golden Bough in the neighbourhood of Lake Avernus. But this was probably a poetical liberty, adopted for the convenience of Aeneas's descent to the infernal world. Italian tradition, as we learn from Servius, placed the Golden Bough in the grove at Nemi.

936.

See above, vol. i. p. 4 sq.

937.

A custom of annually burning a human representative of the corn-spirit has been noted among the Egyptians, Pawnees, and Khonds. See above, vol. i. pp. 382, 387, 401 sq. In Semitic lands there are traces of a practice of annually burning a human god. For the image of Hercules (that is, of Baal) which was periodically burned on a pyre at Tarsus, must have been a substitute for a human representative of the god. See Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 33, vol. ii. p. 16, ed. Dindorf; W. R. Smith, The Religion of the Semites, i. 353 sq. The Druids seem to have eaten portions of the human victim. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxx. § 13. Perhaps portions of the flesh of the King of the Wood were eaten by his worshippers as a sacrament. We have seen traces of the use of sacramental bread at Nemi. See above, p. 82 sq.

938.

Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, ii. 1009, pren puraur.

939.

Virgil, Aen. vi. 137 sq.

940.

Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, § 673.

941.

Grohmann, op. cit. § 676; Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube, § 123.

942.

Zingerle, Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes,2 § 882.

943.

Zingerle, op. cit. § 1573.

944.

Grohmann, op. cit. § 675; Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 98.

945.

L. Bechstein, Deutsches Sagenbuch No. 500; id., Thüringer Sagenbuch (Leipzig, 1885), ii. No. 161.

946.

For gathering it at midsummer, see above, p. 289. The custom of gathering it at Christmas still survives among ourselves. At York “on the eve of Christmas Day they carry mistletoe to the high altar of the cathedral, and proclaim a public and universal liberty, pardon, and freedom to all sorts of inferior and even wicked people at the gates of the city, towards the four quarters of heaven.” Stukeley, Medallic History of Carausius, quoted by Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 525. This last custom is of course now obsolete.

947.

Afzelius, Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und neuerer Zeit, i. 41 sq.; Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 iii. 289; L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 266 sq.

948.

Above, p. 293.

949.

Fern-seed is supposed to bloom at Easter as well as at midsummer and Christmas (Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 98 sq.); and Easter, as we have seen, is one of the times when sun-fires are kindled.

950.

Burne and Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 242.

951.

P. 288.

952.

The reason why Virgil represents Aeneas as taking the mistletoe with him to Hades is perhaps that the mistletoe was supposed to repel evil spirits (see above, p. 362). Hence when Charon is disposed to bluster at Aeneas, the sight of the Golden Bough quiets him (Aen. vi. 406 sq.) Perhaps also the power ascribed to the mistletoe of laying bare the secrets of the earth may have suggested its use as a kind of “open Sesame” to the lower world. Compare Aen. vi. 140 sq.—

“Sed non ante datur telluris operta subire,
Auricomos quam qui decerpserit arbore fetus.”

953.

Die Edda, übersetzt von K. Simrock,8 p. 264.

954.

On the derivation of the names Zeus and Jove from a root meaning “shining,” “bright,” see Curtius, Griech. Etymologie,5 p. 236; Vanič, Griech.-Latein. Etymolog. Wörterbuch, p. 353 sqq. On the relation of Jove to the oak, compare Pliny, Nat. Hist. xii. § 3, arborum genera numinibus suis dicata perpetuo servantur, ut Jovi aesculus; Servius on Virgil, Georg. iii. 332, omnis quercus Jovi est consecrata. Zeus and Jupiter have commonly been regarded as sky gods, because their names are etymologically connected with the Sanscrit word for sky. The reason seems insufficient.

955.

Casalis, The Basutos, p. 251 sq.

956.

Ib. p. 252.

957.

Casalis, The Basutos, p. 252 sq.

958.

A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast, p. 229 sq.; T. E. Bowdich, Mission to Ashantee, p. 226 sq. (ed. 1873.)

959.

J. Cameron, “On the Early Inhabitants of Madagascar,” Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, iii. 263.

960.

Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, ii. 105.

961.

Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 91.

962.

Dalton, op. cit. p. 198.

963.

Thomas Shaw, “The Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,” Asiatic Researches, iv. 56 sq.

964.

Panjab Notes and Queries, i. No. 502.

965.

This is curiously unlike the custom of ancient Italy, in most parts of which women were forbidden by law to walk on the highroads twirling a spindle, because this was supposed to injure the crops. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. § 28.

966.

D. C. J. Ibbetson, Outlines of Panjab Ethnography (Calcutta, 1883), p. 119.

967.

Fr. Junghuhn, Die Battaländer auf Sumatra, ii. 312.

968.

Spenser St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East, i. 191. On taboos observed at agricultural operations, see id. i. 185; R. G. Woodthorpe, “Wild Tribes Inhabiting the so-called Naga Hills,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xi. 71; Old New Zealand, by a Pakeha Maori (London, 1884), p. 103 sq.; R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its Inhabitants,2 p. 165 sq.; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xix. 110.

969.

B. F. Matthes, Beknopt Verslag mijner reizen in de Binnenlanden van Celebes, in de jaren 1857 en 1861, p. 5.

970.

N. Graafland, De Minahassa, i. 165.

971.

J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 107.

972.

Riedel, op. cit. pp. 281, 296 sq.

973.

Fr. Valentyn, Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën, iii. 10.

974.

C. Semper, Die Philippinen und ihre Bewohner, p. 56.

975.

Rev. Lorimer Fison, “The Nanga, or sacred stone enclosure, of Wainimala, Fiji,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xiv. 27.

976.

J. E. Erskine, Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific, p. 252.

977.

Turner, Samoa, p. 318 sq.

978.

Horatio Hale, United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnology and Philology, p. 97.

979.

The malái is “a piece of ground, generally before a large house, or chief's grave, where public ceremonies are principally held.” Mariner, Tonga Islands, Vocabulary.

980.

The mataboole is “a rank next below chiefs or nobles.” Ib.

981.

W. Mariner, Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands (London, 1818), ii. 196-203.

982.

Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, ii. 133.

983.

Turner, Samoa, p. 70 sq.

984.

Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. 350.

985.

Tyerman and Bennet, Journal of Voyages and Travels, i. 284.

986.

Geiseler, Die Oester-Insel (Berlin, 1883), p. 31.

987.

E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xix. 110.

988.

Hartknoch, Alt und neues Preussen, p. 161; id., Dissertationes historicae de variis rebus Prussicis, p. 163 (appended to his edition of Dusburg's Chronicon Prussiae). Cp. W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 27.

989.

Festus, s.v. sacrima, p. 319, ed. Müller; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xviii. § 8.

990.

Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 130-136 (Michel Lévy, Paris, 1870). Chateaubriand's description is probably based on earlier accounts, which I have been unable to trace. Compare, however, Le Petit, “Relation des Natchez,” in Recueil de voiages au Nord, ix. 13 sq. (Amsterdam edition); De Tonti, “Relation de la Louisiane et du Mississippi,” ib. v. 122; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vi. 183; Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, vii. 18 sq.

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Table of Contents

- Contents

- Chapter III—(continued).

- § 10.—The corn-spirit as an animal.

- § 11.—Eating the god.

- § 12.—Killing the divine animal.

- § 13.—Transference of evil.

- § 14.—Expulsion of evils,

- § 15.—Scapegoats.

- § 16.—Killing the god in Mexico.

- Chapter IV—The Golden Bough.

- § 1.—Between heaven and earth.

- § 2.—Balder.

- § 3.—The external soul in folk-tales.

- § 4.—The external soul in folk-custom.

- § 5.—Conclusion.

- Note. Offerings of first-fruits.

- Index.

- Footnotes

- THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG™ LICENSE