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Title: English grammar

Author: Lillian Kimball Stewart

Release date: August 30, 2025 [eBook #76768]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: American Book Company, 1912

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/76768

Credits: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH GRAMMAR ***

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

BY

LILLIAN G. KIMBALL

FORMERLY HEAD OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL

SCHOOL, OSHKOSH, WISCONSIN

AUTHOR OF “THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE”

“ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, BOOK ONE,” AND

“ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, BOOK TWO”

NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY.

ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL, LONDON.

KIMBALL’S ENG. GRAMMAR.

PREFACE

The purpose of this book is to set forth in a simple and practical manner the principles of modern English Grammar. The aim has been not only to give the pupils an insight into the structure of the English sentence, but also to provide them with exercises helpful to the formation of good habits of speech.

It is a matter of common knowledge among teachers of grammar that a mere understanding of the rules of syntax does not insure the avoidance of errors and the use of correct forms. The use of language by young persons is instinctive and spontaneous rather than reflective, hence the most effective way for them to secure correctness of speech is through imitation and practice. Recognizing this fundamental fact in language teaching, the author has provided many exercises both for the learning of correct forms and for practice in their use. These the teacher is expected to supplement by constant criticism, example, and stimulus.

After the pupil has been led to appreciate and strive for correctness of speech, he naturally wishes to understand why a certain form is correct or incorrect, to have a test for his own speech and a standard by which to judge the speech of others. Only by such an understanding does he gain a mastery of the form of a language so that he can use it with ease, freedom, and certainty. To promote such a mastery of English, the author has made each construction perfectly clear, and has led the pupil through accurate reasoning to conclusions which are strengthened and established by their application to many illustrative sentences chosen from standard literature.

The selection and the arrangement of subject matter have been carefully considered in the light of experience in the classroom. The arrangement is at the same time pedagogical and logical. Each point is taken up where it is called for by the preceding lesson and where it will be of greatest use in making clear what follows. Technical points that have little or no practical value have been omitted, but whatever is of benefit in helping the pupil to use or to interpret the English language has been included.

Thanks are due to many teachers for helpful criticisms of the manuscript of this book.

CONTENTS

LESSON

PAGE

I.

Declarative Sentences. Subject and Predicate

9

II.

Simple Subject. Nouns

11

III.

Classification of Nouns

13

IV.

Verbs

15

V.

Pronouns

18

VI.

Compound Subject and Compound Predicate

19

VII.

Transposed Subject and Predicate

22

VIII.

Interrogative Sentences

23

IX.

Adjectives

25

X.

Adverbs

28

XI.

Phrases. Analysis of Sentences

31

XII.

Prepositions

34

XIII.

Term of Address. Exclamatory Noun

39

XIV.

Imperative Sentences

41

XV.

Interjections

43

XVI.

Exclamatory Sentences

44

XVII.

Conjunctions

46

XVIII.

Clauses. Simple Sentences

48

XIX.

Compound Sentences

50

XX.

Dependent Clauses. Complex Sentences

52

XXI.

Review: Classification of Sentences

55

XXII.

Review: Parts of Speech

57

XXIII.

Transitive Verbs. Object of Verb

60

XXIV.

Intransitive Verbs asserting Action

64

XXV.

Intransitive Verbs asserting Being. Nouns as Subjective Complements

66

XXVI.

Adjectives as Subjective Complements

69

XXVII.

Review of Verbs

72

XXVIII.

Nouns: Number

74

XXIX.

Nouns: Gender

77

XXX.

Possessive Nouns

80

XXXI.

Nouns: Case

83

XXXII.

Nouns: The Appositive

85

XXXIII.

Appositive Adjectives

88

XXXIV.

Indirect Object

89

XXXV.

Adverbial Noun Phrases

91

XXXVI.

Adverbial Noun Phrases

92

XXXVII.

Objective Complement

94

XXXVIII.

Parsing of Nouns

96

XXXIX.

Personal Pronouns

98

XL.

Uses of Personal Pronouns

100

XLI.

Uses of Possessive Personal Pronouns

103

XLII.

Compound Personal Pronouns

106

XLIII.

Interrogative Pronouns

108

XLIV.

Descriptive Adjectives

110

XLV.

Limiting Adjectives

113

XLVI.

Comparison of Adjectives

116

XLVII.

Review of Adjectives

120

XLVIII.

Adjective Pronouns

121

XLIX.

Verbs: Tense

123

L.

The Indicative Mode

127

LI.

The Interrogative Form of the Indicative Mode

129

LII.

The Subjunctive Mode

131

LIII.

The Imperative Mode

134

LIV.

Principal Parts of Verbs. Regular and Irregular Verbs

135

LV.

Voice

140

LVI.

The Passive Voice

144

LVII.

The Progressive Conjugation

148

LVIII.

The Emphatic Conjugation

149

LIX.

Parsing of Verbs

150

LX.

The Auxiliary Verbs Shall and Will

151

LXI.

Defective Verbs. Verb Phrases

154

LXII.

Direct and Indirect Discourse

162

LXIII.

Agreement of Verb and Subject. Collective Nouns

165

LXIV.

Review of Verbs

168

LXV.

Classification of Adverbs. Simple Adverbs

169

LXVI.

Conjunctive Adverbs

171

LXVII.

Summary of Adverbs

173

LXVIII.

Coördinate Conjunctions

174

LXIX.

Subordinate Conjunctions

176

LXX.

Adverbial Clauses of Time, Place, and Manner

180

LXXI.

Adverbial Clauses of Cause, Purpose, and Result

183

LXXII.

Adverbial Clauses of Condition and Concession

186

LXXIII.

Adverbial Clauses of Comparison

188

LXXIV.

Analysis of Sentences

191

LXXV.

Adjective Clauses

193

LXXVI.

Relative Pronouns

196

LXXVII.

Noun Clauses

200

LXXVIII.

Introductory Words of Noun Clauses

203

LXXIX.

Review of Clauses

206

LXXX.

Review of Pronouns

207

LXXXI.

Infinitives

209

LXXXII.

Infinitives as Subjects or Complements

212

LXXXIII.

Infinitives as Modifiers of Nouns

215

LXXXIV.

Infinitives as Parts of “Double Objects.” As Modifiers of Verbs

216

LXXXV.

Other Uses of Infinitives

220

LXXXVI.

Summary of Infinitives

224

LXXXVII.

Analysis of Sentences containing Infinitive Phrases

225

LXXXVIII.

Participles

228

LXXXIX.

Participles modifying Nouns

231

XC.

Participial Phrases in the Predicate

234

XCI.

Absolute Participial Phrases

237

XCII.

Agreement of Participles. Other Words in -ing

239

XCIII.

Summary of Participles

243

XCIV.

Analysis of Sentences

244

XCV.

Anticipative Subject

247

XCVI.

Elliptical Sentences

249

XCVII.

Review of Analysis

252

General Review

257

Index

265

I. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

1. The purpose of English Grammar is to set forth the laws and customs governing the use of the English language. We study grammar in order that we may express our thoughts correctly.

A group of words, sometimes few, sometimes many, that completely expresses a thought is called a sentence. In speech one sentence is set off from another by a slight pause. On the written or printed page sentences are separated from each other by a slight space, while the first word of every sentence begins with a capital letter, and the last word is followed by some sort of terminal mark.

Most sentences are made to state, or declare, something, and hence are called declarative sentences. The following are declarative sentences:—

Molly danced up and down with delight.

My grandfather’s desk had the best light in the room.

2. Declarative sentences consist of two distinct parts. One part names the person, place, or thing which the sentence tells something about. This part is called the subject. The other part is the telling part. It is called the predicate.

In the first example Molly is the subject, because it names the person about whom something is told. Danced up and down with delight is the predicate, because it tells something about Molly.

What is the subject in the second example? the predicate? How do you know? What terminal mark follows a declarative sentence?

Summary.—A sentence is a group of words that completely expresses a thought.

A declarative sentence is one that states, or declares, something.

A declarative sentence is always followed by a period.

The subject of a sentence is the part which names that about which something is said.

The predicate of a sentence is the part which says something about the subject.

Exercise 1.—Tell why each of the following sentences is declarative. Select the subject, and tell why it is the subject. Select the predicate, and tell why it is the predicate. Tell all this in good language. Write it about one of the sentences, and be sure to underline the words that should be printed in italics. (See § 2.) Remember that all the words in the sentence belong either in the subject or in the predicate.

1. The village street was as quiet as the fields.

2. The great crashes of deep bass notes sent little thrills down our backs.

3. The cat could not find anything to eat except a thin, dried-up old mole.

4. Little gray-eyed Caroline went to live with her Aunt Fogg.

5. The traveler, being quite faint for lack of food, helped himself to the leg of a roast chicken.

6. Four is the right number for a pie.

7. A young girl of wonderful beauty lay asleep on the bed.

8. Mary shut the parlor door with a great slam.

9. Beauty, full of surprise but very happy, permitted the prince to lead her to his palace.

10. The magic song still rose from the vines outside the chamber window.

11. We cats are confined entirely to the society of each other.

12. The glassy water was sparkling with stars.

13. Locusts devoured the green things of the valley.

14. Not a living soul was to be seen.

15. My little half-starved cat grew white and plump and pretty.

Exercise 2.—Find five interesting declarative sentences in a story book. Write them with the subject underlined.

Exercise 3.—Write a fitting predicate for each of the following subjects:—

1. A boy with a fish pole

2. Abraham Lincoln

3. My last dime

4. The man on the ice wagon

5. Our old white rooster

6. Not a girl in the class

7. The battered old musket

8. The haymakers

9. The miner’s cabin

10. Moving picture shows

II. SIMPLE SUBJECT. NOUNS

3. It is evident from the sentences in Exercise 1, p. 10, that the subject of a sentence may consist of one word or of a group of words. In the sentence, “Peter was sitting by himself,” the subject is only the one word Peter. In the sentence, “A lovely old lady with white hair and a gentle, noble face came to the door,” the subject is a group of twelve words. What are they?

When the subject of a sentence is a group of words, there is always a base word in the group, which, more than any other word, names or designates the person, place, or thing about which something is said. This word is called the simple subject.

What is the simple subject in the sentence that tells who came to the door? What are the simple subjects in sentences 1, 2, 5, 7, 12, 14, and 15 in Exercise 1, p. 10?

4. Every word in a sentence is used for a particular purpose. Because words are used for different purposes they have been divided into classes called parts of speech.

In the sentences just studied the words Peter and lady are used to name certain persons. Name words are called nouns. A noun is a part of speech.

5. Not every noun is the name of a person. Many are names of places; as, Oshkosh, pasture, corner. Many more are names of things of all sorts; as, peach, violet, bee, thimble, automobile.

In the sentence about the lovely old lady, find three nouns that are names of things.

Any noun may be used as the simple subject of a sentence. Write sentences in which the nouns hair, face, and door are so used.

Summary.—The simple subject of a sentence is the base word, or most important word, of the subject.

Parts of speech are the classes into which words are divided according to their use.

A noun is a name word.

A noun may be used as the simple subject of a sentence.

Exercise.—Write a list of all the nouns you can find in the following paragraphs. Tell what each noun is the name of. Point out five nouns that are simple subjects. What are their predicates?

1. At last Purun Dass went to England on a visit, and had to pay enormous sums to the priests when he came back to India; for even so high-caste a Brahmin as he lost caste by crossing the black sea. In London he met and talked with every one worth knowing—men whose names go all over the world—and saw a great deal more than he said. He was given honorary degrees by learned universities, and he made speeches and talked of Hindu social reform to English ladies in evening dress, till all London cried, “This is the most fascinating man we have ever met at dinner since cloths were first laid.”

2. Her godmother laughed, and touched Cinderella also with the wand; at which her wretched, threadbare jacket became stiff with gold, and sparkling with jewels; her woolen petticoat lengthened into a gown of sweeping satin, from underneath which peeped out her little feet, no longer bare, but covered with silk stockings and the prettiest glass slippers in the world. “Now, Cinderella, depart; but remember, if you stay one instant after midnight, your carriage will become a pumpkin, your coachman a rat, your horses mice, and your footmen lizards; while you yourself will be the little cinder wench you were an hour ago.”

III. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS

6. There are certain beings in the world that are called men, and certain other beings that are called horses, certain things that are called cities, and certain other things that are called rivers, hence the words man, horse, city, and river are names, or nouns. Since these nouns belong in common to a great many individuals, we call them common nouns.

7. On the other hand, every man, every horse, every city, and every river is likely to have a special name that distinguishes that particular man or horse or city or river from all others. Cæsar, Gypsy, Denver, and Penobscot are such names. Since these names belong to only one thing instead of to a class of things, we call them proper nouns.

8. A common noun is a name that belongs to a person, a place, or a thing because of its nature or qualities. A boat is entitled to the name boat because it has the characteristics of boats. A proper noun is a name conferred or given by some person, as when a certain boat was named by its owners Westernland.

It sometimes happens that the same name is conferred upon several objects. There is more than one city named Madison, more than one dog named Shep. Still these names are proper names, because they are names conferred upon a special city and a special dog to distinguish them from other cities and other dogs.

A proper noun always begins with a capital letter.

9. When a word denoting relationship, like father, mother, uncle, is used as the name of a particular person, it is a proper noun and should therefore begin with a capital letter; as, “Did Father say that Grandma and Auntie are coming?”

10. A title like Colonel, Judge, Duke, is a proper noun when it is used to denote a special person; as, “Thousands had gathered to welcome the Colonel home.” When such a word is the name of a class of persons, it is a common noun; as, “A new uniform was designed for the colonels.”

When a title is followed by another name, as, Colonel Bouck, Judge Gary, the two words are considered as one proper noun. In the same way, any group of two or more words forming one special name may be considered as one proper noun; as, Liberty Bell, Bay of Biscay, Mountains of the Moon. In such groups of words, each important word begins with a capital letter.

NOTE.—Names of qualities, conditions, or actions are often called abstract nouns; as, honesty, power, boyhood, the passing of the train, sound thinking, suspense.

Summary.—A common noun is a noun that belongs in common to each one of a class of persons, places, or things.

A proper noun is a name that has been conferred upon a particular person, place, or thing.

Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter.

Exercise.—Select all the nouns in the following sentences, and tell whether they are common or proper nouns. Give your reason in each case. Account for the capitalization.

1. The Bermudas are a cluster of small islands, lying as far south as Charleston, as far east as Nova Scotia.

2. Hotel Hamilton is a large, commodious building with many pillars and broad verandas.

3. The Tenedos is lying off Grassy Bay, making herself fine to receive the Princess Louise, and her jolly tars are in high spirits.

4. On the Sunday of the christening, Mrs. Howe and her children watched the merrymaking in Poverty Lane from a second story window.

5. Where was Prospero’s cell? Where slept the fair Miranda? Upon what bank sat Ferdinand when Ariel sang?

6. The Duluth High School is a fine structure built of red sandstone.

7. The Deliverance was a ship of eighty tons.

8. Old Lobo, or the King, as the Mexicans called him, was the gigantic leader of a remarkable pack of gray wolves, that had ravaged the Currumpaw Valley for a number of years.

9. About this time I met with an odd volume of the Spectator.

10.

Wynken, Blynken, and Nod one night

Sailed off in a wooden shoe.

11. Let us all go to the station Monday to meet Uncle.

12.

The cows were coming one by one;

Brindle, Ebony, Speckle, and Bess,

Shaking their horns in the evening wind.

13. Gunpowder had been a favorite steed of his master’s, the choleric Van Ripper, who was a furious rider.

14. Upstream, at the bend of the sluggish pool round the Peace Rock, stood Hathi, the wild elephant, with his sons, gaunt and gray in the moonlight.

15. In his eighth year Charles Lamb entered Christ’s Hospital, a famous school in London.

It is evident from this exercise that several different sorts of things, as hotels, streets, books, and ships, may have special names conferred upon them. Think of ten other things that may have special names, and write two names for each one.

IV. VERBS

11. Just as the subject of a sentence may consist of only one word, so may the predicate. Hence it is that a declarative sentence may contain only two words, one being the subject and the other the predicate; as in the sentence, “Water runs.” Here the noun water names the thing about which something is told, and the word runs tells something about water.

12. In every predicate, no matter how long it is, there is always one word, or a little group of words, which does more of the telling than all the rest of the predicate. In fact, without this word or group of words, there would be no statement at all. In the sentence, “A red sash with fringes of gold wraps his waist several times,” the predicate consists of five words, but the one word that counts for most in making the statement is the word wraps. This word is called a verb. A verb is a part of speech.

A verb, being the essential part of a predicate, is called the simple predicate.

13. Sometimes a verb consists of two, or three, or even four words. What is the verb in each of the following sentences?—

All the cherries had been picked from the trees near the house.

The watchman on the roof was listening for the first sounds of day.

A tall, dark figure might have been seen at the end of the avenue.

14. When the verb in a given sentence has been found, the subject may be discovered by asking the question formed by placing the word who or what before the verb. For example, in the sentence, “The parrot’s story, with the various pauses and interruptions, occupied a good deal of time,” occupied is the verb because it is the telling word. Asking the question what occupied? we get the answer, the parrot’s story, with the various pauses and interruptions, hence this group of words is the subject. What is the simple subject?

15. In grammar we often use the word assertion instead of statement, and the word assert instead of make a statement.

Summary.—A verb is an asserting word.

A verb may consist of one word, two, three, or four words, but never of more than four words.

A verb is the necessary part of every predicate, hence it is called the simple predicate.

To find the subject of a verb, ask the question made by using the word who or what before the verb.

Exercise.—Divide the following sentences into subject and predicate. Select the predicate verb, and tell why it is a verb. Find the simple subject of each sentence. Tell what part of speech it is, and why.

1. The procession moved from the palace to the church with great pomp.

2. The blue eyes of the Greek sparkled.

3. The magnificent buildings of the hospital stand on level land near the river.

4. The gentle young bride was frightened by the silent, mysterious ways of the old Indian.

5.

The poorest twig on the elm tree

Was ridged inch deep with pearl.

6. The great hall of the palace was illuminated with a thousand lamps.

7. His anvil makes no music on Sunday.

8. The raccoon’s story was received with general approbation.

9. This old hunter must have told many tales.

10. Our conference under the peepul tree had been growing noisier and noisier.

11. One great name can make a country great.

12. The camels slept.

13. No European could have made five miles a day over the ice rubbish and the sharp-edged drifts.

14. The cows should have been milked before sundown.

15.

The deep waters of the bay

Stir with the breath of hurrying day.

16. Wully could not have imagined any greater being than his master.

17. Everything out of doors was sheathed in silver mail.

18. The duck mother would have liked the eel’s head herself.

In sentence 18 is herself in the subject or in the predicate?

V. PRONOUNS

16. When a person makes an assertion about himself he uses for the subject of his sentence, not his name, but the word I instead. Will Dunlap does not say, “Will Dunlap saw a flock of wild geese this morning, and heard them too.” He says, “I saw a flock of wild geese this morning, and heard them too.” The word I, which is used instead of a name, or noun, is called a pronoun. A pronoun is a part of speech.

What pronoun besides I do you find in the sentence quoted? For what noun is it used?

17. Pronouns are used a good deal, especially in conversation, for often instead of using the name of the person we are speaking to, we use the pronoun you; and in speaking of persons, we use, provided their names are already known to our listeners, the pronouns he, she, or they.

Summary.—A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.

A pronoun can be the subject of a sentence.

By the use of pronouns we avoid the repetition of nouns and the use of clumsy expressions.

Exercise.—In the following conversation select all the pronouns. Rewrite a portion of the conversation, using the nouns that the pronouns stand for. In changing pronouns to nouns it is sometimes necessary to make a change in the verb also. After using nouns for pronouns, tell what you think about the usefulness of pronouns.

“What do you think, Tirzah? I am going away.”

Tirzah dropped her hands with amazement.

“Going away! When? Where? For what?”

Judah laughed, then said, “Three questions, all in a breath. What a body you are!” Next instant he became serious. “You know the law requires me to follow some occupation. Our good father set me an example. Even you would despise me if I spent in idleness the results of his industry and knowledge. I am going to Rome.”

“Oh, I will go with you.”

“You must stay with Mother. If both of us leave her, she will die.”

The brightness faded from her face.

“Ah, yes, yes! But—must you go? Here in Jerusalem you can learn all that is needed to be a merchant—if that is what you are thinking of.”

“But that is not what I am thinking of. The law does not require the son to be what the father was.”

“What else can you be?”

“A soldier,” he replied, with a certain pride of voice.

Tears came into her eyes.

“You will be killed.”

“If God’s will, be it so. But, Tirzah, the soldiers are not all killed.”

She threw her arms around his neck, as if to hold him back.

“We are so happy! Stay at home, my brother.”

“Home cannot always be what it is. You yourself will be going away before long.”

“Never!”

He smiled at her earnestness.

“A prince will come soon and claim my Tirzah, and ride away with her, to be the light of another house.”

She answered with sobs.

“War is a trade,” he continued, more soberly. “To learn it thoroughly, one must go to school, and there is no school like a Roman camp.”

—LEW WALLACE.

VI. COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE

18. It frequently happens that a person performs several actions at the same time, and that all of them are worth telling. In such a case we do not make several separate sentences, but one sentence with several predicates; as, “I looked at my plate and winked back the tears.” Here we have two predicate verbs, looked and winked, hence two assertions. In such a sentence we say that there is a compound predicate.

19. The compound predicate is used also when we tell of a number of actions performed in succession by one subject; as, “Father Wolf woke up from his day’s rest, scratched himself, yawned, and spread out his paws one after the other to get rid of the sleepy feeling in the tips.” How many predicates are there in this sentence? What mark separates them? Two or more predicates in succession, having the same subject, form what is called a series. Words or groups of words in a series are separated from each other by the comma unless some joining word is used; but when only the last two of a series are joined by some word, the comma is used before this word.

20. We frequently wish to make the same assertion about several persons or things, but we do not make several sentences, repeating the predicate each time, for that would be tedious. Instead, we make one sentence with several subjects; as, “The fresh fruit and milk and the slices of cold chicken looked very nice.” This sentence has three distinct subjects. What are they? In such a sentence we say that there is a compound subject. Why is no comma used in this sentence?

Summary.—A compound subject is one that consists of two or more distinct subjects united into one.

A compound predicate is one that consists of two or more distinct predicates united into one.

Two parts of a compound predicate are separated from each other by a comma unless they are very short. When there are more than two parts, and the last two are joined by some such word as and, a comma is placed after each part, even before the joining word.

When a compound subject consists of more than two parts, a comma is placed after each part, unless all the parts are joined by some word.

Any sentence may have a compound subject, or a compound predicate, or both.

Exercise.—Tell why the following sentences are declarative. Tell whether each has a compound subject, or a compound predicate, or both. Write each sentence, and draw a vertical line between subject and predicate. Underline the simple subjects, and tell what part of speech they are. Underline also the simple predicates, or predicate verbs. Account for the punctuation.

1. The oars dipped, arose, poised a moment, then dipped again, with winglike action, and in perfect time.

2. The eyes and mouths of the auditors opened wide.

3. This poor child became the scapegoat of the house, and was blamed for everything.

4. The four cane-seated chairs, the walnut table, the haircloth sofa, and the little stand always spoke to me of my childhood days.

5. She took the key bravely, but opened with a trembling hand the door of the little room.

6. Such timber and such workmanship don’t come together often in houses built nowadays.

7. Vast crowds of spectators lined the way, or gazed upon the scene from the housetops.

8. The rider then put his foot upon the camel’s slender neck, and stepped upon the sand.

9. The laborers paused, sat up, wrung the water from their hands, and returned the salutation.

10. The statue of the Indian chief or the soldiers’ monument in the public square was given to the city by one of the pioneers.

11. Spruce bachelors looked sidelong at the pretty maidens, and fancied that the Sabbath sunshine made them prettier than on week days.

12. Grandmothers, mothers, and aunts sat across the end of the hall.

13. He brought a carpet or square rug from the litter, and covered the floor of the tent on the side from the sun.

14. Children with bright faces tripped merrily beside their parents, or mimicked a graver gait in the conscious dignity of their Sunday clothes.

VII. TRANSPOSED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

21. The sentences studied thus far have been arranged so that the subject comes first, then the predicate. This is called the natural order. Sometimes, for the sake of emphasis, we reverse this order, as in the sentence, “In a long shed behind the church stood a score of wagons and chaises and carryalls.” This is called the transposed order.

Sometimes, for the sake of a pleasing arrangement, we put only a portion of the predicate before the subject, as in the sentence, “Over the highest peaks a vulture sailed on broad wings into widening circles.” Here the subject is very short and the predicate very long. The sentence balances better with a portion of the predicate coming first. This also is a case of transposed order.

Summary.—The natural order in a sentence is first the subject and then the predicate.

When the words of a sentence are not in their natural order, we say that the sentence is transposed.

Exercise 1.—Rearrange the following sentences so that they will be in the natural order, then proceed as you did with the sentences in the exercise on p. 21. Tell in each case whether you like the natural or the transposed order better, and why.

1. Around him, within hand’s reach, lie osier boxes full of almonds, grapes, figs, and pomegranates.

2. This challenge Fortunatus accepted.

3. On traveled the lady and the bull through many dreadful forests and lonely wastes.

4. On that first Christmas morning in their own home, the children found their gifts in little piles on two of the parlor chairs.

5. Through the wide nostrils the camel drank the wind in great draughts.

6. Out of the wide hall could be heard in the stillness the old clock.

7. At full speed a genuine Syrian dromedary overtakes the ordinary winds.

8. Very hard Johnny worked on the house.

9. “Come in,” said a warm, comfortable voice on the other side of the door.

10.

Down will come Baby,

Bough, cradle, and all.

11. In the garret meet together all the broken-down chairs of the household, all the spavined tables, all the seedy hats, all the intoxicated-looking boots, all the split walking sticks that have retired from business, “weary with the march of life.”

Account for the commas in sentences 10 and 11.

Exercise 2.—Change the following sentences to the transposed order. Tell why you like them better so.

1. Pussy walked along with a slow and deliberate gait directly behind my sister and me.

2. A red rose, a yellow rose, a woodbine, and a clematis grew up the four walls.

3. The roll of the drum was hushed at the old man’s word and outstretched arm.

4. A mat of long, uncombed hair hangs over his eyes and face, and down his back.

5. The whole carpet came out right on my head.

6. A little rabbit sat on a bank one morning.

7. Daylight and safety were on the other side of that door.

8. The bird flew on and on, up the steep mountain.

9. A very amusing thing in this story comes now.

10. The remains of a great elephant have been found in the curious potholes near Cohoes, New York.

VIII. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

22. Most of the sentences in books are declarative sentences, written to make statements, but in speech we frequently make use of another kind of sentence, one that asks a question; as, “Do you know how to tell a sheep’s age?” This is called an interrogative sentence.

23. The interrogative sentence, “What dwarfs made that armor?” is in the natural order, but this is not the usual order in interrogative sentences. In the sentence, “Do you know how to tell a sheep’s age?” we find first a part of the verb, then the subject, then the other part of the verb and the rest of the predicate. How would this sentence read if it were in the natural order? Would it then be an interrogative sentence?

NOTE.—Since an interrogative sentence does not make a statement, it may seem strange to define the verb in such a sentence as an asserting word, but in making definitions we must think of the fundamental nature and the typical use of what we are defining. The primary office of the verb is to assert, as in declarative sentences; hence, we define the verb as an asserting word, though it may also be used in asking questions.

Summary.—An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question.

An interrogative sentence is usually in the transposed order, and is always followed by a question mark.

Exercise.—Tell whether the following sentences are in the natural or the transposed order. Put into the natural order those which are transposed. Divide each sentence into subject and predicate. Select the simple subject and the predicate verb, or simple predicate.

1. Did you ever hear of a cat’s playing hide and seek?

2. What became of you after the Princess’s death?

3. Will no other diet serve you but poor Jack?

4. Which flower does your mother like best?

5. What harm can a naked frog do us?

6. Will the town crier tell us of an auction, or of a lost pocket-book, or of a show of beautiful wax figures, or of some monstrous beast more horrible than any in the caravan?

7. Why did no smile of welcome brighten upon his face?

8. What did Peterson-Sahib mean by the elephant dance?

9. How many people have ever come to know a wild animal?

10. What important business made you late to dinner?

11. What plant we in this apple tree?

12. What other man would have discovered so many virtues under so mean a dress?

13. What do people fish for in this country?

14.

Does that star-spangled banner yet wave

O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave?

15. Where did you get your eyes so blue?

16. Who will exchange old lamps for new ones?

17. What makes your cheek like a warm, white rose?

IX. ADJECTIVES

24. From the sentence, “The road led us to a gate, and that to a dooryard and a house,” we get a picture, but it is neither definite nor attractive. Contrast it with the picture that we get from this sentence, “The pleasant, elm-shaded road led us to a rustic gate, and that to a green dooryard, and a long, low, brown house.” The difference is caused by the descriptive words in the second sentence. Which words describe the road? the gate? the dooryard? the house?

These descriptive words go with nouns, and describe the object named by the noun. We call them adjectives. An adjective is a part of speech.

Adjectives are said to modify the nouns they go with, and are called modifiers.

25. Most adjectives describe objects by telling size, shape, color, texture, or other qualities. A few adjectives tell number or amount; as, five minutes, much patience. A few merely point out; as, this meadow, next Christmas. The words a, an, and the are adjectives.

26. When several adjectives modify the same noun, they form a series, and are usually separated from each other by commas; as, “A hollow, booming, ominous cry rang out suddenly, and startled the dark edges of the forest.” In such a sentence as this, “Four little old French ladies rose to dance the minuet,” no commas should be used, because the adjectives modify more than the noun ladies. Four modifies little old French ladies; little modifies old French ladies; old modifies French ladies; and French modifies ladies.

27. Sometimes adjectives modify a pronoun instead of a noun, as in the sentence, “Tom missed the word, and I, happy and triumphant, took his place at the head.” How do we know that the adjectives happy and triumphant modify the pronoun I?

Summary.—An adjective is a word used to point out or describe an object and modify a noun or a pronoun.

Adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify but follow the pronouns.

When several adjectives modify a single noun, they are separated by commas.

A modifier is a word or a group of words that goes with another word to affect its meaning.

Exercise 1.—Select all the adjectives in the following sentences, and tell what they modify. Account for the punctuation.

1. On another side stood an old piano, a tinkling, rattling, merrymaking old piano, played by a young lady with a melancholy smile.

2. In the dark valley that ran down to a little river, Father Wolf heard the dry, angry, snarly, singsong whine of a tiger.

3. A small girl, with twinkling eyes and a merry face, got up and made her way to the front.

4. Only loving fingers could have taken those tiny, even stitches.

5. Charles carried water for the circus men, while I, scornful and lazy but envious, sat on the fence and watched him.

6. Mammy Tittleback is a splendid, great tortoise-shell cat.

7. I found myself sinking into some horrible, soft, slimy, sticky substance.

8. Few ships come to Rivermouth now.

9. Cæsar has one of the finest, deepest-toned voices I ever heard.

10. You can speak and smile cheerfully while you are enjoying every comfort of a snug, warm fireside, but you should not expect us, hungry, wet, and cold, to be in the same cheerful mood.

11. Suddenly the church clock tolled a deep, dull, hollow, melancholy “one.”

12. The next best thing to cold potato and cream is cold roast chicken, and occasionally I found a good fat drumstick or a curling neck from whose corrugated bones I nibbled savory morsels.

Exercise 2.—Write sentences using the following words as adjectives. Make your sentences such that they reveal the meaning of the adjectives.

- awkward

- brilliant

- clammy

- false

- glassy

- graceful

- greedy

- huge

- mild

- moist

- pathetic

- shaggy

- slight

- sly

- soggy

Exercise 3.—Write sentences containing the following nouns, each modified by two or more adjectives:—

- cabbage

- carpet

- cloud

- deed

- garden

- grapes

- hand

- hat

- machine

- mill

- pupil

- room

- ship

- story

- teacher

28. In the following sentences, what word describes the statue? the bureau? the lamp? the rings?

A bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin stood in Lafayette Park.

The mahogany bureau contained a desk with many drawers and pigeon holes.

We grew tired of the gorgeousness of our parlor lamp.

Indians of both sexes are fond of bracelets, necklaces, and finger rings.

These four descriptive words are name words, hence by nature they are nouns; but in these sentences they are used as adjectives, and should therefore be called adjectives.

Exercise 4.—Write sentences in which the following nouns are used as adjectives:—

silver, copper, tin, iron, steel.

maple, oak, pine, hickory, cedar.

kitchen, hall, cellar, roof, library.

hand, head, foot, cheek, neck.

Think of ten other nouns that may be used as adjectives.

X. ADVERBS

29. In the sentence, “The donkey ate an armful of green grass,” we are told what action the donkey performed, but we are not told the manner in which he performed the action. Very often manner is worth telling, as in the sentence, “The donkey ate leisurely an armful of green grass.”

Since the word leisurely tells how the donkey ate, it must go with the word ate. We say of it what we said of adjectives, that it modifies the word it goes with. Since it modifies a verb, it is different from any part of speech that we have studied before. We call it an adverb.

30. The great difference between adjectives and adverbs is this, that the adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun, and the adverb usually modifies a verb. Adjectives describe objects, which are named by nouns, and adverbs usually describe actions, which are asserted by verbs.

31. Not all adverbs tell manner. They frequently tell time, place, direction, degree, or other circumstances; as in these sentences:—

Now the cow would be eating in one place, and then she would walk to another.

Here and there a snag lifted its nose out of the water like a shark.

For weeks his ship sailed onward over a lonely ocean.

Mother’s sudden cry frightened me terribly.

32. It was pointed out in Lesson IX that adjectives frequently tell some quality of an object. Sometimes we wish to tell in what degree this quality is possessed, as in the expressions, a very tall man, an exceedingly hot day, too ripe fruit. Here the words very, exceedingly, and too go with the adjectives tall, hot, and ripe to denote degree. Such words are said to modify the adjectives they go with. Words that modify adjectives are also called adverbs.

NOTE.—A group of words like very tall and exceedingly hot may be called an adjective element. Its base word is an adjective, modified by an adverb. It is the whole element, or group of words, that modifies the noun.

Adverbs of degree may modify adverbs as well as adjectives, as in the sentences, “The fox ran very swiftly,” “You speak too rapidly.”

Summary.—An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Adverbs usually tell time, place, manner, direction, or degree.

Unless a sentence is transposed, the adverb should be as near as possible to the word it modifies.

Adverbs in a series are separated from each other by commas.

Exercise 1.—Select all the adverbs in the following sentences. Tell what each adverb modifies, and what it denotes.

1. People with lanterns rushed hither and thither.

2. The island is separated from the mainland by a scarcely perceptible creek.

3.

And so the teacher turned him out,

And still he lingered near,

And waited patiently about

Till Mary did appear.

4. Faintly, in gentle whiffs, the lilies on the low marble shelf threw off their delicate fragrance.

5. Quackalina was sitting happily among the reeds with her dear ones under her wings, while Sir Sooty waddled proudly around her.

6. In youth the tulip tree has a trunk peculiarly smooth.

7. On one occasion Gypsy put in her head, and lapped up six custard pies that had been placed by the casement to cool.

8. No wild animals were ever trained by the ancients.

9. The paper was passed skillfully from desk to desk until it finally reached my hands.

10. Messua’s husband had some remarkably fine buffaloes that worried him exceedingly.

11. The charcoal burners went off very valiantly in single file.

12. Sometimes my head almost aches with the variety of my knowledge.

13. Knots of gossips lingered here and there near the place.

14. This talk amused me greatly, but it went in at one ear and out at the other.

15. My father invested his money so securely in the banking business that he was never able to get any of it out again.

16. Yonder I shall sit down and get knowledge.

17. Then he would crawl forward inch by inch, and wait till the seal came up to breathe.

18. No one can work well without sleep.

19. This jackal was peculiarly low, a cleaner-up of village rubbish heaps, desperately timid, or wildly bold, everlastingly hungry, and full of cunning that never did him any good.

20. The Black Panther raised his head and yawned—elaborately, carefully, and ostentatiously.

Account for the commas in the last sentence.

Exercise 2.—Write sentences containing adverbs of manner modifying the following verbs:—

- comes

- goes

- plays

- reads

- sings

- skates

- speaks

- studies

- walks

- works

Exercise 3.—Write sentences containing the following adverbs:—

upward, downward, forward, backward, headlong, north, southward.

everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, anywhere.

seldom, often, always, sometimes, forever.

perfectly, unusually, unspeakably, positively, miserably.

Use the last five adverbs to modify adjectives or adverbs. What will they denote when so used?

Exercise 4.—Form adverbs from the following adjectives:—

- careless

- dreary

- firm

- gentle

- hasty

- noble

- painful

- sharp

- slow

- wide

What part of speech are the words chilly, deadly, holy, kindly, lively, lovely? Use them in sentences to find out.

XI. PHRASES. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

33. We cannot always describe or point out objects as fully as we wish by means of adjectives, and so we use another sort of modifier, which is not a single word, but a group of words. In the sentence, “Broad, flat fields without fences stretch in every direction,” we describe the fields by the two adjectives broad and flat, and by the group of words, without fences. Thus the noun fields has three modifiers, and they are very well placed, two of them coming before the noun, and one of them after it.

In the group of words without fences, the two words are closely related to each other. In fact, neither of them could be in the sentence at all without the other. Such a group of related words is called a phrase. When a phrase modifies a noun, we say it is an adjective phrase.

34. In the same sentence there is another phrase, in every direction, telling where the fields stretch. Since this phrase modifies the verb, it performs the same office as an adverb, and we therefore call it an adverbial phrase.

35. Phrases never consist of fewer than two words, and they may consist of a good many, for it is possible to have one or more phrases within a phrase. In the sentence, “I was born in a stable on the outskirts of a small town in Maine,” the verb was born is modified by a long phrase, in a stable on the outskirts of a small town in Maine. The noun stable in this phrase is modified by the phrase on the outskirts of a small town in Maine. The noun outskirts in this second phrase is modified by the phrase of a small town in Maine. The noun town in this third phrase is modified by the fourth phrase, in Maine.

36. Phrases do not always modify the word they come next to; they modify the word whose meaning they tell something about. In the sentence, “I scrambled through the evergreens to my friend’s little hut just before sunset,” there is no phrase within another phrase, but there are three entirely distinct phrases. What are they?

37. A series of phrases consists of two or more phrases each modifying the same word; as, “Ours is a government of the people, for the people, and by the people.” Phrases in a series are separated from each other by a comma. Why do not the phrases in the sentence in § 35 form a series?

It might seem at first thought that the sentence in § 36 contains a series of three phrases; but it does not, for the phrases do not modify the same word. Through the evergreens modifies scrambled; to my friend’s little hut modifies scrambled through the evergreens. What does the third phrase modify?

In the punctuation of phrases a good deal must be left to the judgment of the writer. That punctuation is best which most clearly reveals the structure and meaning of the sentence.

Summary.—A phrase is a group of related words having neither a subject nor a predicate, and used like a part of speech.

A phrase is often used like an adjective to modify a noun, or like an adverb to modify a verb.

Phrases in a series are separated from each other by a comma.

Exercise.—Select all the phrases in these sentences, and tell what each phrase modifies. Account for the punctuation of the phrases in sentences 2 and 9. Why are commas omitted in sentence 5?

1. I passed a very comfortable night in the carrot bin.

2. The four little rabbits lived with their mother, in a sand bank, underneath the root of a very big fir tree.

3. He went along over hills and mountains, and on the third day came to a wide forest.

4. During those long winter evenings I read six of Scott’s novels aloud to my mother.

5. Mr. Jeremy Fisher lived in a little damp house amongst the buttercups at the edge of a pond.

6. On that evening, before sunset, some women were washing clothes on the upper step of the flight that led down into the basin of the Pool of Siloam.

7. On the fourth day after our arrival came a letter from my mamma.

8. Jelly fishes generally float near the surface of the sea, and are often washed up on the shore by the waves.

9. Where no human hand would have dared to rest, the young lions crawled fearlessly—across the knotty muscles of the back, over the sinewy neck, across the death-dealing paws, even between the frightful jaws.

10. Tom arched his back like a contortionist at a circus.

11. The women of the different provinces in Holland are known by their head dresses.

12. The last words rang out like silver trumpets.

13. A farm without a boy would very soon come to grief.

14. In winter I get up at night.

38. Analyzing a sentence is the process of separating it into its parts, and telling the relation between those parts. In analyzing the sentences in the following exercise proceed according to this outline:—

(1) Tell whether the sentence is declarative or interrogative.

(2) Divide it into subject and predicate.

(3) Select the simple subject and give its modifiers.

(4) Select the simple predicate and give its modifiers.

(5) If a predicate is compound, select the two or more predicate verbs, and then give the modifiers of each.

Tell the exact truth in good, clear English. For example, in analyzing the expression, the four little rabbits, do not say that the, four, and little are adjectives modifying rabbits, but say that rabbits is modified by the adjectives little, four, and the. Why should they be given in this order?

Exercise.—Analyze sentences 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, and 14 in the exercise on p. 33.

XII. PREPOSITIONS

39. In the preceding lesson we considered a phrase as a unit. We shall now examine its structure, and see what parts it is composed of. If we look carefully at these phrases,—

with their mother

to a wide forest

over the sinewy neck

like silver trumpets

we see that the first word is not a noun, a pronoun, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. If we try to put this word anywhere else in the phrase, we see that it must come at the beginning; in short, that it is the introductory word of the phrase. If we had only this introductory word given, the word with, for instance, we should ask at once with what? or with whom? The answer to this second question is their mother, the rest of the phrase.

If we examine the other three phrases in the same way, we shall come to the conclusion that a phrase is made up of two parts: (1) an introductory word, (2) an answer to the question made by putting whom or what after the introductory word. We call the introductory word a preposition, and we say that the rest of the phrase is the object of the preposition. A preposition is a part of speech.

A phrase that consists of a preposition and its object is called a prepositional phrase. Not all phrases are of this kind. We shall study the other kinds later.

40. There are not a great many prepositions in the English language, hardly more than a hundred in all. Most of them are short words, and of very great usefulness. Some of the commonest are: across, after, before, between, by, for, from, in, over, to, through, toward, under, with, without.

41. The object of a preposition may be a single word, as in the phrase without fences, but oftener it is a group of words. The base word of the group is usually a noun. A pronoun also may be the object of a preposition, as in the phrases for me, to him, with us. The object of a preposition may be compound, as in the phrases, over land and sea, by day and night.

42. In Lesson XI, it was pointed out that a phrase modifies a noun or a verb. It does so because the preposition shows a certain relation between its object and the noun or verb that the phrase modifies. In the sentence, “The porters at the German railroad stations are dressed in fine green uniforms,” the preposition at shows a relation of place between the porters and the German railroad stations, and the preposition in shows a relation of manner between the act of dressing and the fine green uniforms.

Summary.—A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and its object.

A preposition is a word that is used with its object to form a phrase, and shows the relation of its object to the word the phrase modifies.

NOTE.—A prepositional phrase in its natural order consists of (1) the preposition and (2) its object.

The object of a preposition is found by asking the question made by putting whom or what after the preposition.

The object of a preposition may be simple or compound.

The base word of the object may be a noun or a pronoun.

Exercise.—Select the prepositional phrases in the following sentences. Tell what each phrase modifies. Divide each phrase into preposition and object. Find the base word of the object, and tell what part of speech it is.

1. This monster lives in a den under yonder mountain with a brother of his.

2. I carried both letters in my apron pocket.

3. At the age of ten years he fled from the multiplication table and ran away to sea.

4. In the dusk of spring evenings we sat on the window seat and watched the lights come out on the high bluff and the long bridge.

5.

The stormy March is come at last,

With wind, and cloud, and changing skies.

6. With a fair and strong breeze we soon ran into the little cove to the northward of Fort Moultrie.

7. On the projecting bluffs, and occasionally on the very mountain tops, stand the ruins of great castles of the olden times.

8. In the ancient city of London on a certain autumn day in the second quarter of the sixteenth century, a boy was born to a poor family of the name of Canty.

9. Now I was comforted by the thought of a tassel, and an ivory handle, and blue and gold changeable silk.

10. A polar storm can blow for ten days without a break.

11. The aërial path of Hushwing, from his nest in the swamp to his watchtower on the clearing’s edge, led him past the pool and the crouching panther.

12.

All the little boys and girls,

With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls,

And sparkling eyes and teeth like pearls,

Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after

The wonderful music, with shouting and laughter.

What part of speech are these words: yonder, sentence 1, apron 2, multiplication 3, spring 4, very 7, autumn 8, break 10?

What is peculiar about the object of at in sentence 5, and of to in sentence 6?

43. Good English requires accuracy in the use of prepositions. Study the following prepositions, and avoid errors in their use.

Among and between. The word between usually refers to only two persons or things, while among refers to more than two.

I walked between my father and my mother.

She walked among us like an angel.

At and in. We use in when speaking of countries and large cities, at when speaking of villages or buildings.

The train arrives in Los Angeles at noon.

The train stopped at every little station.

At and to. At conveys the idea of being in a place, and to conveys the idea of going to a place.

Were you at school yesterday?

I came to school early this morning.

My sister is at home.

We speak of going to school, to church, to the factory, to the store, to the office, etc., but we do not use to before home. We say “I am at home,” or “Come home,” in the latter case omitting the preposition entirely.

Beside and besides. Beside means by the side of, and besides means in addition to.

Little Em’ly sat beside David.

Nobody remained besides the old nurse.

By and with. By refers to the agent, or doer of an action, and with to the instrument, or means employed.

The cherry tree was cut down by George Washington with a little hatchet.

In and into. In usually conveys the idea of rest, and into of motion.

We stayed in the library all the evening.

Our hostess took us into the Simmons Library.

I went into the Bank.

I put my money in the Bank.

Off. This preposition should not be followed by of. We should say,

The pitcher fell off the table.

I got off the car.

In place of the word onto we should use on or upon.

He climbed upon the roof of the pilot house.

He stepped on a loose board.

Some words are followed by certain prepositions to express certain meanings; as,

Agree with thine adversary.

Brutus agreed to the plan.

Brutus differed with Cassius.

My watch is different from yours.

Imogen parted from him with tears.

Imogen would not part with her bracelet.

Many people died of yellow fever.

I am sorry for the mistake.

Exercise.—Supply the correct preposition in each of these sentences, and give your reason in each case:—

1. The fugitive slave ran —— the trees, and took his stand —— two large cypresses.

2. While we were —— New Orleans, we stayed —— the St. Charles Hotel.

3.

And so —— the silent sea

I wait the muffled oar.

4. In that Sunday school class there was no girl —— Gertrude.

5. This mark must have been made —— a knife.

6. When you are —— Rome, you must do as the Romans do.

7. Come —— the garden, Maud.

8. Put the silver —— a safe place.

9. John Gilpin’s wig fell —— his head.

10. Get —— this stump so that you can see better.

11. I left the programs —— home.

12. Nobody agrees —— Kate about renting the cottage.

13. Did Will agree —— your plans for the wedding?

14. Charlie differed —— his family about saving his money.

15. An apricot has a different flavor —— a peach.

16. What did the crew die ——?

17. Aren’t you sorry —— his misfortune?

18. The child cried when he parted —— his playthings, and would not be comforted when he parted —— his old playmates.

XIII. TERM OF ADDRESS. EXCLAMATORY NOUN

44. When we speak directly to persons, we often call them by name; as,—

Anne, sister Anne, do you see any one coming?

We do this for several reasons,—sometimes for politeness, sometimes to show clearly just whom we are speaking to. This name is not necessary to the structure of the sentence; that is, it forms no part of the subject or the predicate. We say, therefore, that it is independent. We call it a term of address.

45. Sometimes, instead of using a person’s name, we invent a term of address, as when the Arab said to his horse,

“We are far from home, O racer with the swiftest winds, but God is with us.”

What noun is the base word of this term of address?

46. A term of address may come at the beginning of a sentence, or at the end, or somewhere within the sentence. It must be set off by commas to show that it is independent.

47. Sometimes a noun or a noun with modifiers is used as an exclamation; thus,—

A rainbow! it is too late in the day for that.

Joy to the world! the Lord has come.

A noun used like rainbow and joy is called an exclamatory noun. What feeling does the exclamatory noun in the first sentence express? in the second?

Summary.—A term of address is a word or a group of words used as a name to show to whom a remark is made.

The base word of a term of address is usually a noun.

An exclamatory noun is a noun used to express strong or sudden feeling. It may be modified or unmodified.

When a word or a group of words is no part of the subject or the predicate of a sentence, it is said to be independent.

A term of address and an exclamatory noun are independent elements in a sentence.

A term of address is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

An exclamatory noun is set off by an exclamation point.

Exercise.—Select the terms of address in the following sentences. Find the base word of each. Select also the exclamatory nouns, and tell what feeling they express.

1. Little brother, canst thou raise me to my feet?

2. “Now, my dears,” said old Mrs. Rabbit one morning, “you may go into the fields or down the lane, but don’t go into Mr. McGregor’s garden.”

3. Indeed I was seeking thee, Flathead, but each time we meet thou art longer and broader by the length of my arm.

4. Come, Lillie, it is time to go to bed.

5. Sweet, sweet home! there’s no place like home.

6. Why, Father, you are rather old to play cat’s cradle.

7.

Sail on, sail on, O ship of State!

Sail on, O Union strong and great!

8. Sir, I humbly beg your pardon.

9. I understand, noble lord, that you have lost two of your men.

10. Jefferson, I think I will go down into the kitchen and bake a pie.

11. A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!

12. There is none like thee in the jungle, wise, old, strong, and most beautiful Kaa.

13. Our price, your royal highness, is three shillings.

14. Grand old outlaw, hero of a thousand lawless raids, in a few minutes you will be but a great load of carrion.

15.

Brood, kind creature, you need not fear

Thieves and robbers while I am here.

16. Catch me, cowardly knaves, if you can.

17. The stately homes of England! how beautiful they stand!

18. O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells.

XIV. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

48. Besides declarative and interrogative sentences there is another kind of sentence used when we speak directly to a person for the purpose of telling him what to do; as, “Run into the garden, and fetch me the largest pumpkin you can find.” This is called an imperative sentence.

49. The imperative sentence is often used in giving orders, commands, or directions, but it is used also in giving advice, and in making requests or entreaties; as,—

Fling away ambition.

Kindly reply by return mail.

Give us this day our daily bread.

50. Usually only the predicate of an imperative sentence is expressed, and so the first word of such a sentence is likely to be a verb. The subject is the pronoun you, thou, or ye, signifying the person or persons addressed. It is customary to omit this pronoun, and we say that the subject is “understood.” Occasionally, however, it is expressed in familiar conversation; as, “You go away.” Sometimes, too, in solemn commands the pronoun thou or ye is expressed; as, “Go and do thou likewise.” “Keep ye the law.”

Note that the verb in an imperative sentence commands rather than asserts.

An imperative sentence is frequently preceded by a term of address, but this must not be mistaken for the subject; as, “Father, hear our prayer.”

Summary.—An imperative sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty.

The subject of an imperative sentence is the pronoun you, thou, or ye. This pronoun is usually omitted.

Exercise.—Tell what the following imperative sentences denote. Select the predicate verbs, and the subjects whenever they are expressed. Select also the terms of address.

1. Open everything, go everywhere except to this little room.

2. Come and hold this skein of yarn for me.

3. Go and wash Kala Nag, and attend to his ears, and see that there are no thorns in his feet.

4. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.

5. Rouse to some high and holy work of love.

6. Don’t you show your face here with a pocket on you. If your heavy pants have any in ’em, rip ’em out.

7.

Give freely and receive, but take from none

By greed, or force, or fraud, what is his own.

8. Learn to box, to ride, to pull an oar, and to swim.

9. Polly dear, say good morning to Mrs. Chatterton, and then run away.

10. Do the work first which is next at hand.

11.

Turn again, Whittington,

Lord Mayor of London.

12. O Lord of Hosts, provide a champion for thy people.

13.

O brave marsh Mary-buds, rich and yellow,

Give me your money to hold.

14.

O Columbine, open your folded wrapper

Where two twin turtledoves dwell.

15.

O Cuckoopint, toll me the purple clapper

That hangs in your clear, green bell.

Account for the commas in sentences 1, 3, 8, 9, and 11.

XV. INTERJECTIONS

51. There are certain words like oh, alas, pshaw, ugh, that are used to express strong feeling,—joy, surprise, pain, disgust, anger, etc. These words are called interjections. An interjection is a part of speech.

52. Interjections are no part of the subject or the predicate of a sentence; hence, like terms of address, they are said to be independent. They are set off from the rest of the sentence by some mark of punctuation, usually an exclamation point, sometimes only a comma.

53. We may use a noun or a verb in such a way that it becomes an interjection; as, “Goodness! what a fright you gave me!” “Hurrah! the lake is frozen over!” Such a verb as hark is often used as an interjection, not to express sudden feeling so much as to arrest attention; as, “Hark! hark! the dogs do bark.”

54. The interjection O is often used before a term of address; as, “O Lord, how manifold are thy works!”

Summary.—An interjection is a word used to express sudden or strong feeling.

Exercise.—Select all the interjections in the following sentences, and tell what each one is used for:—

1. Boom! Boom!—two of the guns had gone off together.

2. Alas! Amanda, by mistake, had waked up the little boys an hour too early.

3. Bah! men are blood brothers of the monkey people.

4. Hallelujah! in one day more we shall be sitting in the sunshine on our own doorstep.

5.

O mother dear, Jerusalem,

When shall I come to thee?

6. Ping! ping! ping! went the rifles; and Boom! boom! boom! answered the waves.

7. Aha! the world is iron in these days.

8. Alas! it was the head of old Silverspot.

9. Scrooge said, “Pooh! Pooh!” and closed the door.

10. Hark! hark! the lark at heaven’s gate sings.

11. Alack-a-day! travelers encounter all the unusual bits of weather.

12. Hey! Willie Winkie, are you coming then?

13. O comrades, if we must fight, let us fight for ourselves.

14. Hush! the winds roar hoarse and deep.

15. Lo, the star which they saw in the east went before them till it came and stood over where the young child was.

16. Piff! the packet landed exactly as it was intended, on the corn-husk mat in front of the screen door.

17. Oh, London is a man’s town.

XVI. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES

55. We have found that sentences are made to state, or to ask, or to command, and hence are classified as declarative, interrogative, and imperative.

There is a fourth class of sentence which resembles an interjection, being used to express sudden or strong feeling; as, “How calm and lovely the river was!” “What a pity it is!” These are called exclamatory sentences. They are always followed by an exclamation point.

56. Such sentences as those just quoted, which begin with how or what, are exclamatory in form as well as in sense, and are therefore sometimes called pure exclamatory sentences. They are always in the transposed order. Some sentences, however, are exclamatory only in sense. They are in the natural order, and when printed, could not be distinguished from declarative or imperative sentences if it were not for the exclamation point, which indicates that they were spoken with strong feeling; as, “Now you may see that noblest of all ocean sights for beauty, a full-rigged ship under sail!” “Helen Maria! leave the room this moment!”

Summary.—An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses sudden or strong feeling.

Exercise.—Tell why each of these sentences is exclamatory. Rearrange in the natural order those which are transposed. Divide each of them into subject and predicate. Select the simple subject and the simple predicate.

1. How soundly he sleeps! From what a depth he draws that easy breath!

2. What tales he had told that day!

3. How doubly delicious things tasted in the clear, spicy air of the woods!

4. How keen a scent those children had for apples in the cellar!

5. Oh, how sweet the water was! How it soothed the tender spots under her weary wings! How it cooled her ears and her tired eyelids!

6. With what a glory comes and goes the year!

7. What a racket those rusty cannon had made in the heyday of their unchastened youth! What stories they might tell now if their puffy, metallic lips could only speak!

8. Burn the hut over their heads!

9. Ugh! may the red mange destroy the dogs of this village!

10. Talk of the curiosity of women!

11. So blessedly evanescent is the memory of seasickness!

12. Hark! how the music leaps out from his throat!

XVII. CONJUNCTIONS

57. Notice the sentences,—

Every pine and fir and hemlock wore ermine too dear for an earl.

I stood and watched by the window.

The parts of the compound subject in the first sentence and of the compound predicate in the second are joined by the word and. This very common word has a use different from that of any word studied thus far; hence it is considered another part of speech. Because it is a joining word, it is called a conjunction.

There are many conjunctions besides and that we all have frequent occasion to use. Among these are nor, or, but, yet, therefore, so, and hence.

58. Conjunctions may join not only single words, such as nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs, but also phrases, and even whole sentences; as,—

You may enter without money and without price.

The stiff rails were softened to swan’s down,

And still fluttered down the snow.

59. Although the word but is commonly used as a conjunction, yet, in the sentence, “I work every day but Sunday,” it is a preposition, and means except. What is its object? The great difference between a conjunction and a preposition is that a preposition always has an object, whereas a conjunction never has one.

Summary.—A conjunction is a word that joins sentences or parts of sentences.

Exercise.—Select all the conjunctions in the following sentences, and tell what they join:—

1. Crow was ten years old now, and he was very black and polished and thin.

2. Mount St. Michael was not only strongly fortified, but it was well guarded by nature.

3. The horse neither switches his tail, nods his head, nor stamps his feet.

4. Thirty years later, the remnants of her wedding gowns,—the blue silk, the black silk, the striped silk, and the plaid silk,—were cut into diamonds and squares, and then pieced together lovingly and proudly into a patchwork quilt.

5. There are several steamboats which run up and down the Seine like omnibuses, and the charge to passengers is about two cents apiece.

6. After steaming for several hours over the smooth river and between these flat lowlands, we reach the city of Rotterdam.

7. These great ice streams are always moving slowly downwards; hence they carry off, year by year, the snow which falls upon the mountain above.

8. The stars danced overhead, and by his side the broad and shallow river ran over its stony bed with a loud but soothing murmur that filled all the air with entreaty.

9. The things that Mowgli did and saw and heard when he was wandering from one people to another, with or without his four companions, would make many stories.

10. I drove the cows home through the sweet ferns and down the rocky slopes.

11. The sucker’s mouth is not formed for the gentle angleworm nor the delusive fly of the fisherman.

12. Our ancestors were very worthy people, but their wall papers were abominable.

13. The keeper of the lodgings did not supply meals to his guests; so we breakfasted at a small chophouse in a crooked street.

14. The Northmen had no compass; they must steer by the sun or by the stars, guess at their rate of sailing, and tell by that how many more days distant was their destination.

15. Through this silence and through this waste, where the sudden lights flapped and went out again, the sleigh and the two that pulled it crawled like things in a nightmare.

16. There may be times when you cannot find help, but there is no time when you cannot give help.

17.

Over the meadows and through the woods,

To grandfather’s house we go.

18. The world has never had a good definition of the word liberty, and the American people are much in want of one.

XVIII. CLAUSES. SIMPLE SENTENCES

60. We have learned that a sentence must contain a subject and a predicate. We have another name for a combination of subject and predicate. We call it a clause.

61. When a sentence consists of but one clause, we call it a simple sentence; and we say that this clause is independent, because it can stand alone and make sense.

62. A simple sentence may have a compound subject or a compound predicate, or both, and yet so long as these subjects and predicates go together, we say that there is only one clause; as in the sentence, “The lion and the mouse helped each other and became friends.”

Summary.—A clause is any combination of subject and predicate.

An independent clause is one that can stand alone and make sense.

A simple sentence contains but one independent clause.

A simple sentence may have a compound subject or a compound predicate, or both.

Exercise.—Analyze the following simple sentences:—

MODEL.—Then a piece of mica, or a little pool, or even a highly polished leaf will flash like a heliograph.

This is a simple, declarative sentence.

The subject is a piece of mica, or a little pool, or even a highly polished leaf. The predicate is will flash like a heliograph then.

The subject is compound. The simple subjects are the nouns piece, pool, and leaf, which are joined by the conjunction or. Piece is modified by the prepositional phrase of mica and the adjective a. Pool, is modified by the adjectives little and a. Leaf is modified by the adjective element highly polished, and the adjectives a and even. The base word of the adjective element is the adjective polished, which is modified by the adverb highly.

The simple predicate is will flash. It is modified by the prepositional phrase like a heliograph, and the adverb then.

1. Through three good months the valley was wrapped in cloud and soaking mist.

2. In the very heart of London stands the great Bank of England.

3. Would not any boy respond to the sweet invitation of those ripe berries?

4. A fool and his money are soon parted.

5. A large, warm tear splashed down on the program.

6. In the sunny days the sucker lies in the deep pools, by some big stone or near the bank.

7. The feeling of a boy towards pumpkin pie has never been properly considered.

8. Shall the adventures of the Peterkin family be published?

9. No healthy boy could long exist without numerous friends in the animal kingdom.

10. No sound of joy or sorrow was heard from either bank.

11. At length has come the bridal day of beauty and of strength.

12. On one hot summer morning a little cloud rose from the sea and floated lightly and happily across the blue sky.

13. Donkeys, horses, negroes of every age, size, and shade, carts, crates, sacks, barrels, and boxes are mingled in seemingly inextricable confusion.

14. In the midst of the wild confusion the voice of the Boots was heard.

15. Then he strolled across the pasture, between the black stumps, the blueberry patches, the tangles of wild raspberry; pushed softly through the fringe of wild cherry and young birch saplings, and crept silently under the branches of a low hemlock.

16. The moss was supported by solid earth or a framework of ancient tree roots.

17. Alas! with every blow of the chisel the brick crumbled at my feet.

18. A dish of apples and a pitcher of chilly cider were always served during the evening.

19. I sat down in the middle of the path and never stirred for a long time.

20. The mayor and other civic authorities in London came down to Greenwich in barges.

XIX. COMPOUND SENTENCES

63. We have seen that sentences may be joined together by conjunctions. When two or more independent clauses are joined together in this way, we say that the sentence is compound; as, “Coral reefs resemble great rock ledges, and vessels are often wrecked upon them.”

64. The conjunctions most used in compound sentences are and, or, but, yet, therefore, and so.

And shows that two clauses are in the same line of thought; as, “His eye was bright, and his face was ruddy.”

Or shows a choice between two clauses; as, “You must work, or you must go hungry.”

But and yet show a contrast; as, “I mailed the letter, but Uncle Joe never received it.”

Therefore and so show that the second clause is a consequence of the first; as, “There are fires in the forests north of us, therefore the air is full of smoke.”

65. Sometimes when the relation between clauses is perfectly evident, the conjunction is omitted; as, “I came; I saw; I conquered.”

In order that the reader may have no doubt as to where a clause ends, it is usually followed by a comma, which speaks to the eye of the reader just as a pause speaks to the ear of the listener. When the clauses are long or the conjunction is omitted, a semicolon may be used instead of the comma.

Summary.—A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses.

The clauses of a compound sentence are separated from each other by a comma or a semicolon.

Exercise.—Select all the clauses in the following compound sentences. Tell the relation between them, and how they are joined. Tell the subject and predicate of each clause. Account for the punctuation.

1. Over the porch grew a hop-vine, and a brandy-cherry tree shaded the door, and a luxuriant cranberry vine flung its delicious fruit across the window.

2. Mr. Peterkin liked to take a doze on his sofa in the room, but the rest of the family liked to sit on the piazza.

3. Prosperity makes friends; adversity tries them.

4. The whole family planted the potatoes; George dug the holes with his hoe, Mollie dropped into each one three pieces of an old potato, Paul raked the black earth over them, and Mother supervised and praised them all.

5. Some of the letter-carriers must take very long walks, but English people do not appear to object to that sort of thing.

6. Oh, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war?

7. At the end of the first year the young lions shed their teeth, the first indications of manes appeared on the males, and the playfulness between brother and sister ceased.

8. The clumsy wheels of several old-fashioned coaches were heard, and the gentlemen and ladies composing the bridal party came through the church with the sudden and gladsome effect of a burst of sunshine.

9. I had never been called pretty before, so I was flattered.

10. The yellow cur has not the speed of the greyhound, but neither does he bear the seeds of lung and skin diseases.

11. The party did not return to Skarpsno until half-past eight in the evening, yet the sun was still above the horizon.

12. We cherish every memorial of our worthy ancestors; we celebrate their patience and fortitude; we admire their daring enterprise; we teach our children to venerate their piety.

13. Every animal has some great strength, or it could not live; every animal has some great weakness, or the other animals could not live.

14. Human action can be modified to some extent, but human nature cannot be changed.

15. Captain John Smith was exasperatingly sure of himself, and older men found his pretensions well-nigh unbearable.

XX. DEPENDENT CLAUSES. COMPLEX SENTENCES

66. We have seen that in both simple and compound sentences the clauses are independent. There is a third class of sentences, however, containing dependent clauses.

In the simple sentence, “At night his antelope skin was spread on the ground,” the prepositional phrase on the ground tells place, and modifies the verb was spread.

In the sentence, “At night his antelope skin was spread where the darkness overtook him,” the group of words where the darkness overtook him has the same use as the phrase on the ground, for it tells place and modifies the verb was spread.

But this group of words contains a subject and a predicate; hence it is a clause. It could not stand alone and make sense; hence it cannot be an independent clause. It could not be in the sentence at all unless the verb was spread were there too for it to modify. It is therefore dependent on the verb, and so we call it a dependent clause. It has the same use as an adverb, because it modifies a verb. We find many dependent clauses used in this way, because our language does not afford enough adverbs or even prepositional phrases to express our meaning.

67. When dependent clauses modify verbs, they answer such questions as these,—was spread where? was spread why? how? when? under what condition? for what purpose?

68. In the sentence, “They went into a small parlor, which smelt very spicy,” the parlor is described by the adjective small and by the group of words which smelt very spicy. What is this group of words? How do we know? What words does it modify? What, then, is the use of some dependent clauses? When dependent clauses modify nouns, they point out or describe objects just as adjectives do.

69. In the sentences that we have just been studying there is an independent clause as well as a dependent clause. A sentence of this kind is called a complex sentence.

A complex sentence may contain any number of dependent clauses, but only one independent clause, for as soon as a sentence contains two independent clauses it becomes a compound sentence.

Summary.—A dependent clause is one that is used like a part of speech and does not make sense when it stands alone.

A dependent clause may be used like an adjective to modify a noun, or like an adverb to modify a verb.

A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

Exercise.—Select all the clauses in the following sentences, and classify them. Tell what the dependent clauses modify. Tell the subject and predicate of each clause.

NOTE.—Frequently a dependent clause modifies more than the verb. In the sentence, “The little boys wanted a house with a great many doors, so that they could go in and out often,” the dependent clause so that they could go in and out often tells the purpose of their wanting a house with a great many doors; hence, it modifies not merely the verb wanted, but the whole predicate wanted a house with a great many doors. Try to tell the exact truth about each sentence that you study.

1. He was always catching sculpins when every one else with the same bait was catching mackerel.

2. If we cross the Atlantic by one of the fast steamships, we shall make the voyage in about a week.

3. The Rotterdam quays, which stretch for more than a mile along the river, are busy and lively places.

4. Every Sunday morning the wash boiler was filled with water, and the largest tub was set in the middle of the kitchen floor, so that the three children might have their weekly scrubbing.

5. People who devote themselves too severely to study of the classics are apt to become dried up.

6. He charged upon the rows of the mullein stalks as if they were rebels in regimental ranks, and hewed them down without mercy.

7. Every boy who is good for anything is a natural savage.

8. Rude soldiers now eat, drink, and sleep, where popes and cardinals once moved about in state.

9. Mowgli, who had never known the meaning of real hunger, fell back on stale honey three years old.

10. Iron-clads are so called because their sides are covered with thick plates of iron or steel, capable of resisting very heavy shot.

11. Although many people ascend Mont Blanc every year, the undertaking requires a great deal of muscular as well as nervous strength.

12. If a boy repeats Thanatopsis while he is milking, that operation acquires a certain dignity.

13. The thrill that ran into my fingers’ ends then has not run out yet.

14. Even a dog, who is very far removed from the wild wolf, his ancestor, can be waked out of deep sleep by a cart wheel touching his flank, and can spring away unharmed before that wheel comes on.

15. The boys slipped off down the roadside to a place where they could dig sassafras or the root of the sweet flag.

16. The little company of Englishmen who, in 1620, exchanged Holland for America were not soldiers and traders like the men who had led and established the colony at Jamestown.

17. Miles Standish came with the Pilgrims to America because he liked both them and their enterprise.

18. The early settlers went to church in military array and laid their arms down close by them while they worshiped and heard the sermon.

19. The colonists chose for their place of settlement a high bluff, which rose upon the eastern bank of a little stream.

Tell the part of speech and use of always, sentence 1, Sunday 4, too and severely 5, now, once, and about 8.

Analyze the predicate was set in the middle of the kitchen floor.

What is the grammatical use of the group of words as well as in sentence 11?

XXI. REVIEW: CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

70. We have seen that sentences are classified according to purpose, as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

A declarative sentence is one that states, or declares, something.

An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question.

An imperative sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty.

An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses sudden or strong feeling.

71. We have seen also that sentences may consist of one clause or of several, and that clauses may be independent or dependent. Sentences are therefore classified according to structure, as simple, compound, or complex.

A simple sentence is one that contains but one independent clause.

A compound sentence is one that contains two or more independent clauses.

A complex sentence is one that contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

Exercise 1.—Write a complex declarative sentence, a compound interrogative sentence, a complex imperative sentence, and a simple exclamatory sentence.

Exercise 2.—Classify the following sentences according to both purpose and structure. Give the reasons for your classification. Tell what the dependent clauses modify. Tell also the subject and predicate of each clause.

1. The oxen sagged along in their great clumsy way.

2. Give me quickly my seven-league boots, that I may go after those boys and catch them.

3. How sweet and demure the girls looked!

4. Within sight of that tall elm tree were passed my happiest years.

5. Did you ever know a child who was not interested in animals?

6. My grandfather never skipped over an advertisement, even if he had read it fifty times before.

7.

Woodman, spare that tree!

Touch not a single bough!

8. Must I keep order along the whole line?

9. All the trees and the bushes and the bamboos and the mosses and the juicy-leaved plants wake with a noise of growing that you can almost hear.

10.

How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood,

When fond recollection presents them to view!

11. Sometimes it is impolite to tell the truth, and then one can only say nothing or talk of the weather.

12. Toll ye the church bell sad and slow.

13. Some boys go scowling always through life, as if they had a stone bruise on each heel.

14. Proud bird of the mountain, thy plume shall be torn!

15. Mowgli had the good conscience that comes from paying debts.

16. Cease to do evil; learn to do well.

17. The first was a brass band, the second was a string band, the third was a rubber band, and the fourth was a man who played on the jew’s-harp.

18.

Lo, all our pomp of yesterday

Is one with Nineveh and Tyre!

19. On Sunday the hens went silently about, and the roosters crowed in psalm tunes.

20.

Up! up! my friend, and quit your books,

Or surely you’ll grow double!

21. Is the world growing better or are we moving in a circle?

22. Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth.

23. When a man has heard the great things calling to him, how they call and call, day and night!

24. O ye who have young children, if it is possible, give them happy memories.

Find an interjection in this exercise.

What independent elements do you find in sentences 7, 14, and 24? What is the base word of each?

XXII. REVIEW: PARTS OF SPEECH

72. We have seen that words are classified according to their use into eight parts of speech,—nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

A noun is a name word.

A verb is an asserting word.

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.

An adjective is a word used to point out or describe an object and modify a noun or a pronoun.

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

A preposition is a word that is used with its object to form a phrase, and shows the relation of its object to the word the phrase modifies.

A conjunction is a word that joins sentences or parts of sentences.

An interjection is a word used to express sudden or strong feeling.

Exercise.—Tell what part of speech each word is in the following sentences. Tell in each case how you know.

1. Toto’s good grandmother bore this commotion quietly for some time.

2. “Now, set those baskets down.” He spoke sharply.

3. Mowgli knew the manners and customs of the villagers very fairly.

4. No other mother ever made such deep, smooth, golden custard pies, or fried such light and spicy doughnuts.

5. Queen Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots are strongly associated together in the minds of all readers of English history.

6. The tamest tiger is a tiger still.

7. The negro cleared for us a path to an enormously tall tree.

8. Nobody scolded me or laughed at me.

9. Then my eyes came back to the wall paper, and I studied out figures in its spreading vines.

10. Perhaps a little starch would have some effect.

11. The roaring hot wind of the Jungle came and went between the rocks and the rattling branches.

12. Ring-ting! I wish I were a primrose.

13. O love, they die in yon rich sky.

73. In sentence 13 in the preceding exercise, it is evident that the word love, which is often a verb, is used as a term of address, and therefore is a noun. Many words may be used as verbs or as nouns.

Exercise.—Tell what part of speech the italicized words are in the following sentences. Give your reason in each case.

1. Don’t scour your porcelain sink with sapolio.

2. When bodies sink in Lake Superior, they never rise.

3. Oh, what fall was there, my countrymen.

4. We fall to rise, are baffled to fight better.

5. Alice gave the branch a vigorous shake.

6. Nay, do not shake your gory locks at me.

7. Will you show me your lineage book?

8. There are ten thousand moving picture shows in the United States.

9. What a good catch our right fielder made.

10. Did you catch this sturgeon last night?

Make sentences in which the following words shall be used as nouns and as verbs: fight, pay, rap, shed, shoe, sting, tread.

74. Many words that are usually adjectives may also be used as nouns. Such words fall into different classes:—

(1) Adjectives denoting color; as, black, white, red. We may say, “The blacks were once slaves of the whites.” We may also say, “Red and green are complementary colors.”

(2) Certain adjectives denoting qualities of persons, which may also be used to name classes of persons having those qualities; as, rich, poor, old, young, bad, good. We say, “The rich should not scorn the poor,” “The good die young.”

(3) Certain adjectives denoting qualities, which may also be used to name classes of things having those qualities; as, good, evil, true, false. We say, “Love the good, cherish the true, admire the beautiful.”

(4) Certain other adjectives, such as native, secret, fat, lean, thick. We say, “The natives had no secrets,” “Jack Sprat would eat no fat,” “He was always in the thick of the fight.”

Exercise.—Make sentences containing the following words used as adjectives and as nouns: purple, blue, brave, righteous, evil, wet, cold, sweet, right, wrong, solid, strong.

75. Some words may be used both as adjectives and as adverbs. When well means the opposite of sick, as in the sentence, “Grace never was a well child,” it is an adjective. When well means in a good manner, as in the sentence, “Esther sings well,” it is an adverb.

Exercise.—Tell what part of speech the italicized words are in the following sentences. Give your reason in each case.

1. The paper is large enough, but I have not enough string.

2. As she came near I recognized one of my near neighbors.

3. All flesh is grass.

4. The girls playing basket ball are all tired out.

5. The doctor liked a fast horse.

6. We must walk fast this cold morning.

7. Nobody could play golf worse than I.

8. May I never do a worse deed!

9. Have you any ribbon to match this sample?

10. Will this color do any better?

11. Somebody else will marry her then.

12. How else could I get there in time?

Make sentences containing the following words used as adjectives and as adverbs: high, last, long, low, much, round, slow, straight.

76. Some words may be used both as adverbs and as prepositions. In the sentence, “I looked in as I went by,” both in and by are adverbs. How do we know this? In the sentence, “As I went by the house, I looked in the window,” both in and by are prepositions. What are their objects? What do the phrases modify?

Exercise.—What part of speech are the italicized words in the following sentences? Give your reason in each case.

1. Beyond lay the city of their dreams.

2. Our house stands beyond the church.

3. Over the Alps lies Italy.

4. Come over this evening if you can.

5. She fainted and did not come to for an hour.

6. The granary is behind the barn.

7. Ichabod looked behind for an instant.

8. A storm of sleet was raging without.

9. Civilized man cannot do without cooks.

Make sentences in which the following words are used both as adverbs and as prepositions: about, above, along, down, off, on, through, under, up, within.

XXIII. TRANSITIVE VERBS. OBJECT OF VERB

77. We have seen that a noun may be related to a verb as its subject. When the verb asserts action, as in the sentence, “Many birds eat flies,” then the subject many birds names the doer, or performer, of the action.

There is another very common relation that a noun may bear to a verb. In the sentence above, the verb eat asserts an action that is not only performed by something, but is also performed upon something. That is, there is a doer of the action, many birds, and a receiver of the action, flies. If we had merely the subject and the verb, our sentence would be incomplete, and we should ask at once, eat what?

Since the word flies completes the meaning of the verb eat, we call it the complement of the verb. Since it names the receiver of the action that is asserted by the verb eat, we call it the object or direct object of the verb.

78. Not all verbs require an object—only those which assert action which the subject performs upon some person or thing. Such verbs are called transitive verbs.

79. The object of a verb is not always a single word. The object may be compound, as in the sentence, “Many birds eat flies and gnats and mosquitoes.” Again, the object may be a group of words, of which a noun is the base word. In the following sentence there are three transitive verbs. What is the object of each verb? What is the base word of each object?—“Miss Dorothea dusted the banisters round the porch, straightened the rows of shoes in mother’s closet, and folded the daily papers in the rack.”

80. Just as we can find the subject of a verb by asking the question made by placing who or what before the verb, so we can find the object of a verb that asserts action by asking the question made by placing whom or what after the verb.

These questions are often a great help, especially if a sentence is long or transposed. In the sentence, “A more miserable little beast I had never seen,” what is the verb? Ask a question to find the subject. Ask a question to find the object.

Summary.—A transitive verb is one that asserts action performed upon some person or thing.

A complement is a word or a group of words used to complete the meaning of a verb.

The direct object of a verb is a word or a group of words that completes the meaning of a transitive verb and names the receiver of the action.

NOTE.—Not all transitive verbs denote action that is accompanied by motion. Some denote action of the senses; as, “I see the star,” “I taste the pepper.” Others denote action of the feelings; as, “I love the truth,” “I hate a lie.” Still others do not denote action at all; as, “I mean you,” “Our forefathers owned slaves,” “I kept her letter.” We must enlarge our notion of transitive verbs so as to make it include all verbs that take a complement which denotes a different person or thing from the subject.

Exercise 1.—Select all the transitive verbs in these sentences. Find both their subjects and their objects by asking the proper questions.

NOTE.—A transitive verb may be modified before it is completed. This is true of lifts in sentence 2. Oftener the idea expressed by the verb and its object together is modified; as in sentence 1, where the phrase in despair modifies not shook but shook her head.

1. Dotty Dimple shook her head in despair.

2. At the word of command, the two horsemen stop, each man lifts up his right leg, throws it over the back of his horse, and drops it to the ground so that the two boots tap the pavement at the same instant.

3. Her father found a pleasant seat on the shady side, hung the basket in a rack, and opened a window.

4. When the young surveyor left Detroit, he carried a huge green bandbox, and his wife in her far frontier home received in due time a beautiful blue bonnet.

5. I threw off an overcoat, took an armchair by the crackling logs, and awaited patiently the arrival of my hosts.

6. All the world likes molasses candy.

7. The children brought home great bunches of the brilliant leaves, and some they pressed and varnished, while others Katherine dipped in melted wax.

8. John trod down the exquisite ferns and the wonderful mosses without compunction. But he gathered from the crevices of the rocks the columbine and the eglantine and the blue harebell; he picked the high-flavored alpine strawberry, the blueberry, the boxberry, wild currants and gooseberries and fox grapes; he brought home armfuls of the pink and white laurel and the wild honeysuckle; he dug the roots of the fragrant sassafras and of the sweet flag; he ate the tender leaves of the wintergreen and its red berries; he gathered the peppermint and the spearmint; he gnawed the twigs of the black birch; he dug the amber gum from the spruce-tree; he brought home such medicinal herbs for the garret as the goldthread, the tansy, and the loathsome “boneset,” and he laid in for the winter, like a squirrel, stores of beechnuts, hazelnuts, hickorynuts, chestnuts, and butternuts.

Exercise 2.—Analyze the following sentences:—

NOTE.—If any part of a sentence is compound, state that fact before analyzing it. If the subject or object is compound, give the base words first, and then the modifiers of each. If the predicate is compound, analyze the first predicate completely, then the second, and so on. If any adverb or prepositional phrase modifies the idea denoted by the verb and the object, be sure to say so in your analysis. For instance, in the sentence, “We have seen his star in the east,” the predicate verb is have seen. It is completed by the direct object his star, and then modified by the prepositional phrase in the east.

1. Sometimes a perfume like absinthe sweetened all the air.

2. The little brown field mouse ran along in the grass, poked his nose into everything, and finally spied a smooth, shiny acorn.

3. My son, descend those steps and enter that door.

4. Many and many a pair of mittens had those busy fingers knit.

5. Always within a few moments the rabbits would resume their leaping progress through the white glitter and the hard, black shadows.

6. The visit of the tax collector seldom gives unmixed joy.

7. Scrooge took his melancholy dinner in his usual melancholy tavern.

8. The first glimpse of a new country always quickens the sense of the traveler.

9. Rebecca took off her hat and cape and hung them in the hall, put her rubber shoes and umbrella carefully in the corner, and then opened the door of paradise.

10. The scent of herbs and the fragrance of fruit filled the great unfinished chamber.

11. A polished brazen rod on a broad wooden pedestal beside the armchair held half a dozen lamps of silver on sliding arms.

12. Messala hugged the stony wall with perilous clasp.

13. Amrah rubbed her eyes, bent closer down, clasped her hands, gazed wildly around, looked at the sleeper, then stooped and raised his hand, and kissed it fondly.

14. The proprietor of the fruit stand has a bald head, a long face, and a nose like the beak of a hawk.

15. Without more ado Mr. Cary grasped his arm firmly, and fairly lifted him into the room.

XXIV. INTRANSITIVE VERBS ASSERTING ACTION

81. Transitive verbs, as we have seen, assert action performed upon some person or thing. There are many other verbs in our language that assert action, but the action is not performed upon anything. On the contrary, the action ends in itself; as in the sentence, “The wind in the chimney sighed and moaned and shivered.” Here the wind is said to perform three actions, but these actions were not received by anything. Verbs like sighed, moaned, and shivered are said to be intransitive verbs.

82. Not all intransitive verbs assert action. The verb be and a few others (see Lesson XXV) which assert merely being, are also intransitive verbs; as, “I am hungry,” “You are kind,” “He is extravagant,” “They were careless.”

83. It frequently happens that the same verb may be used in one sentence as a transitive verb, and in another as an intransitive verb. If we say, “The horse kicked his master,” the verb kicked is transitive. Why? If we say, “The poor boy kicked and squirmed and groaned,” the verb kicked is intransitive. Why?

We should always classify a verb as it is used in the particular sentence under consideration.

Summary.—An intransitive verb is one that asserts (1) being, or (2) action that is not received by any person or thing.

Exercise 1.—Select all the verbs in the following sentences, and classify them as transitive or intransitive. Tell the subject of each verb. If the verb is transitive, tell its object.

1. The princess sat at table next to the king and queen.

2. At these words a grave smile of approval lighted the gaunt face of the Hindu.

3. The spring murmured drowsily beside him. The branches waved dreamily across the blue sky overhead. A deep sleep fell upon David Swan.

4.

While shepherds watched their flocks by night,

All seated on the ground,

An angel of the Lord came down,

And glory shone around.

5. Mr. Jeremy stuck his pole into the mud, and fastened the boat to it.

6. The cat got up and stretched herself, and came and sniffed at the basket.

7. I would have spared the woman who gave thee the milk.

8. His hair had fallen about his shoulders.

9. They sang patriotic songs, they told stories, they fired torpedoes, they frightened the cats.

10. I could have killed a buck while thou wast striking.

11. Away rolled the bogghun, away and away, over the meadows and into the forest; away and away bounded the Princess in pursuit. The golden nose ring flashed and glittered in the sunlight, the golden bangles on her wrists and ankles tinkled and rang their tiny bells as she went. The monkeys swinging by their tails from the branches, chattered with astonishment at us; the wild parrot screamed at us; all the birds sang and chirped and twittered.

12. The chipmunk appeared at the mouth of his den, looked quickly about, took a few leaps to a tussock of grass, paused a breath with one foot raised, slipped quickly a few yards over some dry leaves, paused again by a stump beside a path, rushed across the path to the pile of loose stones, went under the first and over the second, gained the pile of posts, made his way through that, surveyed his course a half moment from the other side of it, and then darted on to some other cover, and presently beyond my range, where he must have gathered acorns, for no other nut-bearing trees than oaks grew near.

Exercise 2.—Tell whether the italicized verbs in the following sentences are transitive or intransitive. Give your reason in each case. If a verb is transitive, tell how it is completed. If it is intransitive, tell how it is modified.

1. All the brooks have burst their icy chains.

2. The boiler burst with a tremendous noise.

3. Do your duty; that is best.

4. Such language will never do for a teacher.

5. Miss Clarissa draws and paints very well.

6. Giotto drew a perfect circle with one sweep of his arm.

7. The swallow flies with a graceful dipping motion.

8. The boys are flying their kites on the common.

9. Give us this day our daily bread.

10. The rope was stretched so tightly that it did not give with his weight.

11. All day he sits in his arm chair and reads.

12. Have you read “The Man without a Country”?

13. The woodworkers have struck for shorter hours.

14. David struck Uriah Heep on the cheek.

15. Aunt Betsy swept down upon the trespassers.

16. I must sweep the spiders off the porch.

XXV. INTRANSITIVE VERBS ASSERTING BEING. NOUNS AS SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS

84. There is no other verb used oftener than the verb be, with its various forms,—is, are, am, was, will be, has been, etc. In the sentence, “The lake is the mother of the great rivers,” there would be no assertion without the verb is, and yet it does not assert action of any sort. The sentence plainly means that the lake and the mother of the great rivers are identical; that is, they are one and the same thing. The verb is enables us to assert identity. A verb of this kind is intransitive. It is often called a verb of being, to distinguish it from verbs that assert action.

85. Some other verbs of this kind are seem, appear, become, grow, feel, look, smell, taste, and sound. They are classed as verbs of being because they mean—to be in appearance, in looks, in smell, in taste, etc., as, “You appear ill,” “She looks young,” “The milk tastes sour.”

Verbs that assert being are intransitive verbs.

86. Intransitive verbs of being usually need a complement. In the sentence, “I am a spinner of long yarns,” if we had merely the subject and the verb, I am, we should ask, am what? The group of words a spinner of long yarns answers this question, and so completes the predicate. It is not an object complement, however, for it cannot name the receiver of an action since the verb does not assert action at all. This complement denotes identity with the subject; hence it is called a subjective complement.

Often the subjective complement denotes the class to which the person or thing named by the subject belongs; as, “Corn is a grain,” “My friend is a farmer.”

87. The subject and the object complement denote two different persons or things, but the subject and the subjective complement always refer to the same person or thing.

88. The subjective complement is sometimes a single noun, as in the sentence, “Stars are suns.” When the subjective complement is a group of words, a noun is usually the base word; as, “Procrastination is the thief of time.”

In sentences containing a subjective complement, the subject comes before the verb, and the subjective complement after the verb, unless the sentence is transposed; as, “Lords of the sea are we.”

89. Sometimes, instead of having a complement, a verb of being is modified by a prepositional phrase, or even by an adverb, denoting place; as, “My bark is on the sea,” “Yonder is my home.”

Summary.—Verbs that assert being or identity are intransitive verbs.

A subjective complement is a word or a group of words that completes a verb and refers to the same person or thing as the subject.

Exercise.—Select all the intransitive verbs of being in the following sentences. Find their subjects and their complements, and the base words of each. Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 14.

1. This palace was the residence of the queen consort of England.

2.

The king was in his counting house, counting out his money,

The queen was in the parlor, eating bread and honey.

3. My name is Beautiful Joe, and I am a brown dog of medium size.

4. Her worship of God was unselfish service, and her prayers were worthy deeds.

5. The one great poem of New England is her Sunday.

6. This guinea pig’s name was Jeff, and he and I became good friends.

7. Patient waiters are no losers.

8. In this fine open square are magnificent fountains, handsome statuary on tall pedestals, and crowds of vehicles and foot passengers crossing it in every direction.

9. A jackknife in his expert hand was a whole chest of tools.

10. One of the best things in the world to be is a boy.

11. Backbiting is the meanest kind of biting, not excepting the bite of fleas.

12. The rattle of a bucket in a neighbor’s yard, no longer mixed with other weekday noises, seemed a new sound.

13.

Little Boy Blue, come blow your horn.

The sheep’s in the meadow, the cow’s in the corn.

14. I became an enthusiastic little cook.

15. King Arthur’s son was a handsome, polite, and brave knight.

16. The bees are abroad under the calling sky, and the red of apple buds becomes a sign in the orchards.

17. Always darker turns the growing hemp as it rushes upward.

Account for the punctuation of sentences 3, 4, 6, 8, and 15.

XXVI. ADJECTIVES AS SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS

90. In the sentences, (1) “The tomato is a fruit,” (2) “That tall boy is the winner of the race,” the base word of the subjective complement is a noun, because we wish to assert (1) class, (2) identity.

In the sentence, “The old gentleman’s face was serene and rosy,” the base words of the subjective complement are the two adjectives serene and rosy, because we wish to assert the characteristics, or qualities, of the old gentleman’s face.

This is a very common use of the adjective, as seen in the familiar sentences, “Grass is green,” “Honey is sweet,” “Ice is cold.”

91. The verbs of being that were given in Lesson XXV,—be, become, look, seem, appear, feel, smell, taste, sound, and grow,—often take adjectives for subjective complements; as, “My head feels dizzy,” “This sentence sounds queer,” “Mary grew plump and strong.”

In some cases where the language affords no adjectives that exactly express the meaning, we use a prepositional phrase as subjective complement; as in the common expressions, “The house is on fire,” “The girl is in love,” “The man is in debt.” None of these phrases denote place, but each of them denotes a condition.

NOTE.—An adjective used as a subjective complement is often modified by a prepositional phrase. If we say “The bin is full,” somebody will ask “full of what?” If we say “full of apples,” it is evident that the phrase of apples modifies full. We also say glad of it, tired of play, wild with joy, green with envy, etc. These expressions are different, however, from what we find in the sentence, “I was tired in the evening,” where the phrase in the evening, denoting time, modifies not the adjective tired, but the two words was tired.

Summary.—An adjective, or a group of words of which an adjective is the base word, may be the subjective complement of an intransitive verb.

Exercise.—Select all the intransitive verbs of being in the following sentences. Find their subjects and their complements, and the base words of each. Analyze sentences 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15.

1. The sting of a bee is sometimes deadly.

2. The woodchuck looked sulky, and scratched his nose expressively.

3. The traveler’s limbs were numb, for the ride had been long and wearisome.

4. She might be poor in purse and weak in body, this brave young mother, but she was rich in hope and strong in spirit.

5. By the third day I felt too weak and sick to stir.

6. At these words the king grew purple in the face.

7. Conrad will keep quiet over his books.

8. Mary was beautiful, feminine in spirit, and lovely. Elizabeth was talented, masculine, and plain. Mary was artless, unaffected, and gentle. Elizabeth was heartless, intriguing, and insincere.

9. Your grandfather looked very funny in his red nightcap, and without his teeth.

10. Very few poetic people are good at arithmetic.

11. The garden at the back of the house was sweet with the scent of newly blossomed lilacs and the freshness of young grass.

12. Snow-white was the foam that flashed upward underneath the curving prow.

13. Is not Little Annie afraid of such a tumult?

14. His mouth felt as dry and stiff and hard as a chip.

15. The people went nearly mad for joy.

92. A common error is the misuse of an adverb for an adjective as the subjective complement of a verb of being. We should say, “I feel bad, or ill, or unhappy” (not badly).

Another common error is the misuse of an adjective for an adverb as a modifier of a verb of action. We should say, “The child learns easily” (not easy).

If we wish to tell a quality or condition of the subject, we should use an adjective; as, “The oak leaves turned brown.” If we wish to tell the manner of an action, we should use an adverb; as, “The leaves turned quickly this fall.”

Exercise 1.—Tell the part of speech of each italicized word in these sentences, and justify its use.

1. Mary dresses neatly and always looks charming.

2. The children must keep quiet to-night.

3. Stand straight and breathe deeply.

4. Look at them kindly and speak gently.

5. The old bishop looks kind and gentle.

6. This pie tastes very queer.

7. Mother feels uneasy if we are out late.

8. The boy seemed nervous and felt uneasily of his watch chain.

9. Poor oil made the lamp smell very disagreeable.

10. All the doors stood open.

11. The air grew cold steadily.

12. Keep the box carefully till I return.

Exercise 2.—Select the right word for each of the following sentences, and give your reason in each case:—

1. The light is so poor that I cannot see the picture (plain or plainly).

2. I am frightened when she speaks (cross or crossly) to me.

3. Sit with me so that you can hear (good or well).

4. Does he always deal (honest or honestly) with you?

5. The miser died (miserable or miserably).

6. You came so (sudden or suddenly) that I was taken by surprise.

7. No wonder you fell, you move too (quick or quickly).

8. How (stylish or stylishly) she dresses.

9. I (sure or surely) mailed the letter.

10. Next time I shall act more (sensible or sensibly).

11. Money comes (easy or easily) to him, and is soon gone.

12. I felt so (bad or badly) that I cried.

13. I was ill yesterday, but I feel pretty (good or well) this morning.

14. All my rose bushes look (fine or finely).

XXVII. REVIEW OF VERBS

93. A verb is an asserting word.

A transitive verb is one that asserts action performed upon some person or thing.

A transitive verb is completed by a direct object.

The direct object of a transitive verb is a word or a group of words that completes the meaning of the verb and names the receiver of the action.

The base word of a direct object is usually a noun.

An intransitive verb is one that asserts, (1) being, or (2) action not performed upon any person or thing.

An intransitive verb of action needs no complement.

An intransitive verb of being is usually completed by a subjective complement.

A subjective complement is a word or a group of words that completes a verb and refers to the same person or thing as the subject.

A subjective complement denotes identity with the subject, or tells the class to which the subject belongs, or some quality of the subject.

The base word of a subjective complement may be a noun or an adjective.

Exercise.—Select and classify all the verbs in the following sentences. Tell the subject of each verb, and tell how each verb is completed or modified.

1. As soon as he saw the cat in the soap barrel, he set the lamp down on the cellar bottom, and laughed so that he could hardly move.

2. When night came, I felt still more lonesome.

3. Little Toomai shall become a great tracker.

4. The wind whistled around the low, unplastered chamber, but the beds were soft and warm, and the guests were ready for sleep.

5. The youngest daughter was the gentlest and most beautiful creature ever seen, and the pride of all the people in the land.

6. I am too stiff and sore from a terrible fall I have had, to write more than one line.

7. Next month, when the city had returned to its sunbaked quiet, the Hindu did a thing that no Englishman would have dreamed of doing; for, so far as the world’s affairs went, he died.

8. The knoll in the tamarack swamp was a haven of peace amid the fierce but furtive warfare of the wilderness.

9. Beauty rose by four o’clock every morning, lighted the fires, cleaned the house, and prepared the breakfast for the whole family.

10. More years sped swiftly and tranquilly away.

11. What a place the old market must have been in the days of Herod the Builder!

12. The lizard belonging to my mistress was a very beautiful creature.

13. The rocky walls are red with the scarlet of the geranium, aglow with the orange of the lantana, or they are hidden by the purple veil of the wild convolvulus. The dainty sweet alyssum clings to the rock in great patches, and the little rice plant lays its pink cheek against it lovingly.

14. The spring had been a trying season for the lank she-bear.

15. Right proud the baron was of his gallant steed.

16. There is the house with the gate red-barred.

17. The big male cuffed the cubs aside without ceremony, mounted the carcass with an air of lordship, glared about him, and suddenly with a snarl of wrath, fixed his eyes upon the green branches wherein the boy was concealed.

18. Rip Van Winkle was a kind neighbor and an obedient, hen-pecked husband.

19. The great error in Rip’s composition was an insuperable aversion to all kinds of profitable labor.

20. The same sweet clover smell is in the breeze.

21. David stooped down and piled the fagots in the hollow of his arm.

22. Gentle are the days when the year is young.

23. The winter sunshine on the fields seems full of rest.

24. I feel out of place under this roof.

25. Strips of snow still whitened the fields, but on the stumps were bluebirds, and they warbled of spring.

26. The great limb of the cedar snapped off, rolled over in the air, and lay on the ground like a huge animal.

XXVIII. NOUNS: NUMBER

94. When we wish a noun to denote more than one object, we often change its form slightly. Man becomes men, child becomes children, river becomes rivers.

This change in the form of a noun by which it denotes one object or more than one is called number.

Number is said to be one of the properties of a noun.

95. When a noun denotes one object, it is said to be in the singular number; as, lion, mouse, knife.

When a noun denotes more than one object, it is said to be in the plural number; as, lions, mice, knives.

96. Most nouns form their plural by adding s or es to the singular; as, key, keys; hand, hands; rope, ropes; mass, masses; fox, foxes; church, churches; bush, bushes.

This is said to be the regular way of forming the plural. Why is it that some words add es instead of s?

97. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their plural by adding s; as, folio, folios; cameo, cameos.

Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es, and others s; as, potato, potatoes; mosquito, mosquitoes; solo, solos; piano, pianos.

98. Some nouns form their plural irregularly.

(1) A few nouns change the vowel; as, man, men; goose, geese; mouse, mice; foot, feet; tooth, teeth.

(2) A few nouns add en; as, ox, oxen; child, children.

(3) Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant sound, change y to i and add es; as, fly, flies; fairy, fairies.

(4) Some nouns ending in f or fe change f or fe to v and add es; as, wolf, wolves; knife, knives.

99. Some nouns have the same form in both the singular and the plural; as, deer, grouse, salmon.

100. Some nouns ending in s look like plural nouns, but are regarded as singular; as, news, athletics, gymnastics.

101. Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, scissors, pincers, thanks.

102. Compound nouns form their plural in three different ways:—

(1) By adding s to the last word; as, forget-me-not, forget-me-nots.

(2) By adding s to the principal word; as, son-in-law, sons-in-law.

(3) By pluralizing both words; as, manservant, menservants.

103. When a title is used with one name, we may pluralize either the name or the title. We may say the Misses Gray or the Miss Grays, the Messrs. Greenwood or the Mr. Greenwoods.

When a title is used with more than one name, we pluralize the title. We say the Misses Morgan and Adams. The title Mrs. has no plural, so we must say Mrs. Morgan and Mrs. Adams.

104. Letters, signs, or figures form their plurals by adding an apostrophe and s; as, 6’s, i’s, t’s.

105. A few foreign nouns have kept their foreign plurals. Some of these in common use are stratum, strata; alumnus, alumni; axis, axes.

106. Some nouns have two plurals used with slightly different meanings; as, penny has pennies and pence; brother has brothers and brethren; die has dies and dice. Find out from the dictionary the meanings of these plurals.

The correct plural of a noun cannot always be reasoned out. It should never be guessed. It can always be learned from a dictionary.

Summary.—Number is that property of a noun by which it denotes one object or more than one.

A singular noun denotes one object.

A plural noun denotes more than one object.

Nouns form their plural regularly by adding s or es to the singular.

Many nouns form their plural irregularly.

Exercise 1.—Tell the plural of each of the following nouns. Tell how it is formed. Consult the dictionary when you are in doubt.

- alto

- apostrophe

- box

- brush

- calf

- chromo

- crisis

- cupful

- deer

- Dutchman

- elf

- enemy

- fez

- fife

- foot

- German

- half

- hero

- hoof

- lasso

- lioness

- loaf

- monkey

- motto

- mouse

- negro

- noose

- Norman

- oasis

- piano

- pony

- sheaf

- size

- soprano

- tableau

- tooth

- vertebra

- volcano

- wharf

- court-martial

- Dr. Wright

- eyelash

- flagstaff

- General Allen

- hanger-on

- jack-in-the-pulpit

- Miss Davis

- passer-by

- postmaster general

- will-o’-the-wisp

Exercise 2.—Select all the nouns in the following sentences, and tell whether they are singular or plural. Give the singular of each plural word, and the plural of each singular word.

1. Listen! In yonder pine woods what a cawing of crows!

2. A washstand in the corner, a chest of carved mahogany drawers, a looking-glass in a filigree frame, and a high-backed chair studded with brass nails like a coffin constituted the furniture.

3. There have always been medicine men, rain makers, wizards, conjurers, sorcerers, astrologers, and fortune tellers, ready to trade on the fears of the weak, the ignorant, and the superstitious.

4. April brought the blue scylla and the sweet violet; May brought the much-loved narcissus and lily of the valley.

5. In came the three Miss Fezziwigs, beaming and lovable.

6. People hardly ever do know where to be born until it is too late.

7. The bell in the church tower was striking six, but I undressed for the night and buried myself under the bedclothes.

8. As it fell out, the three princesses were talking one night of whom they would marry.

9. Poor Mrs. Wise! I’m sure she’s to be pitied, living here with all these grandchildren.

10. As soon as Pussy heard me shut the gate in the yard at noon, when school was done, she would run up the stairs as hard as she could go.

11. The puppy’s nightly couch was outside the stable, even during the coldest weather.

12. The fish, strange creatures called groupers, with great sluggish bodies and horribly human faces, come crowding up to be fed.

13. What a hardy set of men they were, those Northmen of old!

14. The streams that have entered into our American life come from springs very wide apart,—from the Puritan whom James I was persecuting, and from the courtiers whom he was patronizing; from the Dutchmen whom Charles II was fighting, and from the Covenanters whom he was trying to convert at the pistol’s point; from the Scotchmen who had captured the north of Ireland, and from the Huguenots who had been driven out of the south of France.

What is the use of listen, sentence 1, furniture, 2, horribly, 12?

How are the adjectives weak, ignorant, and superstitious used in sentence 3?

XXIX. NOUNS: GENDER

107. One of the characteristics of living things is sex; that is, all living things are male or female. Many nouns that are names of living things indicate sex. The noun king indicates the male sex. The noun queen indicates the female sex. The property of a noun by which it indicates the sex of the object named is called gender.

108. Since there are two sexes, there must be at least two genders. Nouns that indicate the male sex are said to be of the masculine gender; as, hero, grandfather.

Nouns that indicate the female sex are said to be of the feminine gender; as, hen, tigress, sister.

Note that sex, male or female, refers to a distinction, or difference, in the living creatures themselves, while gender is merely a property of their names that shows this distinction. It is absurd, therefore, to speak of a person of the masculine gender, but it is allowable to speak of masculine qualities, masculine attire, a masculine voice, etc.

109. Since things without life have no sex, the nouns that name such things have no gender; as, sky, tent, pie. Such words are said to be of the neuter gender. Neuter means neither.

110. Some nouns that may be applied to persons of either male or female sex are said to be of common gender; as, child, cousin, parent, clerk.

111. Gender is denoted in three ways:—

(1) By a pair of words; as, man, woman; bull, cow; lad, lass.

(2) By inflection, that is, by adding a syllable to the masculine noun to form the feminine; as, hero, heroine; lion, lioness; host, hostess.

What can you say of the words widow and widower?

(3) By prefixing a word whose gender is well known; as, bull moose, maidservant, she bear.

NOTE. —Some feminine nouns are going out of use. We no longer use the words poetess or authoress. If a woman preaches, she is a minister; if she practices medicine, she is a doctor, not a “lady doctor.”

Summary.—Gender is that property of a noun which indicates the sex or non-sex of the object named.

There are four genders:—

A noun of the masculine gender indicates the male sex.

A noun of the feminine gender indicates the female sex.

A noun of the neuter gender indicates the absence of sex.

A noun of common gender may indicate either the male or the female sex.

Gender is denoted (1) by different words, (2) by inflection, (3) by prefixing some gender word.

Exercise.—Tell the gender of each noun in the following sentences. Tell how its gender is denoted. If you are in doubt about any word, consult the dictionary.

1. The she wolf lay agonizing in the darkest corner of the cave, licking in grim silence the raw stump of her right foreleg.

2. The wild goose winging at the head of the V knew of good feeding grounds near by, which he was ready to revisit.

3. Not vague was the fear of the brooding grouse in the far-off thicket, though the sound came to her but dimly.

4. At the captain’s signal the Seabird came alongside, and Mr. Wintermute left Mrs. Howe and her little family to go on their journey alone.

5. Having sniffed the air for several minutes, without discerning anything to interest him, the great bull moose bethought him of his evening meal.

6. Here on the ridge a buck, with his herd of does and fawns, has established his winter “yard.”

7. Without a second’s hesitation the cow flung up her tail, gave a short bellow, and charged the bear.

8. Another thing that attracts attention is the animals tethered here, there, and everywhere. You see donkeys, goats, cows, even cats, hens, and turkeys, confined by the inevitable tether.

9. Never before since the nestlings broke the shell had her mate been so long away.

10. The pupils never entered the study except upon the most formal occasions.

11. A fine cock grouse alighted on a log some forty paces distant, stretched himself, strutted, spread his ruff and wings and tail, and was about to begin drumming.

12. Pedestrians walk where they will, here, there, or yonder.

13. Several men-of-war, with a multitude of smaller craft, are at anchor in Grassy Bay, and the admiral’s ship is lying on the great floating dock for repairs.

14. Some civilians are buried here, and many little children; and I came upon a pathetic memorial to a fair young English wife, who followed her soldier husband hither with her little child, only to die on these far-off shores.

15. Any animal that had died from natural causes the wolves would not touch, and they even rejected anything that had been killed by the stockmen. Their choice and daily food was the tenderer part of a freshly killed yearling heifer. An old bull or cow they disdained, and though they occasionally took a young calf or colt, it was quite clear that veal or horseflesh was not their favorite diet. It was also known that they were not fond of mutton, although they often amused themselves by killing sheep.

XXX. POSSESSIVE NOUNS

112. Instead of saying, “I borrowed the knife belonging to Will,” we are likely to say, “I borrowed Will’s knife.” Here we have a new form of the noun Will. It is used with the noun knife to denote ownership of the knife, and is called a possessive noun.

113. Since a possessive noun denotes ownership, it must be used with another noun, the name of the thing owned. The possessive noun is said to modify this other noun. In the expression doctor’s car, the possessive noun doctor’s modifies the noun car.

When the name of the thing owned is well known, it is often omitted. We say, “I bought these skates at Percy’s,” and omit the word store. A word omitted in this way is said to be “understood.”

114. Possessive nouns have a certain form of their own. The possessive singular of a noun is formed by adding to it the apostrophe and s; as, girl’s desk; friend’s home; George’s boat.

NOTE.—In a few common expressions, like for Jesus’ sake, for conscience’ sake, the possessive is formed, for the sake of euphony, by adding merely the apostrophe.

When the plural of a noun ends in s, the possessive plural is formed by adding an apostrophe; as, girls’ league; ladies’ bonnets.

When the plural of a noun does not end in s, the possessive plural is formed by adding the apostrophe and s; as, women’s shoes; oxen’s yokes.

115. When two persons are joint owners of one thing, we give the possessive form to the name of the second person only; as, Lewis and Fred’s boat.

When two persons own separate things, the name of each person must have the possessive form; as, I went to Mandel’s and Field’s, meaning two different stores.

116. Compound nouns form the possessive by adding the sign of possession to the last word; as, singular, son-in-law’s; plural, sons-in-law’s.

117. The possessive noun does not always express actual ownership. Thus, “an hour’s walk” means a walk lasting an hour, “Lowell’s poems,” means the poems written by Lowell, “a child’s grief” means the grief felt by a child. What is the meaning of the day’s work? a good night’s rest? a year’s vacation? the king’s death?

118. Possession may be denoted by a phrase beginning with the preposition of. This phrase is much used. We say the back of the chair, not the chair’s back; the roots of the elm, not the elm’s roots. This phrase enables us to avoid some awkward possessives. What may we say instead of my cousin’s wife’s sister? the king of Greece’s court?

119. In the expression “this book of John’s,” we have what is called a double possessive, for we have the possessive noun John’s, and the phrase introduced by of. We use the double possessive when the noun denoting the thing owned is first modified by some adjective, as a, the, this, every, both, no.

Summary.—A possessive noun denotes ownership.

A possessive noun modifies another noun, expressed or understood.

The possessive singular is formed by adding the apostrophe and s.

The possessive plural is formed by adding the apostrophe and s if the noun does not end in s, and the apostrophe alone if the noun does end in s.

A double possessive is a phrase consisting of the preposition of followed by some possessive word.

Exercise 1.—Write the possessive of each of these nouns. Tell whether it is singular or plural.

- attorney-general

- chairman

- city

- colonies

- Colonel Cleveland

- commander in chief

- Charles Dickens

- daughters-in-law

- dwarfs

- foxes

- geese

- goddess

- groomsman

- Frenchman

- John Keats

- ladies

- major generals

- Miss James

- mulatto

- sailor boy

- thief

- witches

- woodpecker

- yeoman

Exercise 2.—Select all the possessive nouns in the following sentences. Tell what nouns they modify, and whether they are singular or plural. Tell also the gender of each possessive.

1. The lady’s fondness and the gentleman’s blindness were topics ably handled at every sewing circle in the town.

2. St. Paul’s is the largest Protestant church in the world.

3. Last year’s nuts are this year’s black earth.

4. On the way home we stopped at the baker’s to get some cream puffs.

5. Every debt of my partner’s has been paid.

6. The woodsman’s aim was true.

7. The singers’ seats, where the pretty girls sat, were the most conspicuous of all.

8. A half hour’s tramp through difficult woods brought him to the nearest of the waters.

9. In August we had two weeks’ vacation.

10. This editorial of Roosevelt’s is attracting much attention.

11. Sulphur they could buy at the apothecary’s.

12. The horse is coal-black, which is the regulation color of the Horse-Guards’ horses.

13. My clothes and my father’s were packed in a little leather valise.

14. The backwoodsman cast a tender look on the sleepers’ faces, and slipped out of the cabin door as silently as a shadow.

15. Just where we leave the highway to go to Gibbs’s Hill we pass a ruined house.

16. He had melted up his wife’s gold thimble and his great-grandfather’s gold-bowed spectacles.

17. I called on Nancy because she was a friend of Miss Davis’s.

18. Can you give a traveler a night’s lodging?

19.

When beechen buds begin to swell,

And woods the bluebird’s warble know,

The yellow violet’s modest bell

Peeps from the last year’s leaves below.

Analyze sentences 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 16.

XXXI. NOUNS: CASE

120. We have seen that a noun may be used in different relations to other words in the sentence. It may be related to a verb, for instance, as subject, as object, and as subjective complement. That property of a noun which shows its relation to some other word in the sentence is called case.

121. The three most important and striking relations that a noun may bear are these: subject of a verb, object of a verb, and possessive modifier. Hence there are three cases.

When a noun is the subject of a verb, we say that it is in the nominative case.

When it is the object of a verb, we say that it is in the objective case.

When it is a possessive modifier, we say that it is in the possessive case.

The pronoun has the same three cases as a noun.

122. A noun is said to be declined when we give its three case forms in both the singular and the plural number.

DECLENSION OF child

Singular

Plural

Nom.

child

children

Poss.

child’s

children’s

Obj.

child

children

123. The noun in the nominative case is used in other relations besides that of subject of a verb. The subjective complement is in the nominative case, as well as the noun used independently.

When a noun is object of a preposition, it is in the objective case.

Summary.—Case is that property of a noun or a pronoun which shows its relation to some other word in the sentence.

There are three cases.

A noun used as subject of a verb, as subjective complement, as an exclamatory noun, or as a term of address is in the nominative case.

A noun used as object of a verb or of a preposition is in the objective case.

A noun used as a possessive modifier is in the possessive case.

Declension is the arrangement of the three case forms of a noun in the two numbers.

Exercise.—Tell the use, the case, the number, and the gender of every noun in these sentences.

1. The chill glitter of the northern summer sunrise was washing down over the rounded top of old Sugar Loaf.

2. Thank him according to our customs, Mowgli.

3. What a good draught the nag takes!

4. Alas! Kitty Clover, they say it is wicked; that I must not catch grasshoppers for a pussy cat on Sunday.

5. Why doesn’t your mother make a fresh cup of coffee?

6. We might shovel off the snow, and dig down to some of last year’s onions.

7. Pilgrim fathers! why should we not glorify the pilgrim mothers?

8. What did Peterson Sahib mean by the elephant dance?

9. The boy is the shoemaker’s friend.

10.

Mistress Mary, quite contrary,

How does your garden grow?

11. I didn’t ask the captain’s leave when I attended this ceremony, for I had a general idea that he wouldn’t give it.

12. Cæsar is certainly the handsomest and most gentlemanly cat I ever saw.

13. How was the Princess’s nose ring the cause of your misfortune?

14.

Comrade, where wilt thou be to-night.

When the loosed storm breaks furiously?

15. Indeed all the really pretty girls that you see are Americans.

16. When I opened the goldfinch’s door on the morning of the blackbird’s arrival, he paid no attention to his beloved bath, but instantly flew over and alighted on the cage of the newcomer.

17. These ten cows knew their names after a while, and would take their places as I called them.

18. Oh! but he was a tight-fisted hand at the grindstone, was Scrooge.

19.

O time and change! how strange it seems

With so much gone to still live on!

XXXII. NOUNS: THE APPOSITIVE

124. It is frequently necessary to explain some term we use, and there is a convenient way for doing this without making a new sentence. For instance, an author writes, “One of these buildings belongs to the Horse Guards.” Then, for fear we may not know who the Horse Guards are, he adds these explanatory words, “a very fine body of English cavalry.”

This group of words consists of the noun body used as a base word, modified by the prepositional phrase of English cavalry, the adjective element very fine, and the article a. The whole group is placed beside the term it explains, and is separated from it by a comma. Such a group of words is called an appositive, and the base word body is called a noun in apposition.

125. Sometimes we explain who a person is by using his name; as, “I heard your friend, John Richards, say that he was going to write to you.”

Sometimes the name of a person or animal or place is used first, and then explained by a group of words; as, “Akela, the great gray Lone Wolf, lay out at full length on his rock.”

126. The appositive and the term it explains are in reality two names for the same person or thing. You might think that either one could be called the appositive, but this is not so. It is the explanatory term that is the appositive, and this is the second of the two terms.

127. Sometimes, when there is no danger of any misunderstanding, the appositive comes at a little distance from the word it modifies; as, “Splendid buildings meet our eyes at every turn,—churches, private residences, places of business, and public edifices.” Can you account for this arrangement?

128. Sometimes an appositive has been used so long with the word it modifies that the two have become united into one name; as, Peter the Hermit, Peter the Great, William the Conqueror. Such an appositive is not set off by a comma.

NOTE.—In the term Peter the Great, the adjective great has become a noun, and is modified by the adjective the.

129. When ownership is to be denoted, the sign of possession is added to the appositive instead of to the term that it explains; as, “The poet Milton’s daughter,” “Mr. Taft, the president’s, cow,” “My friend Julia’s husband.”

Summary.—An appositive is a word or a group of words placed after a term to explain it.

When the base word of an appositive is a noun, it is called a noun in apposition.

The case of a noun in apposition is the same as that of the noun it explains.

An appositive is a modifier of a noun or a pronoun.

An appositive is set off from the rest of the sentence by commas unless it makes one term with the word it modifies.

Exercise.—Select all the appositives in the following sentences, and tell what they modify. Find the nouns in apposition. Tell the case of each, giving the reason in each instance. Analyze sentences 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16.

1. Alfred the Great loved books and strangers and travelers.

2. In the neatest, sandiest hole of all lived Benjamin’s aunt and his cousins,—Flopsy, Mopsy, Cottontail, and Peter.

3. The conversation turned to rheumatism, a subject of very remote interest to Polly.

4. My son William became a telegraph operator before he was seventeen.

5. James II, the bigoted successor of Charles I, had annulled the charters of all the colonies.

6. The geography lesson that day was the rivers of Asia,—the Obi, Yenisei, Lena, Amoor, Hoang Ho, and Yang-tse-kiang.

7. Some writers tell us that Edward the Confessor had made a will appointing Duke William his successor.

8. Foremost among the envious ones was the Princess Panka, the daughter of a neighboring king.

9. Close to Charing Cross is Trafalgar Square, a fine open space with a fountain, and a column to Lord Nelson.

10. The body of Warwick the kingmaker was exposed for three days on the pavement of St. Paul’s, and then deposited among the ashes of his fathers in the abbey of Bilsam.

11. The pass was crowned with dense, dark forest,—deodar, walnut, wild cherry, wild olive, and wild pear.

12. Kaa, the big Rock Python, had changed his skin for perhaps the two hundredth time since his birth.

13. Eric the Red, a wandering Norseman who was dwelling in Iceland, went to sea and discovered Greenland.

14. There are so many things to distract a boy’s attention,—a chipmunk in the fence, a bird on a near tree, and a henhawk circling high in the air over the barnyard.

15. Very soundly it slept, that doomed hare crouching under the fir bush!

16. They had never been accounted for, Rebecca’s eyes.

XXXIII. APPOSITIVE ADJECTIVES

130. Adjectives are not always placed before the noun they modify. When they are used as subjective complements, they follow the verb, although they modify the subject; as, “Life is real,” “The air seems moist.” We also find many sentences like the following, “The camel, restless and weary, groans and occasionally shows his teeth.”

Here it is evident that the adjectives restless and weary are in the sentence to describe the camel; hence they modify the noun camel; but instead of preceding this noun, they follow it. Because of their position such adjectives are called appositive adjectives.

131. An appositive adjective is usually set off by a comma or commas. It is frequently modified by a phrase, as in the expressions, “restless under his heavy load,” “weary with the long journey.”

Summary.—An adjective with or without modifiers may be used as an appositive.

An appositive adjective is usually set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

Exercise.—Select all the appositive adjectives in these sentences, and tell what they modify. Give the modifiers of each adjective. Account for the punctuation. Analyze sentences 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12.

1. His tunic, scarlet in color, is of the softest woolen fabric.

2. The skirt drops to the knee in folds heavy with embroidery.

3. Grandfather Nutter was a hale, cheery old gentleman, as straight and as bald as an arrow.

4. The pink rose, dear for its old associations, was transplanted to a sunny place close by the south door.

5. Presently the Colonel came in, bluff, warm, and hearty.

6. From the other window one saw the distant forest, so deep, black, and mysterious.

7. The April night, softly chill and full of the sense of thaw, was closing down over the wide salt marshes!

8. Presently, from far along the dark heights of the sky, came voices, hollow, musical, confused.

9. Here is a foot passenger, dusty and tired, who comes with lagging steps.

10. There is no nation known to history in which all citizens, male and female, old and young, native and foreign born, have had the suffrage.

11. Ginger hurried off into the darkness, wild with excitement.

12. The chief engineer entered the smoking room for a moment, red, smiling, and wet.

XXXIV. INDIRECT OBJECT

132. We have seen that the direct object names the receiver of the action asserted by the verb. In the sentence, “Kotuko made his dog a tiny harness,” the direct object of the verb made is a tiny harness, for this group of words tells what received the making, and answers the question made what?

If we go further and ask the question, made a harness for what? the answer is, his dog. This group of words is called the indirect object. It names the receiver of the direct object; that is, the dog received the harness.

133. An indirect object is always in the objective case, but it is not a complement of the verb, because it is not a necessary element of a sentence. We call it a modifier of the verb. The sentence, “In the morning the old wife gave the princess three nuts,” would be complete if we left out the indirect object the princess, and merely told what the old wife gave, namely, three nuts.

Notice that the indirect object comes between the verb and the direct object. If we place it after the direct object, we must supply the preposition to or for, and then instead of an indirect object we shall have a prepositional phrase.

Summary.—An indirect object is a word or a group of words that tells to whom or for whom, to what or for what, something is done.

An indirect object names the receiver of the direct object.

An indirect object precedes the direct object.

An indirect object is a modifier of a verb.

An indirect object is in the objective case.

Only a few transitive verbs take both direct and indirect objects. Some of them are bring, buy, do, get, give, lend, make pass, pay, promise, sell, send, show, take, tell, write.

Exercise 1.—Write sentences containing both direct and indirect objects, using verbs in the list above.

Exercise 2.—Select both the direct and the indirect objects in the following sentences, giving reasons:—

1. Carry your grandmamma a custard and a little pot of butter.

2. Aladdin made his mother very little reply.

3. I showed my comrades a large heap of stones.

4. Mrs. Howe had promised the children presents, so she bought George a gun, Mollie two gold rings, and Paul a checkerboard.

5. I wish the Lord would give horses voices for just one week.

6. Bring my mother six women slaves to attend her.

7. If you offer Dash a bit of sheep’s wool now, he tucks his tail between his legs, and runs for home.

8. I never told my schoolmates that I was a Yankee.

9. I paid Gypsy a visit every half hour during the first day of my arrival.

10. Then the magician gave Aladdin a handful of small money.

11. Father Andrew also taught Tom a little Latin.

12. The sultan granted Aladdin his request and again embraced him.

XXXV. ADVERBIAL NOUN PHRASES

134. We have learned that a frequent modifier of a verb is a prepositional phrase telling the place or time of an action; as, “So off we go in the cool, clear morning.”

Sometimes a noun, or a group of words of which a noun is the base word, takes the place of this prepositional phrase; as, “Last summer the apple trees bore no fruit.”

The words last summer tell time, and modify the predicate bore no fruit, but there is no preposition in this group of words. Summer is a noun modified by the adjective last. Such a group of words we call an adverbial noun phrase. The noun used as base word we call an adverbial noun.

135. An adverbial noun phrase tells not only time and place, but it often answers such questions as how far? how long? how much? as, “We walked the whole distance before sunset.” “She stayed in London ten days.” “One orange weighed twelve ounces.”

Summary.—An adverbial noun phrase is a group of words of which a noun is the base word, that tells the time or place of an action, or how long, how far, or how much.

An adverbial noun phrase modifies a verb.

An adverbial noun is always in the objective case.

Exercise.—Select the adverbial noun phrases and the nouns used as base words. Tell what the phrases modify, and what questions they answer. (Notice that these phrases often modify more of the predicate than just the verb.) Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10.

1. He followed her to school one day.

2. Each boy who failed to report himself was fined one cent.

3. Elizabeth Eliza went home directly.

4. Morning, noon, and night, Dame Van Winkle’s tongue was incessantly going.

5. His keen, sonorous, passionate cry rang strangely on the night, three times.

6. The trail was an easy one this time.

7. There the wild plum each summer fruited abundantly; and there a sturdy brotherhood of beeches each autumn lavished their treasure of three-cornered nuts.

8. I worked a whole week to get the traps properly set out.

9. The next instant the panther received a smart blow on the top of his head.

10. Kala Nag, the elephant, stood ten fair feet at the shoulder.

11. Ere the cow had gone twenty-five yards, Lobo was upon her.

12. The next morning Mrs. Peterkin began by taking out the things that were already in her trunk.

XXXVI. ADVERBIAL NOUN PHRASES

136. When we wish to tell how long, or wide, or deep, or thick a thing is, we frequently make use of such statements as these:—

The valley is nine miles long.

The street is sixty feet wide.

The water is ten fathoms deep.

The slices were an inch thick.

It is evident that in the first sentence the question how long? is answered by the words nine miles. Hence this group of words modifies the adjective long, having the same use as the adverb very in, “The valley is very long.” But the base word of this group is the noun miles, hence the whole group must be an adverbial noun phrase. We conclude from this familiar sentence that an adverbial noun phrase may modify an adjective.

What adverbial noun phrase modifies wide? deep? thick?

Make sentences in which an adverbial noun phrase modifies the adjectives old, tall, high.

137. The adverbial noun phrase may also modify an adverb, as in the sentence, “She came two hours afterward,” where two hours answers the question how long afterward? How do we know that afterward is an adverb?

NOTE.—A common illustration of this use is found in the familiar expression a short time ago, where the adverb ago (which is never used by itself) is modified by the adverbial noun phrase a short time. Think of five other noun phrases often used to modify ago.

Summary.—An adverbial noun phrase may modify an adjective or an adverb. In such a case it denotes a measure of some sort.

Exercise.—Select the adverbial nouns and the phrases of which they are the base words. Tell what these phrases modify, and what questions they answer.

1. About an hour later a big red fox came trotting into the glade.

2. When the stone was pulled up, there appeared a staircase about three or four feet deep, leading to a door.

3. The trail was perhaps an hour old.

4. After viewing old Fort Snelling, we walked a mile farther to the parade ground, and watched the soldiers drill.

5. An ordinary wolf’s forefoot is four and one half inches long.

6. Lobo stood three feet high at the shoulder, and weighed one hundred and fifty pounds.

7. If the crows do not kill the owl, they at least worry him half to death and drive him twenty miles away.

8. It is a curious fact about boys that two will be a great deal slower in doing anything than one.

9. When the eagle returned an hour later to the point of shoals, the net looked less strange to him.

10. Twenty-five years ago the American minister at the court of Turin was conversing with a young Italian of high rank from the island of Sardinia.

11. The largest aboriginal structure of stone within the limits of the United States has a circuit of 1480 feet, is five stories high, and once included five hundred separate rooms.

12. How many years did Jacob serve for Rachel?

13. The week before the election one of the candidates for mayor spoke to an audience of laboring men every evening.

14. That day I left the university, and my trial took place a little while later.

15. David reflected a few moments longer.

XXXVII. OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT

138. In the sentence, “The boys called the turtles Harry Blake’s sheep,” the verb is followed by two noun elements. What are they? The second element is not an appositive of the first, neither have we here a direct and an indirect object. Prove this.

If we ask the question, What did the boys call Harry Blake’s sheep? the answer is, the turtles; hence this must be the direct object of called. But the sentence is not complete here. We do not mean that the boys called the turtles, that is, summoned them. We mean that they named the turtles. If we ask the question, “What did the boys call the turtles?” the answer is, “Harry Blake’s sheep.” This group of words is necessary as a second complement of the verb, and at the same time it tells what the turtles became as a result of calling, or naming, them. Such an element is called an objective complement, because it tells something about the direct object.

The base word of an objective complement is in the objective case.

139. Not all transitive verbs take an objective complement; but only verbs of making or causing, such as make, call, name, elect, appoint, choose.

140. Sometimes the objective complement has an adjective for its base word instead of a noun; as, “The great wood-fire in the tiled chimney place made our sitting room very cheerful of winter nights.”

Summary.—An objective complement is a word or a group of words that helps to complete the verb, and tells what the direct object becomes as a result of the action asserted by the verb.

The base word of an objective complement may be either a noun or an adjective.

Exercise.—Find all the objective complements in the following sentences and tell about them in this way:—

MODEL.—Ben called this room his cabin.

His cabin is a noun element used as objective complement of the verb called, because it tells what the direct object, this room, becomes as a result of the calling. The base word of this objective complement is the noun cabin.

1. His blue beard made him so ugly and so terrible in appearance that women and children fled from him.

2. She kept the cottage always as neat as a new pin.

3. By much trampling we had made the salt marsh a mere quagmire.

4. This mother, proud of her knowledge of French, always called her little daughter Mademoiselle.

5. If ever I have a boy to bring up in the way he should go, I shall make Sunday a cheerful day to him.

6. To the great amusement of my grandfather, Sailor Ben painted the cottage a light sky-blue.

7. Then, inch by inch, the untempered heat crept into the heart of the Jungle, turning it yellow, brown, and at last black.

8. The fish had buried themselves deep in the dry mud.

9. The natives of Bermuda call the tamarisk the “salt-cedar.”

10. Nature meant him for a frontiersman, but circumstances made him an innkeeper.

11. The only way that they could set the king’s head straight was to remove it.

12. Columbus rechristened the island San Salvador, but its precise identity has always been a little doubtful.

13. A parrot would shriek me wild in a week.

14. Skin changing always makes a snake moody and depressed till the new skin begins to shine and look beautiful.

15. The giver makes the gift precious.

16. The sound of a bell struck the merrymakers dumb.

17. Who appointed you judge of your brother?

18. The dim light of stars rendered large objects near at hand visible in bulk and outline.

19. We call domestic animals dependent creatures; but who made them dependent?

XXXVIII. PARSING OF NOUNS

141. When we tell all that is true about a noun from a grammatical point of view, we are said to parse it.

In parsing a noun we should tell:—

(1) Its class,—common or proper.

(2) Its person,—first, second, or third. (See Note.)

(3) Its number,—singular or plural.

(4) Its gender,—masculine, feminine, neuter, or common.

(5) Its case,—nominative, possessive, or objective.

(6) Its use in the sentence.

NOTE.—Nouns do not change their form for person. Since they are almost always the names of persons or things spoken of, they are usually in the third person. A noun is in the first person when it is used in apposition with a pronoun of the first person. (See p. 98.) A noun is in the second person (1) when it is used in apposition with a pronoun of the second person; (2) when it is used as a term of address.

Exercise.—Parse each noun in the following sentences:—

1. All the great men of the neighborhood were there on horseback,—militia officers in uniform, the member of Congress, the sheriff of the county, the editors of newspapers, and many a farmer, too, had mounted his patient steed or come on foot.

2. Next day Mowgli himself fell into a very cunning leopard trap.

3. The Bermudas are, with the exception of Gibraltar, England’s most strongly fortified hold.

4. Then Mrs. Howe graciously showed the admiring ladies her collection of fine lace and embroideries.

5. The thoughtful, lonely ways of their admiral made Columbus an object of terror to his ignorant seamen.

6. I thought that nothing in the world was so beautiful as the sultan my father’s palace.

7. Perhaps your fish is eighteen inches long.

8. Here comes the boat! This is your waterproof, Hetty. Be careful now, Miss Alice. Mrs. Blank, you will need your sun umbrella. Hold on a minute, skipper, till I get that basket.

9. At nine o’clock, Williams, a bronze Hercules, low-voiced, gentle-mannered, a trusty boatman, and an enthusiast in his calling, met us at the dock.

10. The savage sticks bright feathers in his hair, carries a tomahawk, and wears moccasins upon his nimble feet.

11. Some evenings afterward the same thing happened at another corner of the pasture.

12. The innocent savages gave Columbus a new world for Castile and Leon, and he gave them some glass beads and little red caps.

13. The sultan received the present from Aladdin’s mother’s hand.

14. The elephant was thoughtfully chewing the green stem of a young plantain tree.

15. In the good old days the boys on the coast ran away and became sailors.

16. I was a favorite with the cooks, and so, although they denied my cousins certain privileges of the kitchen, they freely granted these to me.

17. The Norsemen called gold “the serpent’s bed.”

SUMMARY OF CASE RELATIONS

Nominative.

- (1) Subject of a verb.

- (2) Term of address.

- (3) Exclamatory noun.

- (4) Subjective complement of a verb.

- (5) Appositive.

- (6) Nominative absolute (see p. 237).

Possessive.

- (1) Modifier of a noun.

Objective.

- (1) Object of a verb.

- (2) Object of a preposition.

- (3) Appositive.

- (4) Indirect object.

- (5) Adverbial noun.

- (6) Objective complement.

Make an original sentence to illustrate each of the case relations of a noun.

XXXIX. PERSONAL PRONOUNS

142. Certain pronouns, as I, you, he, it, etc., show by their form that they refer to the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.

The pronoun I denotes the person speaking, and is said to be a pronoun of the first person.

The pronoun you denotes the person spoken to, and is said to be a pronoun of the second person.

The pronouns he, she, and it denote the person or thing spoken of, and are said to be pronouns of the third person.

Such pronouns are called personal pronouns.

143. The noun that a pronoun stands for, whether it is expressed somewhere in the sentence or merely understood, is called the antecedent of the pronoun.

144. All the personal pronouns have several different forms, and if we wish to speak our language correctly, we must know these forms and be careful in their use. The personal pronouns are declined as follows:—

F IRST PERSON

S ECOND PERSON

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Nom.

I

we

you

you

Poss.

my, mine

our, ours

your, yours

your, yours

Obj.

me

us

you

you

T HIRD PERSON

Singular

Plural

M ASCULINE

F EMININE

N EUTER

Nom.

he

she

it

they

Poss.

his

her, hers

its

their, theirs

Obj.

him

her

it

them

145. There is another personal pronoun of the second person—thou. It is not used in conversation nowadays, but is frequently found in the Bible and in poetry. It is declined as follows:—

Singular

Plural

Nom.

thou

ye

Poss.

thy, thine

your, yours

Obj.

thee

you

Summary.—A personal pronoun is one that shows by its form whether it denotes the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.

The personal pronouns are I, thou, you, he, she, it, and their various case forms in the two numbers.

The antecedent of a pronoun is the word for which it stands.

Exercise.—Select all the personal pronouns. Tell from the form of each its person and number, and, if it is a pronoun of the third person, tell also its gender. Where it is possible, tell the antecedent of the pronoun.

1. Hide me in the oven.

2. First lay aside your black veil, then tell us why you put it on.

3. While we were following the direction of his finger, a sound of distant oars fell on our ears.

4. If you want a thing, and have no money to buy it, go without it until you can pay for it.

5. Though the Jungle People drink seldom, they must drink deep.

6. The whelps were evidently very young, but their ears were wide open, and they stood up on strong legs when the boy touched them gently with his palm.

7. “Well,” said grandfather, “I tell you one thing; the game will last me till that poor cat gets well again.”

8. They sent him for troops only the sweepings of the galleys.

9.

My driftwood fire will burn so bright!

To what warm shelter canst thou fly?

I do not fear for thee, though wroth

The tempest rushes through the sky.

10. Caught in a steel trap, she had gnawed off her own paw as the price of freedom.

11. At recess he gave me the core of his apple, though there were several applicants for it.

XL. USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS

146. The personal pronoun, since it takes the place of a noun, has almost all the uses of a noun. It may be,—

(1) The subject of a verb; as, “I only know I cannot drift beyond His love and care.”

The subject of an imperative sentence is always the pronoun you, thou, or ye, but this pronoun is seldom expressed; as, “Telegraph for staterooms at once.”

(2) The base word of a term of address; as, “Ho, ye who suffer, know ye suffer for yourselves.”

(3) The subjective complement of a verb; as, “This man, good Ilderim, is he who told you of me.”

(4) The base word of an appositive phrase; as, “The fourth lackey, he of the two gold watches, poured the chocolate out.”

(5) A possessive modifier; as, “All the harmless wood folk were his friends.”

NOTE.—The possessive pronoun is often intensified by the adjective own, which modifies the same noun that the possessive pronoun modifies; as, “This is my own, my native land.”

(6) The direct object of a verb; as, “The farm boy spreads the grass after the men have cut it.”

(7) The object of a preposition; as, “What a new world did that party open to him!”

(8) An indirect object; as, “Here will the cattle come to drink, and I will kill me a yearling heifer.”

Exercise.—Select and parse all the personal pronouns in the following sentences. In parsing a personal pronoun we should tell its person, number, gender, antecedent, case, and use in the sentence.

1. I verily believe that my ill looks alone saved me a flogging.

2. Taste the tamarisk, and you get the very flavor of the brine.

3. Then I swung my lasso, and sent it whistling over his head.

4. They worked together, read together, walked together, planned together, she and her daughter, and in all things were friends and companions.

5. Mother Wolf would throw up her head, and sniff a deep snuff of satisfaction as the wind brought her the smell of the tiger skin on the Council Rock.

6. The old crow spread the shells out in the sun, turned them over, lifted them one by one in his beak, dropped them, nestled on them as though they were eggs, toyed with them, and gloated over them like a miser.

7. The spirits have spoken to Kotuko. They will show him open ice. He will bring us the seal again.

8. The rank swamp grass concealed the nest where Raggylug’s mother had hidden him.

9.

Across the lowly beach we flit,

One little sandpiper and I.

10. Up jumped Scarface, for it was he, and ran.

11.

And a voice that was calmer than silence said,

“Lo! It is I. Be not afraid.”

12. Nearly every cottage in England has its little garden full of blooming plants and shrubs.

13.

“Who gives himself with his alms feeds three,—

Himself, his hungering neighbor, and Me.”

14. This is he that was spoken of by the prophet.

15. Arise, and take the young child and his mother, and flee into Egypt, and be thou there until I bring thee word.

16.

I called my servant, and he came;

How kind it was of him

To mind a slender man like me,

He of the mighty limb.

17. Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight.

18. It is so slippery and shiny down here, and the stage is so much too big for me, that I rattle round in it till I’m almost black and blue.

19. These are they who have passed through much tribulation.

20. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers, whence comes thy everlasting light?

147. Many errors are made in the form of personal pronouns.

(1) When a pronoun is used as the subject of a verb, it must have the nominative form, hence the correct answer to the question, Who is there? is I (not me).

(2) When several pronouns are used as the subject of the same verb, the pronoun of the second person should come first, and the pronoun of the first person should come last. We should say,—

You and he and I have been chosen.

You and I were on time.

He and I read the book.

Can you justify Whittier’s lines?

Ah, brother, only I and thou

Are left of all that circle now.

(3) For the subject of a sentence we may use the expressions we boys, we girls, we Americans, etc.

We girls bought the pictures.

We boys set up the tents.

We Baptists had a church supper.

(4) A pronoun used as the complement of an intransitive verb of being must have the nominative form. We should say,—

Yes, it was I.

No, it was not she.

Perhaps it is he.

It is surely they.

(5) A pronoun used as object of a verb must have the objective form. We should say,—

Mrs. Albee invited mother and me.

Did you see Julia and me in the gallery?

Didn’t you expect him and her?

She will never suspect you and me.

That team can’t beat us boys.

(6) A pronoun used as object of a preposition must have the objective form. We should say,—

Leo wrote first to her and me.

Father will call for you and me.

Between you and me he was afraid.

There is a great difference between Carrie and me.

They can never catch up with us girls.

Exercise.—Fill each blank in the following sentences with a pronoun having the correct case form. Give your reasons.

1. Mother says that it was —— and not —— that paid off the mortgage.

2. Who left the room first? ——, but Mary was close behind ——.

3. —— fellows are going to have a debating society.

4. The German teacher gave you and —— the same passage to translate.

5. There must be no secrets between —— and ——.

6. When do you expect Grandmother and ——?

7. Perhaps —— girls are most to blame.

8. Nobody chose —— or ——, so —— and —— sat on the stairs and talked.

XLI. USES OF POSSESSIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS

148. When we studied the declension of personal pronouns, we learned that all of them except it and he have two forms in the possessive case. These forms are my, mine; our, ours; thy, thine; your, yours; her, hers; and their, theirs. There is a difference in the use of these two forms.

The pronouns of the first form,—my, our, thy, your, her, and their, as well as his and its, are used with nouns as possessive modifiers. We say, my father, our school, her hat, its population, etc.

149. The pronouns of the second form,—mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs, and also his, are used alone, that is, they are not followed by a noun, the name of the thing possessed. We say, “Mine is too heavy,” when the object spoken of—a waterproof, for instance—is well known by both speaker and listener. Or we say, “Her writing is clear, but I like his better,” where it is unnecessary to repeat the noun writing after his.

In the first sentence mine is the subject of the verb is, and in the second his is the object of the verb like. We even find the possessive form used as the object of a preposition; as, “If the book isn’t in my desk, it must be in yours.”

This use of the possessive forms mine, his, yours as subject or object is idiomatic; that is, it is peculiar to itself in grammatical construction. The one word mine really means my waterproof, his means his writing, and yours means your desk. But we cannot say that the noun is understood after these pronouns, for we cannot supply it except after his. It is not English to say mine waterproof or yours desk. Instead of being understood, the nouns are included in the pronouns. In speaking of such pronouns we may say that they are possessive in form, but are used idiomatically as subject, object, etc.

NOTE.—The two pronouns mine and thine are sometimes used to modify a noun expressed, especially in poetry; as, “Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.” It is worth noting that they are not used before words beginning with a consonant sound. We do not say mine country, nor thine liberty.

150. In the expression “a friend of mine,” we have in the phrase of mine a “double possessive” (see § 119); for the preposition of denotes possession, and so does the object, the possessive pronoun mine. In this use there is no noun included in the pronoun. Mine does not mean my friends. It means me.

Summary.—The possessive pronouns mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, his, and theirs may be used idiomatically without a noun to modify. These pronouns have then the same use that the noun would have if it were expressed.

These pronouns may be used as the object of the preposition of to form “double possessives.”

Mine and thine are sometimes used to modify nouns expressed, the same as my and thy.

Exercise.—Select all the possessive pronouns in these sentences, and tell their use:—

1. You have no uncle by your father’s side or mine.

2. To thine own self be true.

3. The people of Europe did not know that America, this great country of ours, was in the world at all.

4. This young girl came to Wisconsin to live with an uncle of hers who had seven sons and no daughters.

5. Early in the spring I had begun Bingo’s education. Very shortly afterward he began mine.

6. Stand! The ground’s your own, my braves!

7. A boy who lived in a street behind ours had an awkward three-wheeled machine that he called a “verlosophy.”

8.

He will say, “O Love, thine eyes

Build the shrine my soul abides in;

And I kneel here for thy grace.”

9. The boy saw big, clutching talons outstretched from thick-feathered legs, while round eyes, fiercely gleaming, flamed upon his in passing, as they searched the bush.

10. Time hath his work to do, and we have ours.

11. The sultan ordered that the princess’s attendants should come and carry the trays into their mistress’s apartment.

12. Susie could sew like a woman, and her patchwork quilts were masterpieces of their kind. Neither mine nor Marty’s were well made.

13. Your worthy father was my own brother.

14. There was more joy in this little brown, battened house of ours than in their mansion with its onyx mantels and mahogany doors.

Are the verbs in sentences 1, 7, 10, transitive or intransitive? How do you know?

Account for the punctuation of sentences 3, 6, 10, 12, and 14.

XLII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS

151. Besides the personal pronouns that have already been considered there are certain other forms such as myself and ourselves, formed by uniting the noun self to a singular personal pronoun, and the noun selves to a plural personal pronoun.

These are called compound personal pronouns.

First person

myself,

ourselves

Second person

thyself, yourself,

yourselves

Third person

himself, herself, itself,

themselves

What is the number of each of these pronouns?

152. Compound personal pronouns are never in the possessive case. They never change their form for case, but are in the nominative or the objective case according to their use. They have two main uses:—

(1) A compound personal pronoun may be used for emphasis, and is then in apposition with the noun it makes emphatic; as, “Cæsar himself refused the crown.” The pronoun does not always come next to the noun. We may say, “Cæsar refused the crown himself.” The pronoun is in the same case as the word it goes with.

(2) It may be used reflexively, that is, to show that an action comes back to the doer of it; as, “I scratched myself with a pin.” Here the pronoun is object of a verb, hence in the objective case.

It may also be the object of a preposition; as, “I was talking to myself.”

It may even be an indirect object; as, “She bought herself a watch.”

NOTE.—The compound personal pronoun is used as object of a preposition in some familiar idiomatic expressions; as, “He was beside himself with joy.” “She was sitting all by herself.”

Summary.—The compound personal pronouns are myself, ourselves, thyself, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, and themselves.

They are commonly used for two purposes:—

(1) For emphasis, (2) reflexively.

Exercise.—Select and parse all the compound personal pronouns in the following sentences. Tell their person, number, case, and use.

1. Love thyself last.

2. The men folks, having worked in the regular hours, lie down and rest, stretch themselves idly in the shade at noon, or lounge about after supper.

3. Very stupid people are never aware of their stupidity themselves.

4. On cold, stormy evenings we would make ourselves toast at the sitting room fire, and eat our supper on the little sewing table.

5. At the more remote end of the island Legrand had built himself a small hut.

6. A masterly retreat is in itself a victory.

7. Now make yourselves at home, and if you find an eel’s head, you may bring it to me.

8. The little fox ground his pearly milk teeth into the mouse with a rush of inborn savageness that must have surprised even himself.

9. They were returning home for the holidays in high glee, and promising themselves a world of enjoyment.

10. Pity for his gallant horse, rage and mortification at the ridiculous plight he was in, anxiety lest he should be late for the tournament, all combined to make the baron for a time beside himself.

11. Rivermouth itself is full of hints and flavors of the sea.

12. I think the ugly duckling will grow up strong, and be able to take care of himself.

13. With what awe, yet with what pride, did I look forward to the day when I myself should enter the doorway of the high school.

14. That I may have nobody to blame but myself should my marriage turn out amiss, I will choose for myself.

15. Although the English and we ourselves both speak the same tongue, we do not speak it in the same way.

16. Heaven helps those who help themselves.

Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11.

XLIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

153. If we ask the question, “Who killed cock robin?” the answer may be the declarative sentence, “The sparrow killed cock robin.” The sentences are alike, except that in the declarative sentence the sparrow is the subject, while in the interrogative sentence who is the subject. It is clear then that who is used instead of the noun sparrow. Who is therefore a pronoun, and since it is used in asking a question, we call it an interrogative pronoun.

154. The other interrogative pronouns are whose, whom, which, and what. Whose is the possessive form of who, and is used, like other possessive pronouns, to modify some noun expressed or understood; as, “Whose house is the gray stone mansion on the corner?”

Whom is the objective form of who, and is used as the object of a verb or of a preposition; as, “Whom did he marry?” “To whom did you speak?”

NOTE.—In conversation, the preposition governing an interrogative pronoun is often placed at the end of the question; as, “Whom did you come for?”

155. What is used when we inquire for the name, not of a person but of a thing; as, “What did he have on his head?”

156. Which is used when we wish to know the particular one of several persons or things; as, “Which of these moon-stones do you like best?”

157. In a sentence like this, “Who is that tall man?” it may be difficult at first thought to decide whether who is the subject of is or the subjective complement. We can always tell by the answer. In this case the answer is, “That tall man is Joseph Choate.” It is clear that Joseph Choate is the subjective complement, hence in the question the word who, which means Joseph Choate, is the subjective complement.

Summary.—An interrogative pronoun is one used in asking a question.

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what.

Who is declined: Nominative, who; possessive, whose; objective, whom.

An interrogative pronoun has the same use in the question that the word which takes its place has in the answer.

Exercise.—Select all the interrogative pronouns in these sentences. Tell the use and case of each. Determine this by answering the question that is asked.

Analyze sentences 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15.

1. What made you so late?

2. Who is there?

3. Who is this young and handsome officer now entering the door of the tavern?

4. Whose work is this crayon drawing of a castle in the moonlight?

5. What do you mean by telling me such nonsense as that?

6. What may so bold a hunter kill?

7. Who should know better than I?

8. What is all this talk about the Red Flower?

9. What is gingerbread?

10. Whose is this image and superscription?

11. With whom did you take that memorable trip on Lake Superior?

12. Whose little girl are you, with your rosy cheeks and pretty red hood?

13. Whom did the superintendent mean when he announced that the youngest pupil in the grammar school had made one hundred in all her examinations?

14. Which should you rather be, an artist or a poet?

15. Which shall I take, a new piano or a trip to California?

158. A common error in the use of interrogative pronouns is the use of the nominative form who when the objective whom is required. This error arises from the fact that the pronoun comes at the beginning of the sentence, and is separated by intervening words from the verb or the preposition of which it is the object, as in these sentences,—

Whom did the ball hit?

Whom do you sit with this term?

Exercise.—Supply the proper pronoun, who or whom, in each of the following sentences, and give your reasons:—

1. —— does the baby look like?

2. —— do I see in the orchard?

3. —— did you go to the station for this morning?

4. —— are you smiling at, George?

5. —— does Mr. Coburn work for now?

6. —— will open this window for me?

7. —— can we depend upon?

8. —— is that child playing with?

9. —— have you invited to your party?

10. —— can keep a secret?

XLIV. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES

159. We learned in Lesson IX that adjectives are used (1) to describe objects, (2) to point them out. Adjectives are therefore divided into two classes,—(1) descriptive adjectives, and (2) limiting adjectives.

160. Descriptive adjectives tell the qualities of objects. They are very useful words, for they enable us to see things with the imagination. In the following sentence the well-chosen adjectives make us feel that we are looking into the very eyes of the eagle,—“His eyes, clear, direct, unacquainted with fear, had a certain hardness in their vitreous brilliancy, perhaps by reason of the sharp contrast between the bright gold iris and the unfathomable pupil.”

It is also through descriptive adjectives that we are able to identify things when we do see them. After reading this sentence we could pick out a moose calf from a score of other animals,—“The moose calf is uncouth, to be sure, with his high, humped fore shoulders, his long, lugubrious, overhanging snout, his big ears set low on his big head, his little eyes crowded back toward his ears, his long, big-knuckled legs, and the spindling lank diminutiveness of his hind quarters.”

161. One variety of descriptive adjective is the adjective derived from a proper noun; as, Scotch from Scotland, French from France, and Greek from Greece. These are called proper adjectives.

Proper adjectives include within themselves many other adjectives. If we speak of a Scotch collie, a French costume, or a Grecian nose, the listener gets the same picture that he would get if we used a long series of other adjectives.

162. Many proper adjectives may be used as proper nouns, naming a class of people, as when we speak of the Scotch, the French, the Russians, the Americans.

What proper noun have we to name the inhabitants of Spain? of Turkey? of Denmark? of Sweden?

What proper noun have we to designate one man who is a native of England? of Scotland? of France? of China? Italy? Germany? What is the plural of each of these nouns?

Exercise.—Supply the correct word in each of the following sentences:—

1. Three (French or Frenchmen) spent the evening at the house.

2. The (French or Frenchmen) are said to be very polite.

3. Why are so many (Scotch or Scotchmen) captains of steamships?

4. Are the (Irish or Irishmen) as thrifty as the Germans?

5. Are there many (Welsh or Welshmen) in this locality?

Summary.—Descriptive adjectives are those which tell the qualities of objects.

Proper adjectives are those derived from proper nouns. They always begin with a capital letter.

Exercise 1.—Write a list of the proper adjectives derived from the following proper nouns. Use them in sentences to modify appropriate nouns.

- Africa

- Alaska

- Asia

- China

- Christ

- Denmark

- England

- Germany

- India

- Ireland

- Italy

- Japan

- Jew

- Malta

- Norway

- Paris

- Portugal

- Spain

- Sweden

- Turkey

Exercise 2.—In the following sentences select all the descriptive adjectives and tell what objects they describe. In so far as you can, tell what qualities the adjectives denote, as color, size, form, texture, surface, material, nature, etc. Account for the punctuation and capitalization.

1. All the time the crocodile’s little eyes burned like coals under the heavy, horny eyelids on the top of his triangular head, as he shoved his bloated barrel body along between his crutched legs.

2. It is a little village of great antiquity, having been founded by some of the Dutch colonists in the early times of the province.

3. The dog and his master hunted together, fur-wrapped boy and savage, long-haired, narrow-eyed, white-fanged, yellow brute.

4. We always smiled to hear the judge’s wife talk about her Turkish carpets, her little Chippendale chairs, her Wedgwood china, and her Persian shawls.

5. This crowded, lively, and interesting thoroughfare is over two miles long.

6. In queer little châlets, or Swiss huts, live the people who attend to the cattle, and make butter and cheese.

7. The split and weatherworn rocks of the gorge had been used since the beginning of the Jungle by the Little People of the Rocks,—the busy, furious, black, wild bees of India.

8. At every stride the loose-hung, wide-cleft, spreading hoofs of the moose came sharply together with a flat, clacking noise.

9. Out comes the negro pilot, and scrambles up on deck.

10. Yonder lies a Norwegian ship, with her sailors climbing the shrouds like so many monkeys.

11. Mowgli’s voice could be heard in all sorts of wet, starlighted, blossoming places, helping the big frogs through their choruses, or mocking the upside-down owls that hoot through the white nights.

XLV. LIMITING ADJECTIVES

163. Limiting adjectives are those which merely point out an object without telling any quality of it. The most useful limiting adjectives are this, that, and their plural forms these and those. These four words are often called demonstrative adjectives.

Some limiting adjectives tell number or amount, but in a somewhat indefinite way, as all, some, several, few, much, little, more, most.

Some tell number definitely, as one, two, six hundred, three million, first, second, fiftieth.

Number words, like one, two, three, four, five, etc., are often called numeral adjectives.

164. The limiting adjective enough may precede or follow the noun it modifies. We may say enough butter or butter enough; enough time or time enough.

The limiting adjective else always follows the noun or pronoun that it modifies. We say who else, nobody else, everybody else, nothing else.

165. When the interrogative pronouns which and what are used to modify a noun, as in which picture? what city? they cease to be pronouns, and become limiting adjectives. Since they are used to ask questions, we call them interrogative adjectives.

NOTE.—Which and what, when used as adjectives, are sometimes called pronominal adjectives.

166. Three very common words, a, an, and the, are classed with limiting adjectives. They are called articles. The is a definite article; an and a are the indefinite article. A is really the same word as an, but when it is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound, as bicycle, the n is dropped for the sake of a more pleasing sound.

167. We use the when we wish to specify a particular object, and an or a when we do not care to be specific. What is the difference between these sentences?

The man on horseback came to the turn in the road.

A man on horseback came to a turn in the road.

168. We use the before a singular noun to designate a whole class of objects; as, “The oak is a sturdy tree,” “The cow is a domestic animal.”

169. We repeat the article when we wish to denote more than one person or thing. What is the difference between these pairs of sentences?

(a) The secretary and treasurer came late.

(b) The secretary and the treasurer came together.

(a) I saw a red and green signal.

(b) I saw a red and a green signal.

170. We use an or a after the adjectives many and such instead of before them; as, many a man, such a storm.

171. The sentence, “I have few books,” means I have few compared with many; but the sentence, “I have a few books,” means I have a few compared with none. What is the difference in meaning between these sentences?

I have little time for sewing.

I have a little time for sewing.

Summary.—Limiting adjectives are those which merely point out.

Limiting adjectives that denote a definite number are called numerals.

Which and what may be used as interrogative adjectives.

The articles are the, an, and a.

The is a definite article. An and a are indefinite articles.

Exercise 1.—Select all the limiting adjectives, including articles, and tell what they modify. Give reasons for the articles used.

1. What business brings you here?

2. In that same village, and in one of these very houses, there lived, many years since, a simple, good-natured fellow of the name of Rip Van Winkle.

3. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed, every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues and shapes of these mountains.

4. Which fan did your mother carry when she was a young lady in Maine?

5. Lobo had only five followers during the latter part of his reign.

6. What excuse shall I make to Dame Van Winkle?

7. The dog managed so that each fresh rush should be toward the settlement.

8. No wild animal dies of old age.

9. Which part in the play of Julius Cæsar did Edwin Booth take?

10. When this dog of marvelous wind saw that the wolf was dead, he gave him no second glance.

11. After much pains on my behalf and many pains on his, Bingo learned to go at the word in quest of our old yellow cow.

12.

I only ask a hut of stone,

A very plain brown stone will do,

That I may call my own;

And close at hand is such a one

In yonder street that fronts the sun.

13. No other living thing can go so slow as a boy sent on an errand.

14. What courage can withstand the ever-during and all-besetting terrors of a woman’s tongue?

Exercise 2.—Classify the words which and what in the following sentences as interrogative pronouns or interrogative adjectives. Where they are pronouns, tell their case. Where they are adjectives, tell what they modify.

1. What have you in your basket?

2. What manner of man is this?

3. Which of these pictures did you paint?

4. Which is it, a toadstool or a mushroom?

5. Which city has the larger population?

6. Which boy threw the stone?

7. What stone did he throw?

8. What did the man come for?

9. What do you want?

10. Which will you take?

XLVI. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

172. Since different objects may possess the same quality in different degrees, there must be some means of telling this. We do it by changing the form of adjectives. For instance, wool, snow, and feathers have the same quality of softness, but not in the same degree, so we say that wool is soft, snow is softer, and feathers are softest. This change in the adjective soft to denote the degree of softness is called comparison.

173. Comparison is a property of adjectives. There are three degrees of comparison,—the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.

The positive degree denotes the simple quality, the comparative degree denotes more or less of this quality, and the superlative denotes most or least of this quality. When we give the three forms of an adjective, we are said to compare it. We compare bold by saying: positive, bold; comparative, bolder; superlative, boldest; or positive, bold; comparative, less bold; superlative, least bold.

174. Comparison is denoted in three ways:—

(1) By adding the suffixes er and est. These are added to adjectives of one syllable, and to a few of two syllables; as, fine, finer, finest; lovely, lovelier, loveliest.

(2) By prefixing the adverbs more and most. This method is used in comparing longer adjectives; as, spacious, more spacious, most spacious; disagreeable, more disagreeable, most disagreeable.

(3) By prefixing the adverbs less and least; as, rough, less rough, least rough; elegant; less elegant, least elegant. This is a mode of comparing adjectives on a descending scale instead of an ascending scale.

175. Some adjectives cannot be compared at all; as, asleep, dead, correct, round, square, principal. Instead of saying rounder, we may say more nearly round.

176. Some adjectives are compared irregularly. The following are examples:—

P OSITIVE

C OMPARATIVE

S UPERLATIVE

good

better

best

ill

worse

worst

bad

worse

worst

many

more

most

much

more

most

little

less

least

far

farther or  further

farthest or  furthest

Summary.—Comparison in an adjective is a change of form to express quality or quantity in different degrees.

There are three degrees of comparison,—positive, comparative, and superlative.

Short adjectives are compared by adding the suffixes er and est.

Longer adjectives are compared by prefixing more and most.

Many adjectives may be compared on a descending scale by prefixing less and least.

Exercise.—Select all the adjectives, and tell the kind and the degree of each. Compare each adjective. If any cannot be compared, state that fact.

1. There was nothing in these woods bigger than a weasel.

2. The way led through the deepest and most perilous part of the swamp.

3. This brother was younger and handsomer, and much more amiable than William.

4. As she grew older, she became less exacting and more tolerant, less certain and more hopeful, less vigorous in body, but gentler in manner and sweeter in spirit.

5. The Hotel de Cluny is one of the quaintest, queerest, pleasantest, and most homelike places we are likely to meet with.

6. The other captive was of a more restless temperament, slenderer in build, more eager and alert of eye, less companionable of mood.

7. Least vague of all was the terror of the usually unterrified weasel.

8. Those men are most apt to be obsequious and conciliating abroad, who are under the discipline of shrews at home.

9. At the least flourish of a broomstick or a ladle, Wolf would fly to the door with yelping precipitation.

10. The lynx was smaller than her mate, somewhat browner in hue, leaner, and of a peculiarly malignant expression.

11. The women of the village used to employ Rip to do such little odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do for them.

12. The singing master’s hair was a little longer, his hands were a little whiter, his shoes a little thinner, his manner a trifle more polished than that of his soberer mates.

Tell the use of adjectives in sentences 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12.

177. Sometimes errors are made in the use of adjectives.

The comparative degree should be used in comparing two objects, the superlative in comparing more than two. If only two roads are open to us, we ought to say that we shall take the shorter.

Exercise.—Select the proper adjective for each of these sentences, and give your reasons:—

1. Which would be the (cheapest or cheaper) route—by water or by rail?

2. Prince is the (swifter or swiftest) horse, but Pete is the (stronger or strongest).

3. Which is the (higher or highest)—the Eiffel Tower or the Washington Monument?

4. Of the two leading candidates, Wilson and Harmon, which is (more likely or most likely) to be nominated?

Sometimes an ill-chosen adjective is used after the verb feel. The sentence, “I feel good,” is correct only when it means “I feel righteous,” while “I feel well,” means “I am in good health.” In this sentence well is an adjective meaning the opposite of sick.

NOTE.—We also have the adverb well, denoting manner, as in the sentence, “LaFollette spoke well.”

The sentence, “Rufus looks good,” is correct when we mean that Rufus looks as if he were a good man; but we should say, “Rufus looks well (not good) in gray.” Here well is an adjective meaning pleasing or acceptable.

The limiting adjectives this and these should not be followed by the word here. We point out sufficiently when we say this book, these books.

The personal pronoun them should never be used for the limiting adjective those. We should say those horses, those wagons, those tents.

If we modify a noun by the limiting adjective each, every, either, neither, or no, we must use a singular pronoun to represent that noun; as,—

Each man took his appointed place.

Every girl made her own costume.

Neither man lost his job.

Exercise.—Supply the correct pronoun in each of these sentences:—

NOTE.—The masculine pronoun should be used when there is no word in the sentence that indicates whether the male or the female sex is referred to.

1. Everybody came and brought —— appetite.

2. Each lady contributed whatever —— chose.

3. No young person can afford to waste —— time.

4. Neither doctor will give —— assistance.

5. No day is without —— disappointments.

6. If either man calls, tell —— that I am busy.

7. Every girl in the class said that —— did not understand the lesson.

8. Every boy wishes that —— might be president.

9. No soldier acknowledged that —— was afraid.

10. Neither chair is in —— place.

XLVII. REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES

178. In our study of adjectives in Lessons IX, XXVI, XXXIII, XXXVII, XLIV, XLV, and XLVI we have learned that adjectives may be classified as limiting adjectives and descriptive adjectives; that which and what are interrogative adjectives; that adjectives have the property of comparison; and that adjectives may be used in four different ways: (1) before a noun to modify that noun; (2) after a noun as an appositive modifier; (3) as a subjective complement of certain intransitive verbs, and (4) as the objective complement of certain transitive verbs.

Exercise.—Make an outline of the subject, Adjectives, to recite from in class. Illustrate each point you make with a good sentence of your own composition.

179. When we parse an adjective, we should tell:—

(1) Its class,—descriptive, limiting, or interrogative.

(2) Its degree (if it admits of comparison).

(3) Its use, and what it modifies.

Exercise.—Parse each adjective in the following sentences:—

1. The puppy grew bigger and clumsier each day. His most friendly overtures to the cat were wholly misunderstood.

2. Paris is an immense city, full of broad and handsome streets, magnificent buildings, grand open places with fountains and statues, great public gardens and parks free to everybody.

3. His gray eyes, clear and kind, flashed like fire when he spoke of his adventures.

4. Which picture shall we hang between these two front windows—the little Nydia or this pretty landscape?

5. It was clear that the whelps of last spring had betaken themselves to other and safer hunting grounds.

6. For a moment the boy felt afraid—afraid in his own woods.

7. Below us lies a lake, clear and cold, whereon fairies might launch their airy shallops.

8. Jo Calone threw down his saddle on the dusty ground, and turned his horses loose.

9. What fun the rabbits must have been having!

10. The full moon of October, deep orange in a clear, deep sky, hung large and somewhat distorted just over the wooded hills.

11. For a long time pain and hunger kept me awake.

12. How sweet and demure those girls looked!

13. Do you suppose that any old Roman ever had twenty-four different kinds of pie at one dinner?

14. There was something in their cries that sounded strangely wild and fierce.

15. The cardinal bird drew herself up very straight, raised her crest, and opened her big beak.

16. What harm can a naked frog do us?

17. Land in London is so valuable that a single acre of it has been sold for four and a half million dollars.

18. The old servant made our lives miserable by her cantankerous ways.

XLVIII. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

180. When we say, “This ring was my mother’s,” we use the word this as an adjective modifying the noun ring. When we say, “This was my mother’s ring,” we use the one word this in place of this ring as subject of the sentence, hence this is no longer an adjective, but has become a pronoun. Since its ordinary use is that of an adjective, we call it an adjective pronoun.

Many limiting adjectives may be used as pronouns. We often make such sentences as these:—

Few shall part where many meet.

If honor is lost, then all is lost.

When two or three are gathered together in Thy name, Thou wilt grant their requests.

181. The commonest adjective pronouns are all, any, each, either, few, first, former, last, little, many, more, most, much, neither, one, other, several, some, this, that, these, those.

Make sentences containing five of these adjective pronouns.

182. Two adjective pronouns, one and other, may be declined.

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Nom.

one

ones

other

others

Poss.

one’s

ones’

other’s

others’

Obj.

one

ones

other

others

Sentences like these are common:—

One sometimes tires of one’s occupation.

Each envied the other’s good fortune.

The two adjective pronouns, one and other, may be modified by adjectives; as, “Many others came,” “The green ones are the prettiest.”

Each other and one another, though consisting of two words, may be considered as one adjective pronoun.

183. Some adjective pronouns may be modified by articles. We say, “The last is the best of all the game,” “I like gooseberries, so I picked a few.”

Summary.—An adjective pronoun is a limiting adjective used in place of a noun.

The adjective pronouns one and other may be declined.

Some adjective pronouns may be modified by adjectives.

Exercise.—Select the adjective pronouns in these sentences. Tell the use and case of each. Tell the noun that each pronoun stands for. Supply this noun where you can. What part of speech does the adjective pronoun become then?

1. This is the story of a bad boy.

2. Many of the protozoa are very beautiful. Some build shells for themselves of strange and curious shapes.

3. The ham turned out to be a very remarkable one.

4. There is a vast difference between the styles of 1860 and 1900. The former favored Paisley shawls and flounced skirts, the latter sanctioned the tailor-made suit and the shirt waist.

5. A little made us very happy once.

6. From time to time one or another of the leaping rabbits would take himself off through the fir trees, while others continued to arrive along the moonlight trails.

7. All is of God that is or is to be.

8. A bluejay and a red squirrel were loudly berating each other for stealing.

9. The convenience of resting one’s self in the open air is one of the comforts of Paris.

10. Each of these was a wolf of renown; most of them were above the ordinary size; one in particular, the second in command, was a veritable giant. Several of the band were especially noted. One of them was a beautiful white wolf, that the Mexicans called Blanca; this was supposed to be a female, possibly Lobo’s mate. Another was a yellow wolf of remarkable swiftness.

11. It is not easy to change one’s life all in a minute.

12. It is a blessed fact that one’s own home is the hub of the universe.

13. Every one said that I was a tomboy.

14. Some wore short doublets, others jerkins, with long knives in their belts, and most of them had enormous breeches of similar style with that of the guide’s.

15. The years hurry onward, treading in their haste on one another’s heels.

What noun is understood after guide’s in sentence 14?

XLIX. VERBS: TENSE

184. Three very common words are yesterday, to-day, and to-morrow. The word yesterday refers to time that has gone, or past time; to-day refers to time that now is, or present time; and to-morrow refers to time that is to come, or future time.

185. Every event takes place in time, and so when we tell of the occurrence of any event, we must have some way of making clear whether that event took place in the past, or is taking place in the present, or will take place in the future. Of course, we might tell this by adverbs or adverbial phrases, but we have a very much better way,—we tell it by the form of the verb we use. What time do we think of when we see the verbs eats, works, plays, sleeps? What time is told by the verbs ate, worked, played, slept? What change is made in the form of the two sets of verbs? What time is told by the verbs will eat, will work, will play, will sleep?

186. In the last group of verbs, where each verb consists of two words, it is the first word will that denotes future time. Such a word is called a helping word, or auxiliary verb.

187. The change in the form of a verb to denote time is called tense.

188. Tense is a property of all verbs. It is evident that there must be three tenses,—present, past, and future, as shown in the three sets of verbs that have just been examined. These are called primary tenses.

There are three other tenses, called secondary tenses. We may say, “I have eaten my supper,” “I had eaten my supper,” “I shall have eaten my supper.” These verbs call attention not so much to the time of the action as to the fact that it is completed, or perfected.

Have eaten means that a past action is completed at the present time. This form is called the present perfect tense.

Had eaten means that a past action was completed before some particular past time. This form is called the past perfect tense.

Shall have eaten means that an action will be completed before some definite future time. This is called the future perfect tense.

Summary.—Tense is that property of a verb which denotes the time of an action or an event.

There are six tenses:—

(1) The present tense denotes that an action is taking place. It usually consists of one word, the simplest form of the verb.

(2) The past tense denotes that an action did take place. It usually consists of one word.

(3) The future tense denotes that an action will take place. It consists of two words, one of which is the auxiliary shall or will.

(4) The present perfect tense denotes that a past action is now completed. It consists of two words, one of which is the auxiliary have or has.

(5) The past perfect tense denotes that a past action was completed before a particular past time. It consists of two words, one of which is the auxiliary had.

(6) The future perfect tense denotes that a future action will be completed before a particular future time. It consists of three words, one of which is the auxiliary have, and another the auxiliary shall or will.

NOTES.—1. The present tense is used also to denote (1) that something is true at all times; as “Waste makes want,” and (2) that something occurs habitually; as, “She teaches school.”

2. When a predicate consists of a series of verbs in the same tense, the auxiliary is usually expressed only with the first verb. In the sentence, “Now that he has eaten and slept, he is ready for work,” the second verb is has slept, with the auxiliary understood.

189. A common error is the use of the present perfect tense for the past tense. We say, “I have been in Florida several times,” because we mean several times before now; but we say, “I was in Florida last year,” because we mean that our being there occurred in past time with no reference whatever to the present. If we are still in Florida we may say, “I have been in Florida a long time”; but if we are no longer in Florida we say, “I was in Florida a long time.”

Exercise 1.—Justify the use of the past or the present perfect tense in each of these sentences:—

1. I learned the poem last evening.

2. I have learned the poem already.

3. I bought my hat at Stone’s.

4. I have bought a new spring hat.

5. I came home last Monday.

6. I have come to stay a week.

7. I tried my skates this afternoon.

8. I haven’t tried my new skates.

9. I have walked ever since sunrise.

10. I walked from sunrise until noon.

11. I spoke to the President this morning.

12. I have never spoken to the President.

13. I spoke to him twice when I was in Washington.

14. I have spoken to him several times.

Exercise 2.—Using the subject I, form the six tenses of the following verbs. Consult the dictionary for forms of which you are not sure.

- break

- bring

- buy

- come

- drive

- go

- leave

- love

- run

- see

- sing

- take

- turn

- wait

Exercise 3.—Select all the verbs in these sentences, and tell the tense of each:—

1. Trees wave, flowers bloom, and bright-winged birds flit from palm to cedar.

2. The lynx turned to the right, along a well-worn trail, ran up a tree, descended hastily, and glided away among the thickets.

3. Tommy and I had played together till five o’clock that Saturday afternoon.

4. The children thought, “how long the vacation will be!” but the mother thought, “how soon it will have come and gone.”

5. He who knows nothing fears nothing.

6. The duck had never seen a guinea egg before in all her life.

7. The boy comes nearer to perpetual motion than anything else in nature.

8. Nobody has yet discovered how many grasshoppers a turkey will hold.

9. I have made no addition to my cabinet since we met.

10. The big black pots swinging from the cranes had bubbled and gurgled and sent out puffs of appetizing steam.

11. “How many pieces shall I cut this pie into?” said she.

12. I have seen wild bees and butterflies feeding at a height of 13,000 feet above the sea.

13. You shall go to bed, and I will remain with you a few days until you get over this fever.

14. The daisies have shut up their sleepy red eyes.

Analyze sentences 2, 3, 6, 9, 14.

L. THE INDICATIVE MODE

190. Each of the six verb forms that we have been studying,—I eat, I ate, I shall eat, I have eaten, I had eaten, I shall have eaten,—is used in the statement of a fact, and is said to be in the indicative mode.

Mode is that property of a verb which denotes the manner of an assertion.

The indicative mode is used in the statement of a fact.

191. In some tenses there is a slight difference between the singular and the plural form of a verb, hence verbs are said to have the property of number. We should always use the verb form that agrees with the number of the subject. In the present tense, for example, we say in the singular, “The man goes;” and in the plural, “The men go.”

192. In some tenses there is a slight difference in the form of the verb to denote person, hence verbs are said to have the property of person. In the present perfect tense, we say in the first person, “I have gone;” and in the third person, “He has gone.”

193. When we give all the forms of a verb in the three persons and the two numbers of each tense, we are said to conjugate the verb.

194. Conjugation of the verb be in the indicative mode:—

P RESENT TENSE

P AST TENSE

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

I am

we are

I was

we were

thou art

you are

thou wast

you were

he is

they are

he was

they were

F UTURE TENSE

P RESENT PERFECT TENSE

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

I shall be

we shall be

I have been

we have been

thou wilt be

you will be

thou hast been

you have been

he will be

they will be

he has been

they have been

P AST PERFECT TENSE

Singular

Plural

I had been

we had been

thou hadst been

you had been

he had been

they had been

F UTURE PERFECT TENSE

Singular

Plural

I shall have been

we shall have been

thou wilt have been

you will have been

he will have been

they will have been

195. Conjugation of see in the indicative mode:—

P RESENT TENSE

P AST TENSE

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

I see

we see

I saw

we saw

thou seest

you see

thou sawest

you saw

he sees

they see

he saw

they saw

F UTURE TENSE

P RESENT PERFECT TENSE

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

I shall see

we shall see

I have seen

we have seen

thou wilt see

you will see

thou hast seen

you have seen

he will see

they will see

he has seen

they have seen

P AST PERFECT TENSE

Singular

Plural

I had seen

we had seen

thou hadst seen

you had seen

he had seen

they had seen

F UTURE PERFECT TENSE

Singular

Plural

I shall have seen

we shall have seen

thou wilt have seen

you will have seen

he will have seen

they will have seen

Exercise.—Conjugate the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the six tenses of the Indicative Mode.

LI. THE INTERROGATIVE FORM OF THE INDICATIVE MODE

196. The indicative mode is used not only in stating facts, but also in asking questions. In interrogative sentences the order of the words that make up the verb is changed somewhat. In a simple statement we say, I have paid. In a question we say, Have I paid? putting the auxiliary before the subject.

197. Conjugation of be in the indicative mode, interrogative form:—

P RESENT TENSE

P AST TENSE

am I

are we

was I

were we

art thou

are you

wast thou

were you

is he

are they

was he

were they

F UTURE TENSE

P RESENT PERFECT TENSE

shall I be

shall we be

have I been

have we been

wilt thou be

will you be

hast thou been

have you been

will he be

will they be

has he been

have they been

P AST PERFECT TENSE

had I been

had we been

hadst thou been

had you been

had he been

had they been

F UTURE PERFECT TENSE

shall I have been

shall we have been

wilt thou have been

will you have been

will he have been

will they have been

198. When we use the present and past tenses of any verb except be for asking questions, we do not say sings she? or sang she? but does she sing? did she sing? that is, we use the auxiliaries do and did.

Conjugate the verb see in the indicative mode, interrogative form.

Exercise.—Conjugate the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the indicative mode, interrogative form.

199. The use of the negative word not after a verb gives rise to many contractions which are permissible in familiar conversation. The contractions for which incorrect forms are often used are the following:—

- isn’t

- wasn’t

- aren’t

- weren’t

- don’t

- doesn’t

- haven’t

- hasn’t

There is no contraction for am not; the word ain’t is incorrect.

Contractions are oftenest misused in questions. Notice the following correct forms:—

- Isn’t it too bad?

- Isn’t he tall?

- Isn’t she pretty?

- Aren’t you cold?

- Aren’t they coming?

- Wasn’t it long?

- Weren’t you there?

- Weren’t they slow?

- Don’t you believe me?

- Doesn’t it hurt?

- Doesn’t she work hard?

- Doesn’t he like it?

- Haven’t you been there?

- Hasn’t he any friends?

We should be careful never to say, you was or was you; for the pronoun you, even when it denotes one person, is followed by a verb in the plural form. We should say, “You were late,” “Were you late?” “Weren’t you late?”

LII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

200. When we say, “If I were you, I should be a doctor,” we have a dependent proposition, If I were you, which states not a fact, but an imaginary condition. This condition is, moreover, directly contrary to fact, for I am not you, and never can be. The verb used in expressing such a condition is said to be in the subjunctive mode.

201. The subjunctive mode is found not only in dependent propositions introduced by if, but in those introduced by lest, whether, although, etc.

(a) Be quiet lest the baby wake.

(b) We cannot tell whether he be the rightful heir or not.

(c) Though he wait long, yet he will come at last.

In each of these sentences the subjunctive mode is used to express doubt or uncertainty, or something imagined but not actually realized.

202. The subjunctive mode is so named because it is found principally in dependent, or subjoined propositions. It is, however, found also in independent propositions expressing a wish; as, “Long live the King!” “God bless thee, dear!”

203. The subjunctive mode is used in the statement of something that is uncertain; as, “If he come in time, dinner will be served at six.” This sentence means that his coming is to take place in the future, hence we cannot tell whether it will be a fact or not. In the sentence, “If he comes in time, dinner is served at six,” we use the indicative mode because we mean that sometimes he really does come in time.

204. The subjunctive mode is little used, especially in conversation; but we find many instances of it in the Bible and in the works of Shakespeare, hence we should understand its meaning. Nowadays, except to express a wish, as, “Heaven defend thee!” and to express a condition contrary to fact, as, “If the ring were gold, it would not discolor your finger,” most persons use the indicative mode or some other verb phrase. Instead of saying, “If to-morrow be fair,” most persons say, “If to-morrow is fair,” or “If to-morrow should be fair.” (See Lesson LXI.)

205. There are four tenses in the subjunctive mode, but the forms do not differ greatly from those of the indicative mode. There is no interrogative form.

206. Conjugation of be in the subjunctive mode:—

P RESENT TENSE

P AST TENSE

I be

we be

I were

we were

you be

you be

thou were

you were

he be

they be

he were

they were

P RESENT PERFECT TENSE

P AST PERFECT TENSE

I have been

we have been

I had been

we had been

thou have been

you have been

thou had been

you had been

he have been

they have been

he had been

they had been

207. Conjugation of see in the subjunctive mode:—

P RESENT TENSE

P AST TENSE

I see

we see

I saw

we saw

thou see

you see

thou saw

you saw

he see

they see

he saw

they saw

P RESENT PERFECT TENSE

P AST PERFECT TENSE

I have seen

we have seen

I had seen

we had seen

thou have seen

you have seen

thou had seen

you had seen

he have seen

they have seen

he had seen

they had seen

Summary.—The subjunctive mode is used in an exclamative sentence to express a wish, and in a dependent proposition to express something contrary to fact or something uncertain.

The subjunctive mode has no future tenses.

Exercise 1.—Conjugate all the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the subjunctive mode.

Exercise 2.—Select all the verbs in the subjunctive mode in these sentences, and tell why that mode is used:—

1. Misery loves company—even though it be very poor company.

2. If the weather be fine, there breaks upon the eye, as we rise higher and higher, a succession of those views of mountain, lake and forest, which can be had only from an elevated position.

3. The Lord be between thee and me when we are absent one from the other.

4. If the whole world were put into one scale and my mother into the other, the world could not outweigh her.

5. If a boy were obliged to work at nut gathering in order to procure food for the family, he would find it very irksome.

6.

Green be the turf above thee,

Friend of my better days!

7. John convinces himself that he must watch the hawk lest it pounce upon the chicken.

8. If chicadee seem preoccupied or absorbed, you may know that he is building a nest.

9. If I were a millionaire, city life would be agreeable enough, for I could always get away from it.

10.

And Death, whenever he come to me,

Shall come on the wide, unbounded sea.

11. In their hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any time thou dash thy foot against a stone.

12.

Christ save us all from a death like this,

On the reef of Norman’s Woe!

13. If wishes were horses, beggars might ride.

14. God be merciful to us, and bless us, and show us the light of his countenance.

15. If a man say that he hath no sin, he deceiveth himself, and the truth is not in him.

16. If he had told the truth, somebody would have believed him.

17. If impressment were the law of the world, if it formed part of the code of nations and were usually practiced, then it might be defended as a common right.

LIII. THE IMPERATIVE MODE

208. We learned in Lesson XIV that sentences expressing a command or an entreaty are called imperative sentences; that the subject of the verb in an imperative sentence is a pronoun of the second person,—you, thou, or ye; and that this subject is seldom expressed. The verb in an imperative sentence is said to be in the imperative mode; as, “Sleep, baby, sleep.”

209. There is only one form for the imperative mode, hence it is not said to have tense at all.

Conjugation of be in the imperative mode:—

Singular

Plural

be (you or thou )

be (you or ye )

Conjugation of see in the imperative mode:—

Singular

Plural

see (you or thou )

see (you or ye )

Summary.—The imperative mode is used in expressing a command or an entreaty. It has but one form. Its subject is always the pronoun you, thou, or ye.

Exercise.—From these sentences select the verbs in the imperative mode. Conjugate these verbs in the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative modes.

1. Ring, happy bells, across the snow.

2. Break, break, break, on thy cold, gray stones, O sea!

3. Repent ye, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.

4. Run upstairs and get my glasses.

5. Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks.

6.

Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul!

As the swift seasons roll.

Leave thy low-vaulted past,

Let each new temple, nobler than the last,

Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast....

7. Laugh, and the world laughs with you.

8.

Work till the last beam fadeth,

Fadeth to shine no more.

9. Come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest.

10. Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might.

11. Suffer the little children, and forbid them not to come unto me, for of such is the kingdom of heaven.

12. Honor thy father and thy mother.

13.

Tell me not in mournful numbers

Life is but an empty dream.

Find all the terms of address in the sentences above.

LIV. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

210. If we examine the conjugation of the verb see, we shall discover that most of the tenses are formed by the use of auxiliary verbs, and that only four forms of the verb see itself are made use of; namely, see, sees, saw, seen. The form sees occurs only once, but the other three forms occur often. These three forms—see, saw, seen—are called the principal parts of the verb see.

The principal parts of any verb are the present indicative, as, go, take; the past indicative, as, went, took; and another form, as, gone, taken, called the past participle.

211. The past participle is used in forming all the perfect tenses. It is plain, then, that we should say I have gone (not have went), I had taken (not had took); since went and took are past tense forms, not past participles.

The past participle is never used in the primary tenses. That is why we say I saw (not seen), I did (not done).

NOTE.—The very common word ought is, as we use it to-day, an old past tense form of the verb owe, and not a past participle. Hence, we should say ought to go, or ought not to go (not had ought to go or hadn’t ought to go).

212. Most verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding d or ed to the present tense. The past tense and the past participle of move are moved and moved; of plow are plowed and plowed; of lift are lifted and lifted. Such verbs are called regular verbs.

213. Many verbs in very common use form their past tense or past participle, not by the addition of a suffix, but by some change within the word, such as a change in the vowel. The past tense and past participle of sing are sang and sung respectively; of leave are left and left; of write are wrote and written. These verbs are called irregular verbs.

214. Some verbs, like put and set, have the same form for each of their principal parts. These also are irregular verbs.

215. The verb be is very irregular. Its principal parts are: present tense am, past tense was, past participle been.

216. If we know the proper auxiliaries for the different tenses, we can conjugate any verb correctly by first ascertaining its principal parts. These can always be found in a dictionary.

Summary.—The principal parts of a verb are the present tense, the past tense, and the past participle.

A regular verb is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding d or ed to the present tense.

An irregular verb is one whose past tense or past participle is formed in some other way than by adding d or ed to the present tense.

NOTE.—Webster’s New International Dictionary gives the present tense form of every verb. If the verb is irregular, the dictionary gives also the past tense form preceded by pret., and the past participle preceded by p.p. The abbreviation pret. stands for preterit, which means past tense. If the verb is regular, the abbreviations are omitted, and the form d or ed is printed but once.

Exercise.—Find in the dictionary the past tense and the past participle of each of the following verbs. Use the three forms of each verb correctly in sentences.

- awake

- bear

- beat

- begin

- bid

- bind

- bite

- bleed

- blow

- break

- bring

- build

- buy

- catch

- choose

- cling

- come

- cost

- creep

- cut

- dare

- dig

- do

- draw

- drink

- drive

- eat

- fall

- feed

- fight

- find

- flee

- fling

- fly

- forget

- freeze

- get

- give

- go

- grind

- grow

- hang

- have

- hide

- hit

- hold

- hurt

- keep

- kneel

- knit

- know

- lay

- lead

- lend

- let

- lie

- lose

- make

- meet

- pay

- read

- ride

- ring

- rise

- run

- say

- seek

- sell

- shake

- shed

- shine

- shoot

- show

- shrink

- shut

- sink

- sit

- slay

- sleep

- slide

- sling

- smite

- speak

- spend

- spin

- spread

- spring

- stand

- steal

- stick

- sting

- stride

- strike

- string

- strive

- swear

- sweat

- sweep

- swim

- swing

- take

- tell

- think

- throw

- tread

- wear

- weave

- weep

- wet

- win

- wind

- wring

217. Many errors are made in using the different forms of irregular verbs.

Certain verbs, the meaning and principal parts of which are somewhat alike, occasion a good deal of trouble to some persons. The most important of these are lie and lay, sit and set, and rise and raise. The first word of each pair, lie, sit, and rise is an intransitive verb. The second verb of each pair, lay, set, and raise, is a transitive verb.

Exercise 1.—Supply the correct form of lie or lay in each of these sentences, and give your reason in each case.

Lie means to be at rest in a reclining position.

Lay means to place a thing down in a reclining position.

1. —— down, Phiz, and be a good dog.

2. Phiz —— at the foot of my couch and gazed out of the nearest window.

3. After he had —— there an hour or more, he whined to go out on the street.

4. Phiz brought in a notebook and —— it at my feet.

5. Go and —— it on your master’s chair, Phiz.

6. Did the soldiers —— on the damp ground?

7. This land —— too low for grain fields.

8. How long has my fan been —— on the window sill?

9. Grant —— in bed dictating his Memoirs.

10. The tools have —— here in the wet and are rusted.

Exercise 2.—Supply the correct form of sit or set in each of these sentences, and give your reason in each case.

Sit means to be in a sitting position.

Set means to place a thing down in a position of rest.

1. By and by we looked in, and there —— Miss Eugene.

2. Have you —— here long, or did you just come?

3. I will —— my suit case here, and then —— in your seat.

4. Why did you —— there so long without speaking?

5. Father —— the white hen to-day, so she will be —— for about three weeks.

6. The little bird —— and sings at his door in the sun.

7. Who has been —— in my chair?

Exercise 3.—Supply the correct form of rise and raise in each of these sentences, and give your reason in each case.

Rise means to move from a lower to a higher position.

Raise means to cause to rise.

1. The bread —— very slowly that cold day.

2. Bread —— because of the yeast in it.

3. After the bread had ——, we set the pans in the oven.

4. They —— the old house so as to put a furnace in the cellar.

5. The Black River —— sixteen inches yesterday.

6. If the river continues to ——, the dam will go out.

7. Shall we —— the flag at sunrise?

The present tense form of some verbs is misused for the past tense. We should say, “The tailor came (not come) last night,” “I ran (not run) a mile yesterday,” “And then he said (not says), ‘Hurry up.’” The verbs oftenest misused in this way are come, give, run, say, and see.

Study the following correct sentences:—

He came last night.

She came to meet me.

It came without warning.

I ran a mile yesterday.

He ran in front of me.

She ran out of sugar.

At last he said, “I will go.”

John said, “The schoolhouse is on fire.”

I said, “Ring the bells.”

He gave me a dollar.

I gave the child a penny.

She gave it to me.

They ran up a bill.

The dog ran behind.

The baby ran to his mother.

I saw the parade yesterday.

He saw me go out.

She saw them at the window.

I came, I saw, I conquered.

Some persons make a wrong past tense for certain verbs, and use such forms as blowed and drawed, when they should use blew and drew.

Exercise 4.—Supply the correct form for the past tense in each of these sentences:—

1. Blow. The wind soon —— the smoke away.

2. Draw. The boat —— four feet of water.

3. Grow. Lucy —— too fast to be strong.

4. Know. Nobody —— the right date but me.

5. Throw. Who —— the ball last?

Some persons use the past participle of see and do for the past tense. We should say, “I saw (not seen) my duty, and I did (not done) it.”

Study these correct sentences:—

I saw the boat go down.

Who saw the star first?

We saw the elephant dance.

He did his own work.

She did it too fast.

Everybody did what he could.

Another common error is the use of the past tense of a verb for the past participle, as in the expressions is broke and had froze.

Exercise 5.—Supply the correct form in each of these sentences:—

1. Begin. First we must finish what we have ——.

2. Break. Dear me! I have —— the bird’s seed dish.

3. Drink. Have you —— all the milk?

4. Freeze. If the lagoon is ——, we can go skating.

5. Steal. Why do you think that the purse was ——?

6. Swim. Have you ever —— out to the island?

LV. VOICE

218. When we say, “The fish swallowed the worm,” we have a sentence made up of a subject, a verb, and an object complement. The subject names the doer of the action, while the object names the receiver of the action. The verb swallowed could have nothing for subject but some word that indicates the doer of the action. How is it with the verbs broke, struck, whittled? A verb that requires for its subject the name of the doer of an action is said to be in the active voice.

219. When we say, “The worm was swallowed by the fish,” we have a sentence made up of a subject, a verb, and a prepositional phrase. The subject names the receiver of the action, and the phrase tells by whom the action was performed. The verb was swallowed could have nothing for subject but some word that indicates the receiver of the action. How is it with the verbs was swept, has been eaten, will be cut? A verb that requires for its subject the name of the receiver of the action is said to be in the passive voice.

220. When a verb is changed from the active to the passive voice, the object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb. Hence it is evident that only transitive verbs can have the passive voice.

221. A verb is conjugated in the passive voice by adding the past participle of the verb to the conjugation of the verb be.

222. Conjugation of the verb see in the passive voice:—

INDICATIVE MODE

P RESENT TENSE

P AST TENSE

I am seen

we are seen

I was seen

we were seen

thou art seen

you are seen

thou wast seen

you were seen

he is seen

they are seen

he was seen

they were seen

F UTURE TENSE

I shall be seen

we shall be seen

thou wilt be seen

you will be seen

he will be seen

they will be seen

P RESENT PERFECT

I have been seen

we have been seen

thou hast been seen

you have been seen

he has been seen

they have been seen

P AST PERFECT

I had been seen

we had been seen

thou hadst been seen

you had been seen

he had been seen

they had been seen

F UTURE PERFECT

I shall have been seen

we shall have been seen

thou wilt have been seen

you will have been seen

he will have been seen

they will have been seen

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

P RESENT

P AST

I be seen

we be seen

I were seen

we were seen

thou be seen

you be seen

thou were seen

you were seen

he be seen

they be seen

he were seen

they were seen

P RESENT PERFECT

I have been seen

we have been seen

thou have been seen

you have been seen

he have been seen

they have been seen

P AST PERFECT

I had been seen

we had been seen

thou had been seen

you had been seen

he had been seen

they had been seen

IMPERATIVE MODE

be seen (you or thou )

be seen (you or ye )

223. Conjugation of the verb see in the passive voice, indicative mode, interrogative form:—

INDICATIVE MODE

P RESENT

P AST

am I seen

are we seen

was I seen

were we seen

art thou seen

are you seen

wast thou seen

were you seen

is he seen

are they seen

was he seen

were they seen

F UTURE

shall I be seen

shall we be seen

shalt thou be seen

shall you be seen

will he be seen

will they be seen

P RESENT PERFECT

have I been seen

have we been seen

hast thou been seen

have you been seen

has he been seen

have they been seen

P AST PERFECT

had I been seen

had we been seen

hadst thou been seen

had you been seen

had he been seen

had they been seen

F UTURE PERFECT

shall I have been seen

shall we have been seen

shalt thou have been seen

shall you have been seen

will he have been seen

will they have been seen

Summary.—Voice is that property of a verb which shows whether the subject names the doer or the receiver of an action.

The active voice shows that the subject names the doer of an action.

The passive voice shows that the subject names the receiver of an action.

A verb is conjugated in the passive voice by adding the past participle of the verb to the conjugation of the verb be.

No intransitive verb has a passive voice.

Exercise 1.—Conjugate the verbs draw, take, find, forget, and leave in the passive voice, both declaratively and interrogatively.

Exercise 2.—Select the verbs in the following sentences. Tell whether they are transitive or intransitive. Give the tense, mode, voice, and subject of each. Change the active verbs to the passive voice and the passive to the active.

NOTE.—When the verb is passive, the name of the doer of the action is often omitted. Sometimes we do not know who the doer is; as, “The art of printing was invented in China long ago.” Sometimes we do not wish to tell who the doer is; as, “A window was broken in the basement yesterday.” Sometimes the subject is so obvious as not to be worth telling; as, “Lying is despised.” In changing sentences like these three to the active voice, we must supply a subject for the verb. For instance, in changing the sentence, “The pie was cut into four pieces,” we might say, “Mother cut the pie into four pieces.”

1. The babe was conveyed to the church in a grand procession. The road, all the way, was carpeted with green rushes. Over this road the little infant Elizabeth was borne by one of her godmothers. She was wrapped in a mantle of purple velvet, with a long train. This train was trimmed with ermine, a very costly kind of fur, and was borne by lords and ladies of high rank. These dignitaries were appointed for the purpose by the king.

2. The height of the pinnacle is determined by the breadth of the base.

3. Leicester Hospital supports twelve old soldiers and their wives.

4. After the housework had been done, they went out to the sunny garden, and picked the luscious red raspberries, not forgetful of the time when Mrs. Howe had set out the bushes with her own hands.

5. Many of these splendid castles on the Rhine have been destroyed in modern times.

6. It is wonderful and beautiful how a man and his dog will stick to one another through thick and thin.

7. The door had been very firmly fastened, but the crowd tore it away bodily, and the light of the torches streamed into the room.

8. This garden is shaded by long lines of trees, and adorned with fountains and statues.

9.

Away to the window I flew like a flash,

Tore open the shutters, and threw up the sash.

10. Elephants are very strictly preserved by the English government.

11. The farm boy picks up the potatoes after they have been dug; he drives the cows night and morning; he brings wood and water and splits kindling; he gets up the horse and puts out the horse; whether he is in the house or out of it, there is always something for him to do.

12.

They who do their souls no wrong,

But keep at eve the faith of morn,

Shall daily hear the angel song,

“To-day the Prince of Peace is born.”

13. Mr. Marley has been dead these seven years.

14. The Peterkins told how their mother had put salt in the coffee, and how the chemist had made it worse instead of better.

15. We climbed the Alps, veiled our faces before the awful splendors of Mont Blanc, trembled on the verge of dizzy heights, shrank back from fathomless abysses, picked our way across the Mer de Glace, and cowered beneath the weight of the whole incumbent mass of mountains as we went through the tunnel.

Tell the part of speech and use of way, sentence 1, forgetful 4, one another 6, open 9, up 9, souls 12, years 13, worse 14.

LVI. THE PASSIVE VOICE

224. Every combination of some form of the verb be with the past participle of a transitive verb is not necessarily a passive verb.

For example, one passive form of the verb do is is done, but it does not follow that is done is always a passive verb. In the sentence, “The meat is done now,” we do not mean that the meat is receiving an action, hence is done cannot be a passive verb. We mean to tell the condition of the meat, that it is done meat. The word done is used in precisely the same way as an adjective; as if we should say, “The meat is good now,” In other words, the participle done is a subjective complement.

Past participles are used as subjective complements to tell the condition of something after an action has been performed on it; as, “Every window in the house is broken,” “My dress is badly torn,” “The old house is deserted.”

225. When we are in doubt as to whether we have a true passive verb or not, we may apply these tests: (1) Does the sentence mean that the subject is acted upon? (2) Can we add a phrase, telling the performer of the action? (3) Can we change the sentence to the active voice, keeping, of course, the same tense?

Let us take, for instance, the sentence, “Courage is praised.” We do mean that courage receives the praising. We can add the phrase by everybody. And we can change the sentence to the active sentence, “Everybody praises courage.” Hence is praised is the verb, and is in the passive voice.

But in the sentence, “Every seat in the balcony is taken,” if is taken is a passive verb, it must mean, since it is present tense, that every seat is receiving an action now. It does not mean this, but it does mean that every seat is a taken seat, hence taken is used as a subjective complement, and the verb is just the one word is.

226. We learned in Lesson XXXVII that some verbs like make, elect, appoint, and call, are often followed by a direct object and an objective complement; as, “We called our canary Buttercup.”

When such a sentence is changed to the passive voice, the direct object becomes, of course, the subject, and we have the sentence, “Our canary was called Buttercup.” The word Buttercup has now become a subjective complement. How do we know this?

When the objective complement is an adjective, as in the sentence, “She kept the polished floor as bright as a mirror,” if we change the sentence to the passive voice, the adjective becomes a subjective complement; as, “The polished floor was kept as bright as a mirror.”

227. We learned in Lesson XXXIV that certain verbs may be followed by both an indirect and a direct object; as, “Fred told Arthur the news.”

In changing this sentence to the passive voice we may use the direct object for the subject of the passive verb; as, “The news was told to Arthur by Fred”; or we may use the indirect object for the subject of the passive verb; as, “Arthur was told the news by Fred.” In the latter case we have an idiomatic construction—a passive verb was told taking a direct object the news. The direct object of a passive verb is often called a retained object, because it remains as an object after the sentence has been changed to the passive voice.

Not all sentences containing a direct and an indirect object can be changed to the passive voice in two ways. We say, “A rose was given to me,” or “I was given a rose.” We say, “A holiday was promised to the children,” or “The children were promised a holiday.” But we do not say, “I was passed the bread,” “I was written a note,” or “I was poured a cup of tea.”

Summary.—The past participle of a transitive verb may be used as the subjective complement of some form of the verb be. In such a case it denotes the condition of the subject.

When a sentence containing a direct object and an objective complement is changed to the passive voice, the direct object becomes the subject, and the objective complement becomes a subjective complement.

Some sentences containing both an indirect and a direct object may be changed to the passive voice in two ways, either the direct object or the indirect object becoming the subject.

Exercise 1.—Select each verb in the following sentences. Tell its voice, and how it is completed.

1. The time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in the land.

2. Queen Elizabeth is often familiarly called Queen Bess.

3. Rebecca’s face was so swollen with tears and so sharp with misery that for a moment Uncle Jerry scarcely recognized her.

4. To put it mildly, Mrs. Howe was greatly pleased when she was elected first president of the Murray Hill Society.

5. When the eggs had been beaten stiff, the little cook sifted the sugar.

6. Christ the Lord is risen to-day.

7. The colonists were so disheartened and alarmed that they sailed at once for England.

8. The youngest girl in the senior class was chosen valedictorian.

9. When the automobile ran off the bridge, every one was surprised at the driver’s escape.

10. The black colt had been named Odin, but he was always called Teddy.

11.

The day is past and gone,

The evening shades appear.

12. Those people are mistaken who say that hard work does not pay—they have never really tried it.

13. The room was made cool and dark, so that the lady might sleep.

14. The roofs of the long red barns, which had been stained green by the weather, were struck by the level rays of the low, western sun.

15. The fabric of common order in America is sound and strong at the center; the pattern is well marked, and the threads are firmly woven.

16. Harvard College may be regarded as the legitimate child of Emmanuel College at Cambridge in England.

Exercise 2.—Make either one or two passive sentences out of each sentence in Exercise 2, page 90. Tell in each case what becomes of the subject, the direct object, and the indirect object.

LVII. THE PROGRESSIVE CONJUGATION

228. We have learned to conjugate verbs both declaratively and interrogatively, in both the active and the passive voice. There is another form of conjugation, as shown in the statements, I am laughing, I was laughing, I shall be laughing, I have been laughing, etc.

We use this form of conjugation when we wish to call attention to the continuance of the action asserted by the verb, and we call it the progressive conjugation.

229. Just as we use the past participle in conjugating a verb in the passive voice, so we use the present participle in conjugating a verb in the progressive form. Laughing is the present participle of the verb laugh. The present participle of every verb ends in ing; as, running, hoping, tying.

230. Synopsis of the progressive conjugation of the verb see:—

NOTE.—In the synopsis of a conjugation we give only one form for each tense, instead of six forms.

INDICATIVE MODE

Present

I am seeing

Past

I was seeing

Future

I shall be seeing

Present Perfect

I have been seeing

Past Perfect

I had been seeing

Future Perfect

I shall have been seeing

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

Present

I be seeing

Past

I were seeing

Present Perfect

I have been seeing

Past Perfect

I had been seeing

IMPERATIVE MODE

be seeing (you, thou, ye)

231. The progressive conjugation may be made interrogative by changing the position of the auxiliary; as, am I seeing? was I seeing? etc.

Summary.—The progressive conjugation is used to denote a continued action.

It is made by joining the present participle of a given verb to the conjugation of the verb be.

Exercise.—Conjugate the verbs lift, dine, and get in the progressive form, both declaratively and interrogatively.

LVIII. THE EMPHATIC CONJUGATION

232. In the indicative mode, present tense, we may say, I study, which is the common form, or I am studying, which is the progressive form, or I do study, which is the emphatic form.

233. The emphatic conjugation is made by using the auxiliary verb do. It is found only in the present and past tenses of the indicative mode, and in the imperative mode.

234. Conjugation of the verb try in the emphatic form.

INDICATIVE MODE

P RESENT TENSE

I do try

we do try

thou dost try

you do try

he does try

they do try

P AST TENSE

I did try

we did try

thou didst try

you did try

he did try

they did try

IMPERATIVE MODE

do try (thou, you, or ye)

235. The two tenses of the indicative mode, emphatic form, may be made interrogative, as we learned in Lesson LI.

236. The emphatic form is used for other purposes than for emphasis. It is generally used instead of the ordinary forms when the adverb not modifies the predicate. We say, “I do not love thee, Dr. Fell,” instead of “I love thee not.” And in the imperative mode with not we say, “Do not run with the ball,” instead of “Run not with the ball.”

LIX. PARSING OF VERBS

237. When we parse a verb, we should tell,—

(1) Its class as to form,—regular or irregular.

(2) Its principal parts.

(3) Its class as to use,—transitive or intransitive.

(4) Its voice,—active or passive.

(5) Its mode,—indicative, subjunctive, or imperative.

(6) Its tense.

(7) Its person.

(8) Its number.

(9) Its form of conjugation,—interrogative, progressive, or emphatic.

(10) Its simple subject.

(11) Its complement (if any),—direct object, subjective complement, or objective complement.

Exercise.—Parse each verb in the following sentences:—

1. What are you smiling at, Lady Mother?

2. The shades were lowered at the windows, the lamps were lighted, the great family table was drawn towards the fire.

3. When he went out from the village at the head of his men one fine day, while the sun was shining brightly, and the birds were singing, he did not neglect a single one of the many things which he had been told always brought good luck to the hunting.

4. “No,” said Mrs. Howe, “I don’t enjoy moving, but the children do. They have been transporting clocks, and pictures, and lamps all the forenoon, when they haven’t been loading the dray, but they don’t seem a bit tired.”

5. What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul?

6. Child, was not your father called Mustapha the tailor?

7. Do look at those gateposts!

8. The hens had been mysteriously disappearing for over a month.

9. Stir not a step till I come again.

10. Do you wonder that I missed a word in spelling?

11. Son, have any told thee that thou art beautiful beyond all men?

12. Hadn’t you been putting on airs?

LX. THE AUXILIARY VERBS SHALL AND WILL

238. In conjugating a verb in the future tense, indicative mode, we make use of the auxiliaries shall and will.

Singular

Plural

I shall go

we shall go

thou wilt go

you will go

he will go

they will go

These verb phrases express simple futurity,—they assert an intention on the part of the person indicated by the subject, but not a promise.

239. We have another set of verb phrases belonging to the future tense, indicative mode:—

I will go

we will go

thou shalt go

you shall go

he shall go

they shall go

These phrases are used to express a promise, a vow, or a threat on the part of the speaker; that is, the speaker will see to it that the action is carried out. There is more of certainty in these phrases than in those of the first set.

240. Shall and will with have are used also in forming the future perfect tense; as, I shall have gone, he will have come, etc. There is much less occasion to use the future perfect tense than there is to use the simple future tense, so we shall discuss the use of shall and will only in the future tense. When that is mastered, the future perfect tense will present no difficulties.

241. Frequent errors are made in the use of shall and will. Perhaps the commonest occur in interrogative sentences. Many persons say carelessly, “Will I open this window for you?” This question means, “Am I going to open this window for you?” and the only possible answer is, “I am sure I don’t know.” What is really intended by the question is this, “Do you wish me to open this window?” hence we should say, “Shall I open this window for you?” The rule is,—When the subject of an interrogative sentence is I or we, the auxiliary shall should be used instead of will.

242. In questions where the subject is a word of the second or the third person, we should use in the question the form we expect in the answer. A boy should say to his employer, “Shall you be in your office this afternoon?” because he expects the reply, “I shall,” meaning, “I intend to be there.” But a boy says to another boy, “Will you pitch for us to-morrow?” because he expects the reply, “I will,” meaning “I promise.”

Summary.—Rules for the use of shall and will:—

(1) To assert simple futurity use shall in the first person, and will in the second and third persons.

(2) To assert determination, a promise, or a threat, use will in the first person, shall in the second and third persons.

(3) In questions use shall in the first person. In the second and third persons use will or shall according to the answer you should get. The form of the answer is to be determined by rules 1 and 2.

Exercise 1.—Account for the use of shall and will in the following sentences:—

1. “What shall we do next?” said I, with a long breath.

2. Thou shalt hang for laying thy hand upon me.

3. Will you please tell me whether Mrs. Josiah Wheeler lives on this road?

4. You shall have a birthday party on the lawn, and I will make you a soldier suit, and papa will get you a drum, and the supper table shall be set under the balm-of-Gilead tree.

5. “No,” said the fairy, “this is my ax, and it shall lie upon the shelf, while you must dive for yours, yourself.”

6. “We will come into the crop lands to play with thee by night,” said Gray Brother to Mowgli.

7. Blessed are the peacemakers; for they shall be called the children of God.

8. The first social problem is the problem of rule: who shall exercise it, how far shall it go, and by what means shall it be enforced?

9. Whosoever will lose his life for my sake shall find it.

10. Let us rest ourselves, and then we shall be better able to pursue our walk.

11.

When shall we three meet again

In thunder, lightning, or in rain?

12. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills, whence cometh my strength.

13.

Who will fill our vacant places?

Who will sing our songs to-night?

14.

The daisies will be there, love.

The stars in heaven will shine;

But I shall not feel thy wish, love,

Nor thou my hand in thine.

Tell the part of speech and use of thy, sentence 2, me 3, you 4, this 5, yours 5, yourself 5, children 7, we 11, mine 12.

Exercise 2.—Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary, and give your reason in each case.

1. O mother dear, Jerusalem, when —— I come to thee?

2.

We —— meet, but we —— miss him,

There —— be one vacant chair.

3. There is no market in the world in which money —— buy brains.

4. You —— always have this little blue Wedgwood tea set to remember her by.

5. —— you wear the hat even if it is not becoming?

6. I —— know him when he comes, happy youth.

7. —— you get my watch that was left at the jeweler’s?

8.

Oh, who —— walk a mile with me

Along life’s merry way?

9. If you do not promise to be home before midnight, you —— not go to the ball.

10.

Three years she grew in sun and shower,

Then Nature said, “A lovelier flower

On earth was never sown;

This Child I to myself —— take;

She —— be mine, and I —— make

A Lady of my own.

“The stars of midnight —— be dear

To her; and she —— lean her ear

In many a secret place

Where rivulets dance their wayward round,

And beauty born of murmuring sound

—— pass into her face.

“And vital feelings of delight

—— rear her form to stately height,

Her virgin bosom swell;

Such thoughts to Lucy I —— give

While she and I together live

Here in this happy dell.”

LXI. DEFECTIVE VERBS. VERB PHRASES

243. Some verbs lack one or more of their principal parts. Such verbs are called defective verbs.

A very common defective verb, which has only one form, is ought. (See page 135.)

Other defective verbs are can, may, must, shall, and will. The past tense forms of these verbs are could, might, must, should, and would, respectively. No one of these verbs is ever used as a principal verb, except would, as in the familiar expressions, “I would I were a bird,” “Would that he were here!”

244. Shall and will are used as auxiliary verbs to form the future tenses. Can, could, may, might, must, should, and would are used to form certain very useful verb phrases that are in the present, the past, or the future perfect tense, and in either the indicative or the subjunctive mode according to their meaning.

245. Using these verb phrases in the indicative mode we say,—

I may go  to Japan.

He may have gone  home early.

I can see  seven stars.

It cannot have come  yet.

We must go  early.

He must have sold  it.

You might hurry  a little.

We might have hurried .

He could not tell  a lie.

I could have eaten  more.

She would talk  in church.

He would have helped  me.

We should honor  the flag.

You should have earned  it.

If we look closely at the meaning of these sentences, and think of others containing the same auxiliaries, we shall conclude (1) that may and might denote possibility or permission, (2) that can and could denote power or ability, (3) that must denotes necessity, (4) that would denotes determination, (5) that should denotes obligation or duty.

Any one of the verb phrases just studied may be made interrogative by transposition; as,—May I borrow your knife?

246. Can and must are used only in the indicative mode. Using may, might, could, would, and should in subjunctive verb phrases, we say,—

Long may it wave!

Oh, that he would help!

Though he might be telling the truth, he would not be believed.

If I could go with father, I should be happy.

If it should freeze, we could go skating.

If we look closely at these sentences, we shall see that the verbs denote (1) a wish, (2) something contrary to fact, (3) something uncertain. (See Lesson LII.)

247. The seven auxiliaries just studied may be used in making passive verb phrases. Use the following phrases or similar ones in sentences:—

may be broken

may have been taken

can be cut

can have been heard

must be paid

must have been bought

might be driven

might have been kept

could be seen

could have been done

would be hurt

would have been stung

should be met

should have been thrown

248. Other verb phrases in very common use in speech are formed by means of the participle going. It is easy to imagine the following conversation as really taking place.

“I am going to go to Niagara Falls next summer.”

“Why, you were going to go there last summer. In fact, you have been going to go there every summer since I have known you.”

“True enough. My intentions are good, but my purse is light. Perhaps I shall be going to go all my life, and then get to heaven first after all.”

Each of the four groups of italicized words is a verb phrase denoting an intention. Make ten similar phrases; as, am going to sing, was going to eat. Notice that going does not denote the act of going anywhere to sing or to eat, as it does in “I am going to the Park to hear the band play,” but only the purpose or intention of singing or eating.

249. Just as we denote an intended future action by using the word going, so we often denote a customary past action by a phrase in which we employ the verb used; as, “She used to wear a little red cape,” “Johnson used to touch every fence post that he passed.” The italicized words should not be separated here, but should be considered as one group or verb phrase.

250. In speaking of any of the verb phrases described in this lesson, we may call them verbs; we decide their person and number by their subject, their voice and mode by their meaning, and their tense by their form.

251. The verbs have and do are not always auxiliaries. They are sometimes principal verbs, and as such are conjugated in the various ways. What are the principal parts of have? of do?

Conjugate have in the indicative mode; do in the emphatic form; have in the progressive form; do in the passive voice, in the third person, singular number, using it for the subject.

252. Verbs like rain, snow, hail, etc., are sometimes called impersonal verbs, because they are used only in the third person singular with the pronoun it.

Summary.—A defective verb is one that lacks one or more of its principal parts.

Defective verbs are used as auxiliary verbs.

The auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, would, and should are used to form certain common verb phrases.

These verb phrases may be active or passive, declarative or interrogative, indicative or subjunctive mode, present, past, or present perfect tense.

Going is used to form verb phrases that denote a future or intended action.

Used is employed to form verb phrases that denote a customary past action.

Have and do may be principal verbs as well as auxiliary verbs.

Impersonal verbs are used only in the third person singular, with the neuter pronoun it.

Exercise 1.—Select all the verb phrases in the following sentences. Tell their voice, person, number, subject, and complement if they have any.

1. What a bird it must be that could utter such wondrous sounds!

2. From time to time the two rabbits would halt, sit up on their hind quarters, erect their long, attentive ears, and glance about warily with their bulging eyes.

3.

The rich man’s son inherits cares;

The bank may break, the factory burn,

A breath may burst his bubble shares,

And soft white hands could hardly earn

A living that would serve his turn.

4. All the girls in the class are going to wear pink chambray dresses, and mother is going to make mine by hand.

5. We can go by the North Road, the South Road, or the Middle Road.

6. Instead of candy, mother used to give him sugar in a cup, and then he would stretch out on the sunny doorstep and feed his sweet crystals to the flies.

7. The Cottontails were now sole owners of the holes, and did not go near them when they could help it, lest anything like a path should be made that might betray their last retreats to an enemy.

8. If you are going to make orange marmalade to-morrow, you must peel the oranges this evening.

9. I should think that something might be done about covering the cow’s horns; perhaps they might be padded with cotton.

10. Governor Winthrop wrote his third wife tender messages in a way that could only have come of long practice.

11. The children used to stand at the window in the twilight, and watch the lights appear in the houses; and when they had counted ten, they used to clap their hands, and say, “Now, mother, it is time to light the lamp.”

12. On the usual crisp mornings of sugar season the snow at such an hour would have borne a crust to crackle sharply under every footstep.

13. I had not told the horse that I was going to whip him, so he was taken by surprise and started forward.

14. Grandpa would not be helped into his overcoat.

Exercise 2.—Select all the verb phrases containing any form of have or do. Tell whether this form is used as an auxiliary or as a principal verb.

1. Shere Khan does us great honor.

2. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remember the Kaatskill Mountains.

3. Do you ever wonder how so much sin and wrong and suffering can be in God’s world?

4. Mother never forgot the millionaire’s daughter who said that she did up her father’s shirts.

5. All the Offal Court boys had this same hard time, so Tom supposed it was the correct and comfortable thing.

6. Where does amber get its strange, poetic charm?

7. I never had the pleasure of meeting a crowing hen; but I have known a great many whistling girls, and I cannot recall an instance where their ends were any worse than those of other girls.

8. If I could have committed suicide without killing myself, I should certainly have done so.

9. She had eaten as many mouthfuls of breakfast as she possibly could in her excited condition, had kissed everybody good-by twice over, and now thought it was time to be starting.

10. I can’t write a composition unless I have something to say, can I?

11. On these hard, smooth roads one horse will do the work of two.

12. I do not feel wholly sure that my Pussy wrote these letters herself.

13. The Boy had no fear of the undisputed Master of the Woods, the big black bear.

14. Do the duty that lies nearest thee; thy second duty will already have become clearer.

15. Jakie had been stolen from the nest before he could fly.

16. I do wish that you and your father would turn around directly and come home.

17. Jane had had the inestimable advantage of a sorrow.

18. The old bell had things all its own way up in the steeple.

19. Boys always do the nice splendid things, and girls can only do the nasty dull ones that get left over.

20. After the twins had had measles and mumps, whooping cough descended on the household.

Tell the part of speech and use of us, sentence 1, honor 1, shirts 4, same 5, great 7, two 11, wholly 12, herself 12, bear 13, clearer 14, father 16, home 16.

253. Many errors are made in the use of the auxiliaries may and can, would and should.

We should use may to denote permission, liberty, or possibility, and can to denote power or ability.

Exercise 1.—Supply the correct word in each of these sentences, and give your reason in each case:—

1. What —— I do to help you?

2. You —— have a watch when you graduate.

3. I —— go by boat, but it is doubtful.

4. —— you run an automobile?

5. —— we have a school paper?

6. Do you think that I —— earn ten dollars a week?

7. Fred, you —— open the east windows.

8. If we walk fast, we —— surely get there in time.

9. We —— get there in time, but we shall have to hurry.

Make three good sentences containing may and three containing can.

Would is used to denote,—

(1) Determination; as, “Albert would leave school.”

(2) Inclination; as, “I would read more if I could.”

(3) Customary past action; as, “We would listen to her songs hour after hour.”

Should is used to denote,—

(1) Simple intention; as, “I should come often if you did not live so far.”

(2) Obligation or duty; as, “We should honor our parents.” Perhaps these auxiliaries are oftenest misused when associated with the verb like. The expression, “I would like to go,” is wrong, because it means “I am inclined or determined to like something,” which is not good sense. We should say,—

I should like to go

We should like to go

You would like to go

You would like to go

He would like to go

They would like to go

In a dependent clause should denotes merely an imaginary condition, and would denotes inclination as well as an imaginary condition.

The clauses, “If I should lose my watch,” “If you should lose your watch,” “If he should lose his watch,” are equivalent to the present tense of the subjunctive mode, and denote merely an imaginary condition.

The clauses, “If I would study harder,” “if you would study harder,” “if he would study harder,” denote an imaginary condition that may become real according to the inclination of the subject.

What is the meaning of the familiar dependent clause in the following sentence: “If it would only snow, we could have a sleigh ride?”

Exercise 2.—Supply the correct word in each of these sentences, and give your reason in each case:—

1. You —— study the text before you undertake the exercise.

2. What —— you do with him, Mr. Dick?

3. I —— wash him and put him to bed.

4. Neither of the boys —— obey me.

5. As soon as day broke, the canary —— begin to sing.

6. I —— like to meet your grandfather.

7. Any girl —— be satisfied with two new hats.

8. They —— all like to come, I am sure.

9. I —— not take one cent of his money.

10. I —— think that you —— be glad to work.

11. Each man —— keep himself loyal to truth.

12. If I —— tell the story, the children —— not be satisfied.

13. If I —— tell them stories all day long, they —— not be satisfied.

Make five good sentences containing would, and five containing should.

The verb have got is often misused for the verb have. “I have it” means “I possess it,” while “I have got it” means “I have procured it.” “I have to go” means “I must go,” while “I have got to go” is an incorrect expression.

Exercise 3.—Supply has or have, has got, or have got in each of the following sentences, and give your reason in each case. Use the negative word not, if necessary.

1. —— you tickets for the entertainment?

2. No, I —— them yet.

3. Can he buy a farm if he —— no money?

4. —— you a chisel, Albert?

5. No, I —— one, but Herman —— one.

6. At last he —— a position on the police force.

7. We —— a fruit farm and father —— a new tenant on it.

8. We —— to practice at four o’clock.

9. I can’t go to the football game for I —— to work Saturday afternoons.

10. Nobody —— to leave before nine o’clock.

What correct expressions can you substitute for has got in the familiar sentence, “Madge has got to do as I say”?

LXII. DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURSE

254. In the sentence,—Ruth said, “I like your cake,” we have a direct quotation, the exact words spoken by Ruth. A direct quotation is often called direct discourse.

In the sentence,—Ruth said that she liked my cake, we have an indirect quotation containing the substance, or thought, of Ruth’s remark, but not her exact words. An indirect quotation is often called indirect discourse.

255. In changing from direct to indirect discourse, we are likely to make a change in personal pronouns, as well as in the tense of verbs. An indirect quotation usually takes the form of a dependent clause beginning with the word that. If the verb of saying that usually precedes an indirect quotation is in the present tense, then the verb in the quotation is likely to be in the present or the future tense; but if the verb of saying is in the past tense, then the verb in the quotation is likely to be in the past tense; as,

Father says that he is on the jury.

Father said that he was on the jury.

Can you account for the tense of the verb in the indirect quotation in this sentence,—Somebody once said that the pen is mightier than the sword?

256. When a direct quotation containing the word shall is changed to an indirect quotation, shall is retained if the verb of saying preceding the quotation is in the present tense; but if this verb is in the past tense, then shall is changed to should. In like manner will is changed to would; as,—

Mother says, “I shall be voting soon.”

Mother says that she shall be voting soon.

Mother said that she should be voting soon.

Mother says, “I will make him a pillow.”

Mother says that she will make him a pillow.

Mother said that she would make him a pillow.

257. If a direct quotation is a question, it becomes an indirect question when changed to indirect discourse; as,—

He asked, “Why do you tremble so?”

He asked me why I trembled so.

258. A command may be changed from direct to indirect discourse; as,—

Christ said, “Love your enemies.”

Christ said that we should love our enemies.

Exercise 1.—Account for the use of shall, will, should, and would in the following sentences:—

1. The teacher said, “I shall be pleased to go.”

2. The teacher said that she should be pleased to go.

3. Aunt Elsie said, “I will tell you the story to-morrow.”

4. Aunt Elsie said that she would tell us the story to-morrow.

5. The principal said, “You shall have no recess to-day.”

6. The principal said that we should have no recess to-day.

7. Mother said, “You will be late.”

8. Mother said that I should be late.

9. The mayor said, “The matter shall be investigated.”

10. The mayor said that the matter should be investigated.

11. The director said, “The celebration will be on Tuesday.”

12. The director said that the celebration would be on Tuesday.

13. The teacher said, “David and Harry shall not take part.”

14. David and Harry, the teacher said that you should not take part.

15. The boys said, “David and Harry will be sorry.”

16. David and Harry, the boys said that you would be sorry.

Exercise 2.—Change the following sentences from direct to indirect discourse:—

1. Longfellow said, “Life is real, life is earnest.”

2. John wrote, “I know that Shep will give you a warm welcome when you come.”

3. The lawyer demanded, “Mr. Christoff, what have you done with the company’s books?”

4. The Bible says, “Give to him that asketh.”

5. Patrick Henry asked, “When shall we be stronger?”

6. The eloquent speaker said, “The declaration of our independence will strengthen us at home, and give us character abroad.”

7. The great orator declared, “If we fail, it can be no worse for us. But we shall not fail. The cause will raise up armies.”

8. He admitted, “We may not live to the time when this declaration shall be made good.”

9. Then he uttered this prophecy: “This declaration must cost treasure, and it may cost blood; but it will stand, and it will richly compensate for both.”

10. Every listener was moved when the statesman said, “If it be the pleasure of Heaven that my country shall require the poor offering of my life, the victim shall be ready at the appointed hour of sacrifice.”

11. His closing words were these: “All that I have, and all that I am, and all that I hope, in this life, I am now ready here to stake upon it; and I leave off as I began, that live or die, survive or perish, I am for the declaration.”

Exercise 3.—Make the following sentences clear by changing them from indirect to direct discourse:—

1. The teacher told Mrs. Gray that her little girl lost the report she had given her.

2. Jennie told Ada that her mother was willing that she should go to the concert with her and her brother.

3. Bertrand told George that he ought to sell his sailboat and buy his launch.

4. The teachers asked the young men why they had made such a disturbance in the corridor when they had forbidden them to congregate there.

LXIII. AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT. COLLECTIVE NOUNS

259. A verb must agree with its subject in number, and since the verb changes its form sometimes to denote number, we must be careful to employ the correct form. We should say, “The rose is red, the roses are red; the wind does blow, the winds do blow; the bird flies, the birds fly.”

260. This agreement of the subject and the verb is a simple matter in English, for in our language verbs have the same form in the singular and the plural, except in four cases:—

(1) The verb be, which changes its form considerably to indicate number, in the present and past tenses. See page 128.

(2) Any verb in the second person conjugated in the solemn style. See page 128.

(3) Any verb in the third person of the present tense, indicative mode; as, he speaks, they speak.

(4) Any verb in the third person of the present perfect indicative; as, he has spoken, they have spoken.

261. As don’t is a contraction of do not, it should be used only with a plural subject, or with the singular pronouns I and you. We say, “I don’t know,” “You don’t know,” “They don’t know,” but “He doesn’t know,” “She doesn’t know,” “It doesn’t come.”

262. A compound subject composed of two or more singular nouns should have a plural verb when the parts are joined by any conjunction but or or nor. We say, “Either John or Byron is her cousin,” and “Both John and Joe are her cousins.”

When two singular subjects refer to one person, the verb, of course, should be singular. We say, “The secretary and treasurer was absent.”

263. When a singular noun is modified by the limiting adjective each, every, either, neither, any, or no, and used as subject of a clause, its verb must be singular; as, “Each flower is a thing of beauty,” “No man lives but loves something.”

In declarative sentences this rule is not likely to be violated, but it is often violated in interrogative sentences, where the verb precedes the subject. We should say, “Has either book been returned?” “Is either of you willing to stay?” “Was neither of the speakers on time?”

264. There is a class of nouns like flock, army, herd, company, which mean a collection of individuals, and so seem to be plural; but since the individuals forming the collection are thought of as one body, these nouns are in reality singular. They are collective nouns.

265. The verb of which a collective noun is subject is a singular verb, and the pronoun that stands for a collective noun is the neuter singular pronoun it. We say, “The company is on its way to the Philippines.”

NOTE.—When a collective noun is plural in meaning, that is, when the individuals are thought of as acting separately, it takes a plural verb; as, “The faculty are not going to trouble their heads about the kind of shoes we wear.”

Summary.—A verb must agree with its subject in person and in number.

A collective noun is one that names a group of individuals considered as one body.

A collective noun is usually singular and neuter.

Exercise 1.—If you do not already know, find out from the dictionary to what sort of individuals each of these collective nouns is applied.

- bevy

- choir

- committee

- constellation

- covey

- crew

- drove

- family

- fleet

- flock

- gang

- hive

- horde

- jury

- mob

- orchestra

- regiment

- swarm

- tribe

- troop

Exercise 2.—Find all the collective nouns in these sentences. Find evidence as to whether they are singular or plural. If they are plural, tell why. Give the reason for the number of each verb.

1. Forty wolves make a very fair pack indeed.

2. At the edge of the thicket was a straggling colony of low blueberry bushes.

3. Here, in course of days, there accumulated a shining cluster of six large white eggs.

4. At last cousin Eben came with a double sleigh and the team of prancing grays, and then the whole family was off for Christmas dinner at Aunt Mary’s.

5. Has either of the critics ever heard the new organ?

6. No man in his senses takes such a risk.

7. A school of porpoises were ducking and tearing through the water.

8. Through the ancient forest, which was a mixed growth of cedar, water ash, black poplar, and maple, with here and there a group of hemlocks on a knoll, the light drained down confusedly.

9. The opinions of this junto were completely controlled by Nicholas Vedder.

10. Is either of you going up the river in the houseboat?

11. This band of crows numbered about two hundred.

12. Each year the old crow came with his troop, and for about six weeks took up his abode on the hill.

13. Here and there a band of chimney sweeps were staring in stupid wonder at the miracle of a showman’s box.

14. Butler tells of an Indian tribe in the Far North that was all but exterminated by a feud over a dog.

15. On a level spot was a company of odd-looking personages playing at ninepins.

16. Every word on his papers was correctly spelled.

17. The rest of the horses swept dutifully into line, and the herd was off.

LXIV. REVIEW OF VERBS: PARSING

266. Study again Lessons XXIII-XXVII, XLIX-LXIII. Make an outline of verbs, having the following main topics:—

(1) Classification.

(2) Properties.

(3) Conjugation.

(4) Principal Parts.

(5) Auxiliaries.

(6) Agreement.

Fill in the subtopics and recite in detail from your outline with illustrations of every point.

Exercise.—Parse the verbs in the following sentences according to the outline on p. 150:—

1. If you have a Halloween party, shall you invite the Cromers?

2. At first the chemist said he couldn’t do anything about it; but when Agamemnon said they would pay in gold if he would only go, he packed up his bottles in a leather case, and went back with the Peterkins.

3.

Faith’s journeys end is welcome to the weary,

And heaven, the heart’s true home, will come at last.

4. We are going to have a tile well, and Mr. Jones is going to oversee the men who dig it.

5. This woodchuck was neither handsome nor interesting, but he knew how to take care of himself.

6. Sheep are usually kept in flocks of from one thousand to three thousand under one or more shepherds.

7. Rabbits telegraph each other by thumping on the ground with their hind feet.

8. Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving?

9.

Breast the wave, Christian, when it is strongest.

Watch for day, Christian, when the night’s longest.

10. Even so did men talk round the king’s cages at Oodeypore.

11. Your Uncle Nathan and I used to be called the bothering Bodleys, because we were always teasing to find out something.

12. The Peterkins had been so busy inside the house that they had not noticed the ceasing of the storm outside.

13. For thou, Lord, wilt give thy blessing unto the righteous, and with thy favorable kindness wilt thou defend him as with a shield.

14. My father’s, like every other young ladies’ school near a village, was very much disturbed by the attentions of the village young men.

15. If any man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine and go into the mountains and seek that which goeth astray?

16. They were sitting round the breakfast table and wondering what they should do because the lady from Philadelphia had gone away.

LXV. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. SIMPLE ADVERBS

267. In Lesson X it was shown that an adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Select the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell what words they modify:—

We proceeded through a tract of country excessively wild and desolate.

People with lanterns rushed hither and thither.

John knew that he could spend a day very pleasantly in going over to that pasture.

All the adverbs in these sentences are called simple adverbs because they have but one office in the sentence,—they merely modify the word they go with.

268. In the sentence, “Perhaps my pony can carry the load,” the word perhaps tells nothing whatever about the action of carrying, but rather serves to make the whole statement doubtful. Such a word is said to modify the whole sentence. Some other adverbs used in this way are certainly, indeed, fortunately, and not.

The common use of the adverb not is to change an affirmative statement to a negative statement, as in the sentence, “I will not wear my heart upon my sleeve.”

269. The simple adverbs, when, where, why, how, whence, whither, are used in asking questions; as, “When shall we be stronger?” “Why do you answer me so?” Such adverbs modify the whole predicate. They are called interrogative adverbs.

NOTE.—The is sometimes used as an adverb before comparatives; as, “The more you have, the more you want.”

270. When the meaning permits, adverbs may be compared in the same manner as adjectives; as, fast, faster, fastest; pleasantly, more pleasantly, most pleasantly; fortunately, less fortunately, least fortunately.

Summary.—A simple adverb is one that merely modifies the word or the group of words that it goes with.

Some simple adverbs, like not, perhaps, certainly, modify the whole sentence.

An interrogative adverb is a simple adverb that is used in asking a question.

Some adverbs may be compared.

Exercise.—Select all the simple adverbs in the following sentences, and tell what each modifies. In so far as you can, tell what each adverb denotes. (See Lesson X.)

1. How the huge breakers foam and fret!

2. People living by the sea are always more or less superstitious.

3. No one can work well without sleep.

4. Whence came that blessed mother love, so strong, so dauntless, so pure, and whither has it fled?

5. Where had the stone been before? Why did it come there? When would it go away?

6. Heaven is not reached at a single bound.

7. Luckily, poor Pepper was not seriously hurt.

8. Meanwhile Mrs. Peterkin was getting quite impatient for her coffee.

9. How do you like to go up in a swing, up in the air so blue?

10. Why should one hurry when days are long and calm and sweet?

11. You may lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink.

12. Presently a huge black bear poked his nose out of the bushes, and sniffed inquiringly.

13. How quickly we learn to claim as our own that in which we delight!

LXVI. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

271. In Lesson XX we learned that a dependent clause is one that does not make sense when standing alone; also that such a clause sometimes has the office of an adverb, modifying a predicate, and sometimes that of an adjective, modifying a noun. It is, therefore, called an adverbial clause or an adjective clause.

Select and classify the dependent clauses in each of the following sentences:—

(a) Old Stony Phiz set out on a visit to the valley where he was born.

(b) When I first came to Rivermouth, I looked upon girls as rather tame company.

272. A dependent clause is usually introduced by some word which indicates that it is a dependent clause. In the clause where he was born, this introductory word is where. What is the introductory word in the clause in sentence (b)?

This introductory word does more than introduce the clause; it joins the clause to the word the clause modifies. What does where join in (a)? What does the introductory word in (b) join?

But these words do more than join. Where denotes place, and modifies the verb was born. Hence it is an adverb. What does when denote? What does it modify?

Since these words have two uses, that of an adverb and that of a joining word, we call them conjunctive adverbs.

Summary.—A conjunctive adverb is one that introduces a clause, modifies some part of the clause, generally the predicate, and joins the clause to that part of the sentence which the clause modifies.

Some common conjunctive adverbs are when, where, whence, whenever, wherever, while, why, how. (See note, p. 177.)

An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that is used like an adverb.

An adjective clause is a dependent clause that is used like an adjective.

Both the adjective and the adverbial clause may be introduced by a conjunctive adverb.

Exercise.—Select all the conjunctive adverbs in the following sentences. Tell what clause they introduce, what they join, what they denote, and what they modify.

1. When his eyes got command of the dusk, he saw to his surprise that the den was empty.

2. Mr. Gathergold bethought himself of his native valley, and resolved to go back thither, and end his days where he was born.

3. The canals in Amsterdam are crossed by a great many drawbridges, and the people must sometimes wait while a ship or barge is passing.

4. Our lunch was only bread and tea and blueberries and cream, but do you remember how delicious it tasted that day when you came home from the circus as tired as a dog and as hungry as a bear?

5.

Whenever I cross the river

On its bridge with wooden piers,

Like the odor of brine from the ocean,

Comes the thought of other years.

6. The reason why men succeed who mind their own business is because there is so little competition.

7.

The frugal snail, with forecast of repose,

Carries his house with him where’er he goes.

8. When all the trees in the forest have the same number of leaves, then will all men be alike in their power and skill.

9.

While the breath’s in his mouth, he must bear without fail,

In the name of the Empress the Overland Mail.

10.

Where’er our footsteps range,

Comes the chilling breath of change,

And the best of friends look strange

When the purse is low.

11. The reason why men do not obey us is because they see the mud at the bottom of our eye.

12.

So shut your eyes while mother sings

Of wonderful sights that be.

13. Chip answered me with a cheery little note or two whenever I spoke to him.

14.

My heart leaps up when I behold

A rainbow in the sky.

LXVII. SUMMARY OF ADVERBS

273. We have learned,—

(1) That adverbs may be simple adverbs or conjunctive adverbs.

(2) That simple adverbs merely modify some word or group of words.

(3) That conjunctive adverbs modify, and at the same time introduce a dependent clause and join it to whatever the clause modifies.

(4) That one kind of simple adverb is the interrogative adverb, which is used in asking a question.

(5) That an adverb may modify a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a whole predicate, or even a whole statement.

(6) That adverbs may denote time, place, manner, degree, and direction.

(7) That some adverbs may be compared.

Give a good illustration of each point in this summary.

274. When we parse an adverb we should tell,—

(1) Its class as to use,—simple, interrogative, conjunctive.

(2) Its class as to meaning,—time, place, manner, etc.

(3) Its degree (if it admits of comparison).

(4) Its use, and what it modifies.

Exercise.—Parse each adverb in the following sentences:—

1. Virtue and intelligence will lead our country ever onward in her happy career.

2. Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud?

3. The man in the moon came down too soon.

4. Fortunately, what seemed to be a barrel of apples turned out to be an electric lamp.

5. The old horse cars rocked along scarcely faster than we could walk.

6. Calmly I await the hour when the summons comes for me.

7. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore.

8. I will lock the door most willingly, but I will not cover the bird.

9. Probably Frank was mightily relieved when he saw the mayor’s automobile.

10. Our side made a remarkably good score.

11. Where shall we sit in the new church?

LXVIII. COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

275. We have learned that such words as and, but, and or are conjunctions. Their use is merely to join, and they may join either words, phrases, or clauses. Since they join like elements,—a word to a word, a phrase to a phrase, a clause to a clause, a sentence to a sentence, we call them coördinate conjunctions.

276. In the sentence, “Either the well was very deep or she fell very slowly,” the coördinate conjunction or, which joins two sentences, is preceded by the word either, which hints that or is coming. When either and or are used in this way, they are called correlatives; that is, they are words related to each other. Other correlatives are neither, nor; not only, but; both, and. It is always the second word of these pairs that does the joining. The first merely tells the listener or reader what sort of sentence is to follow.

NOTE.—Frequently a coördinate conjunction has another word going with it to change or emphasize its meaning. In the sentence, “He is rich and yet he is not generous,” the word yet going with and changes its meaning to but. In the sentence, “He is poor, but still he is generous,” the word still reinforces the meaning of but. Such a word associated with a conjunction may be said to be a part of the conjunction, that is, the two words together do the joining. In the same way the two words not only form the correlative of but or but also; as, “He is not only a teacher but also a student.” What does but also join here?

Summary.—A coördinate conjunction is one that joins like elements. It is sometimes more than one word.

Correlative coördinate conjunctions are pairs of words, the second of which does the joining.

Exercise.—When we parse a coördinate conjunction we tell its class and what it joins. If it has a correlative, we state that fact. Parse the coördinate conjunctions in the following sentences:—

1. The writer who professes to care nothing for fame is probably deceiving himself, or else his liver is out of order.

2. Everybody took a holiday, and high and low, rich and poor, feasted and danced and sang, and got very mellow.

3. There was neither dust nor mud nor noise to annoy one.

4. The mahogany arm chair is very handsome, and the green plush rocker is very comfortable, but still I choose this little chair with the flowers painted on the back, that mother gave to me when I was only five.

5. On its southern side is an elevated walk, or terrace, very broad and handsome, and about half a mile long.

NOTE.—In the preceding sentence, try to discover under what circumstances an appositive is joined to the word it explains by or. Notice the punctuation. Make other sentences illustrating this use of or.

6. The road to Paradise is rough and thorny.

7. His chief amusements were gunning and fishing, or sauntering along the beach and through the myrtles.

8. Neither hare nor grouse was stirring in the brushy opens.

9. You know Mary always bangs things when she is cross, but I never could see what good it does.

10. When the two children went down to the river to play, they not only disobeyed their mothers, but they also ran away from school.

11. I never looked either neat or clean, though I had my daily bath and a generous allowance of clothes.

12. Over the tree tops and from the open spaces in the wood could be seen the first pallor of approaching day.

13. In deep snow the moose can neither flee nor fight.

14. They always put Mammy Tittleback in the carriage too; but before they had carried her far, she generally jumped out, and walked the rest of the way by their side.

15. These Spaniards wished to build ships and to get away; but they had neither knowledge nor tools nor iron nor forge nor tow nor resin nor rigging.

16.

He prayeth best who loveth best

All things both great and small.

Tell the part of speech and use of himself, sentence 1, high, low 2, mellow 2, when 4, neat 11, allowance 11, pallor 12.

LXIX. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

277. We have learned that a dependent clause is often used as an adverb to modify a predicate. When so used, it is joined to the predicate it modifies by some connecting word.

Sometimes this connecting word is a conjunctive adverb, as was pointed out in Lesson LXVI, but more often it is some other word, as in the following sentences:—

Sheep are such senseless creatures that they are liable to be stampeded by the veriest trifle.

You cannot catch a muskrat unless you put tar on his nose.

I love hens because they are such good mothers.

What is the dependent clause in each of these sentences? What does it modify? What word joins it to that part of the sentence which it modifies?

These connecting words,—that, unless, and because,—are not adverbs, for they do not modify any word. They merely connect, hence they are conjunctions. Since they connect elements not alike, not equal in rank, they are called subordinate conjunctions.

278. There are many subordinate conjunctions. The most common are after, although, as, because, before, for, if, in order that, lest, provided, since, so that, than, that, though, till, and unless.

NOTE.—There is little distinction between the subordinate conjunction and the conjunctive adverb. Both connect a dependent to a principal clause; and some subordinate conjunctions, like conjunctive adverbs, express time, cause, or manner, etc. For this reason, as, after, before, since, till, etc. are included by some authors among conjunctive adverbs. Compare, “I came when you called me” with “I came before you called me.”

Summary.—A subordinate conjunction is one that introduces a dependent clause, and joins it to that part of the sentence which it modifies.

Exercise.—Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences. Tell their class and what they join.

1. The four cubs, running down hill on their bellies, melted into the thorn and underbrush as a mole melts into a lawn.

2. Boys will do any amount of work provided it is called play.

3. The great horned owl stood so erect and motionless that he seemed a portion of the pine trunk itself.

4. Since the maples were cut down, the elms have flourished.

5. Androclus had not lain long quiet in the cavern, before he heard a dreadful noise, which seemed to be the roar of some wild beast, and terrified him very much.

6. Harry laughed till the tears ran down his cheeks.

7. Unless you have sat on a stone fence and beaten russet apples soft on its hard top, you have missed one of the greatest delicacies that the orchard gives.

8. I liked the doctor very much, for he would let me drive around with him, and hold his horse while he made his professional calls.

9. Fast the ivy stealeth on, though he wears no wings.

10. Even after the invitations were sent out, it seemed to Dolly that the party day would never come.

11. The shawl doll was my favorite because it was more nearly the size of a real baby.

12. The two young Cratchits crammed spoons into their mouths lest they should shriek for goose before their turn came to be helped.

13. A man would laugh if you told him that he had never really seen a burdock.

Select all the verbs in the sentences above. Classify them as transitive or intransitive. Tell their voice, mode, and tense.

279. Some words may be used as conjunctions, as prepositions, or as adverbs.

After.

Conj.—I came after you called me the second time.

Adv.—We look before and after, and pine for what is not.

Prep.—Let us walk to the lake after school.

Before.

Conj.—The roosters woke me before the sun rose.

Adv.—They had never seen mountains before.

Prep.—In winter we get up before daylight.

But.

Conj.—I am weak, but Thou art mighty.

Prep.—He relishes no fruit but apples.

Adv.—We can but die.

Else.

Conj.—You must tell the truth, else you will not be trusted.

Adv.—How else can we get to Berlin?

Adv.—Where else shall I look for your glasses?

NOTE.—What part of speech is else in the sentences, “What else can I do for you?” “Who else was there?”

For.

Conj.—Work for the night is coming.

Prep.—The faithful slave died for his young master.

Hence.

Conj.—Smoke is coming out of the chimney, hence the house must be occupied.

Adv.—Let me go hence and be no more seen.

Only.

Conj.—I should be glad to go, only I have nothing to wear.

Adv.—I made the cake; mother only baked it.

NOTE.—What part of speech is only in the sentence, “Grace is an only child”?

Since.

Conj.—I have been happy since you became my friend.

Prep.—Prices have never gone down since the war.

Adv.—One day the dog disappeared, and he has never been heard of since.

So.

Conj.—The baby monopolized her time, so she withdrew from the club.

Adv.—Don’t speak so loud, Caroline.

Till or Until.

Conj.—Tarry thou till I come.

Prep.—We work hard until noon.

Yet.

Conj.—She speaks much, yet she says very little.

Adv.—Has the case been settled yet?

Explain the use of each italicized word in the sentences above.

280. When we parse a preposition, we tell (1) what phrase it introduces, and (2) what words it shows a relation between; thus, “In the sentence, ‘I bring you tidings of great joy,’ the preposition of introduces the adjective phrase of great joy, and shows a relation between its object great joy and the noun tidings.”

Exercise.—Parse all the conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositions in the following sentences:—

1. Roger Conant came over from England before 1630.

2. We had a cold spell in April, so the peach crop is small.

3. Our flag was still there.

4. The barn was strongly built, so it was made over into a good house.

5. Ours is a government of the people, for the people, and by the people.

6. Look before you leap.

7. Years have passed since anybody remembered my birthday.

8. The poet saw the daffodils beside the lake.

9. After the boy arrived in Richmond, he slept under a sidewalk.

10. Did anybody besides Rufus go with you to Janesville?

11. Mr. Micawber would pay his debts if something would only turn up.

12. Jill came tumbling after.

13. The turkey was steamed first, else it would not have been so tender.

14. The fern has grown fast since Easter.

15. I can’t paint well if you look over my shoulder.

16. There is nothing to breathe but air.

17. Wait till the clouds roll by.

18. Disappointments will surely come, yet they need not crush us.

19. I will go before the king.

20. Did you make your will before you went round the world?

LXX. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME, PLACE, AND MANNER

281. Adverbial clauses are used in many different relations. Frequently they denote the time when an action is performed; as, “When the pie was opened, the birds began to sing.” Here the clause tells when the birds began to sing, and hence modifies the predicate. It is joined to began to sing by the conjunctive adverb when.

A subordinate connective does not have to come between the elements that it joins. This enables us to put a dependent clause at the beginning of a sentence. What is the advantage of such an arrangement?

An adverbial clause of time answers such questions as when? how often? how long? It is joined to what it modifies by the conjunctive adverbs when, while, whenever, or by the subordinating conjunctions before, after, till, until, since, as.

Sometimes, if the connective is when, and the clause comes first, we begin the principal proposition with the simple adverb then, which we call a correlative of when. Illustrate this.

282. The adverbial clause may be used to tell the place where some action is performed; as, “The maid is standing with reluctant feet where the brook and river meet.” Here the clause tells where the maid is standing, and is joined to is standing by the conjunctive adverb where.

An adverbial clause of place answers such questions as in what place? to what place? from what place? It is introduced by the conjunctive adverbs where, whence, whither, wherever. Sometimes there is used in the principal proposition as a correlative of where in the clause. Which of these correlatives is the connective?

283. Frequently the manner of an action, the way in which it was performed, is told by an adverbial clause; as, “Not as the conqueror comes, they the true-hearted came.” What is the clause here? What does it tell? What does it modify? What is the connective? What is the use of not?

A clause of manner answers the question in what way? It is joined to what it modifies by the subordinate conjunction as, as if, or as though. The simple adverb so may be used as a correlative of as.

284. The word like is never a subordinate conjunction, hence it cannot properly be used for as or as if. We should say, “Walk as (not like) I do;” “She walks as if she were tired (not like she was tired).” Like may be used as a preposition to introduce a phrase; as, “Elizabeth walks like him.”

Exercise 1.—Fill the blank in each of these sentences with the proper word, and explain your choice:—

1. Mary sings —— a bird.

2. It looks —— it would rain.

3. The man speaks —— he knew his subject.

4. March came in —— a lion.

5. You knit just —— my grandmother does.

6. The children ate —— they were hungry.

7. Can you dance —— the gypsies do?

8. Plant the seeds exactly —— I told you to.

Summary.—An adverbial clause of time tells when a condition exists, or when an action was performed.

An adverbial clause of place tells where a condition exists, or where an action was performed.

An adverbial clause of manner tells in what way something was done.

The connectives when, where, and as are sometimes accompanied by the correlatives then, there, and so respectively.

Exercise 2.—Select all the adverbial clauses in the following sentences. Tell what each clause denotes, what it modifies, and what its connective is. Study the punctuation of these sentences, and make a rule for the punctuation of adverbial clauses:—

1. Your bicycle is a stationary bit of iron and india rubber, until you put your feet upon the pedals and use your mind to guide the wheel.

2. The old man sits as if he were carved in stone.

3. Where the snowflakes fall thickest, there nothing can freeze.

4. When mother awoke and saw the burglar, she quietly ordered him to leave; and only after she had pursued his obedient figure to the door did it occur to her that the proper thing to do was to scream.

5. Where the peak leaned to the valley, the trunk of a giant pine jutted forth slantingly from a roothold a little below the summit.

6. As we came up the harbor I had noticed that the houses were huddled together on an immense hill.

7.

I have come to meet judges so wise and so grand

That I shake in my shoes while they’re shaking my hand.

8.

She struck where the white and fleecy waves

Looked soft as carded wool.

9. Whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge.

10. When the blackbird approached that side of the cage, the goldfinch dashed away as though he feared his strange neighbor might come through.

11.

I love to hear thine earnest voice wherever thou art hid,

Thou testy little dogmatist, thou pretty Katydid!

12. At every little station a man popped out as if he were worked by machinery, and waved a red flag, and appeared as though he would like to have us stop.

13. The little bandy-legged dogs had been trotting steadily for many an hour, until their tongues hung out for want of breath.

14. Years had passed since that particular panther had strayed from his high fastnesses, where game was plentiful and none dared poach on his preserves.

15. I stood up and “hollered” with all my might, as everybody does with oxen, as if they were born deaf, and whacked them with the long lash over the head, just as the big folks did when they drove.

LXXI. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CAUSE, PURPOSE, AND RESULT

285. One action or condition may cause some other action or condition, and when we tell this, we often make such a sentence as the following, “Most caged birds are not happy, because few of them are well cared for.” Here the dependent proposition, because few of them are well cared for is an adverbial clause of cause, for it tells the cause of the fact in the principal clause, or why most caged birds are not happy.

The adverbial clause of cause answers the question why? or how do you know? and is usually joined to the predicate that it modifies by the subordinate conjunction for, because, or since.

286. Sometimes an action is performed in order that some other action or condition may come to pass. We say then that the action is performed for a purpose, and we express this purpose by means of an adverbial clause; as, “Leonardo da Vinci would walk the whole length of Milan that he might alter a single tint in his picture of the Last Supper.” Here the clause that he might alter a single tint in his picture of the Last Supper tells the purpose that the artist had in walking the whole length of Milan. What does this clause modify? What is it introduced by?

A clause of purpose answers the question what for? It is usually joined to the predicate that it modifies by the subordinate conjunction that, so that, or in order that.

287. A clause of purpose tells an intention without saying that this intention ever really comes to pass. But there is another clause which tells what really happens as an outcome of the action or condition in the principal clause. This is called a clause of result; for instance, “So porous is the limestone of the roads that in five minutes after a brisk shower one has no need of overshoes.” Here the principal clause tells us that the roads are porous, and the clause tells us what is the result, or outcome, of their being porous. What is the clause in this sentence? What does it modify? What is it introduced by?

A clause of result answers the question what of it?, and is generally introduced by the subordinate conjunction that.

Summary.—A clause of cause tells what produces a certain act or condition.

A clause of purpose tells the intended consequence of some action.

A clause of result tells the real consequence of some action or condition.

Exercise.—Select the adverbial clauses, classify them, giving your reason in each case, tell what they modify, and what they are joined by. Account for the punctuation.

1. I have explained thus carefully about my Bird Room because I do not approve of keeping wild birds in cages.

2. When Chipee had eaten all she could, she would quietly sit down in the seed dish so that Chip couldn’t get any.

3. Of course this bird could not be set free, for he did not know how to take care of himself.

4. One little nugget of purest gold the surveyor carefully preserved, that it might one day become a wedding ring for the gray-eyed girl in Maine.

5. Had his nerves grown so sensitive that the staring of a chipmunk or a rabbit had power to break his sleep?

6. So strong was Polly’s liking for green peas that the sight of raw peas made her wild till some were given to her.

7. Master Fox said to the Crow, “Sing but one song to me, that I may greet you as the Queen of Birds.”

8. It is very convenient to be a reasonable creature, since it enables you to find or make a reason for everything you have a mind to do.

9. Rebecca left the screen door ajar, so that flies came in.

10. Rolf was called the Goer because he had such long legs that when he mounted one of the little Norwegian horses, his feet touched the ground.

11. Dikes are built that the spread and flow of the water may be regulated, and the land protected from destructive floods.

12. The sun burned down so fiercely that the people were fainting in its rays; it seemed as if they must die of heat, and yet they were obliged to go on with their work, for they were very poor.

13. Then the people ran as only hill folk can run, for they knew that in a landslip you must climb for the highest ground across the valley.

14.

Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet,

Lest we forget, lest we forget!

15. I go to prepare a place for you, that where I am there ye may be also.

LXXII. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONDITION AND CONCESSION

288. Very often an action cannot take place except under a certain condition, and this condition is often expressed in a dependent clause; as in the sentence, “A man can buy a vote only if some other man is willing to sell a vote.” Here the one condition under which a man can buy a vote is told in the adverbial clause, if some other man is willing to sell a vote. This is called a clause of condition. It is generally introduced by if, unless (which means if not), provided, or providing. In the illustration what does the clause modify? What is the use of only?

289. Sometimes an action takes place in spite of something else, and we tell this in such a sentence as the following, “Though He slay me, yet will I trust Him.” Here the fact that I trust Him is true in spite of the fact that He may slay me. Such a clause as though He slay me is called a clause of concession, for it concedes, or grants, something that seems to be in direct opposition to what is in the principal clause. What does it modify? What can you say of the word yet?

A clause of concession is generally joined by the subordinate conjunction though, or by some such word as notwithstanding, or even if, which means though.

Sometimes though has a correlative, the word yet, still, or nevertheless used at the beginning of the principal clause.

Summary.—A clause of condition answers the question provided what? It tells the circumstance under which the principal statement is true.

A clause of concession answers the question in spite of what? It tells the circumstance in spite of which the principal statement is true.

Exercise.—Select all adverbial clauses. Tell what each clause denotes, what it modifies, what it is joined by. Account for the punctuation.

1. If your everyday language is not fit for a letter or for print, it is not fit for talk.

2. In Bermuda, if you are in want of some choice cologne, do not fail to ask for it at the nearest shoe shop.

3. Though delicate in his tastes, an elephant likes quantity as well as quality, and at his meals makes nothing of bales of hay and gallons of water.

4. Though the weeping willow and the mountain ash could not endure the cold northeast storms, yet the sturdy elms grew apace and soon spread their branches far.

5. Half the pleasure in going out to murder another man with a gun would be wanting, if one did not wear feathers, and gold lace, and stripes on his pantaloons.

6. There is something queer about thoughts; you cannot have a good time with them if you have done anything naughty.

7.

Though watery deserts hold apart the worlds of East and West,

Still beats the selfsame human heart in each proud Nation’s breast.

8. If our forefathers had not chosen to emigrate to America, we should now be English people ourselves.

9. Rebecca was so slender and so stiffly starched that she slid from space to space on the leather cushions, though she braced herself against the middle seat with her feet, and extended her cotton-gloved hands on each side.

10.

If the men were so wicked, I’ll ask my papa

How he dared to propose to my darling mamma.

Was he like the rest of them? Goodness! Who knows?

And what should I say if a wretch should propose?

11. Though he looked like a bird, he behaved like a monkey.

12.

Though the mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceeding small,

Though with patience he stands waiting, with exactness grinds he all.

13. If the scythes cut well and swing merrily, it is due to the boy who turned the grindstone.

14. If a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know that he doth not.

15.

Men must work and women must weep.

Though storms be sudden and waters deep.

And the harbor bar be moaning.

Account for the mode of the verb in each dependent clause in the preceding sentences.

LXXIII. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON

290. Often we are not satisfied to say, “Cousin John is good.” We wish to tell how good he is, and a common way of doing this is by means of a comparison. We say, “Cousin John is as good as gold.” Here the group of words as gold is a clause with the word is omitted. It is called a clause of comparison. It denotes an equality between John’s goodness and that of gold. Since this clause answers the question how good? it must modify the adjective good.

What is the introductory word of the clause of comparison?

291. Sometimes we compare two things and yet denote an inequality between them; as in the sentence, “The river is bluer than the sky.” Here the clause of comparison is introduced by the subordinating conjunction than. It modifies the word bluer. We know this because it is the word bluer that needs the clause, and without the word bluer the clause would not be in the sentence at all.

Notice that a clause of equality modifies an adjective in the positive degree, while a clause of inequality modifies an adjective in the comparative degree.

292. A clause of comparison may modify an adverb as well as an adjective, as in these sentences:—

The old man moved as slowly as a cloud.

More swiftly than eagles, his coursers they flew.

NOTE.—The adverb rather is seldom used without being modified by a clause of comparison; as, “Henry Clay said that he would rather be right than be president.” When we supply the words understood, the clause reads, than he would be president.

Complete the clauses in the following sentences:—

Some people would rather have money than brains.

I should rather earn a college education than go without it.

A wise American would rather go to Yellowstone Park than to Switzerland.

Summary.—A clause of comparison tells the degree of some quality or quantity by pointing out a likeness or a difference.

A clause of comparison pointing out a likeness is introduced by as, and modifies an adjective or an adverb in the positive degree.

A clause of comparison pointing out a difference is introduced by than, and modifies an adjective or an adverb in the comparative degree.

A clause of comparison is seldom completely expressed.

Exercise.—Select all the clauses of comparison. Tell what they denote, what they modify, and what they are introduced by.

1. Sitting up on the driver’s high seat is almost as good as climbing the meeting-house steeple.

2.

The muscles of his brawny arms

Are strong as iron bands.

3. The loons could dive quicker than the eagle could swoop and strike.

4. Gertrude was prouder than ever when the president of the college said, “Your mother is handsomer than you will ever be, young lady.”

5.

The hearts that were thumping like ships on the rocks

Beat as quiet and steady as meeting-house clocks.

6. Truth is stranger than fiction.

7. I had rather have a fool to make me merry than experience to make me sad.

8.

Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax,

Her cheeks like the dawn of day,

Her bosom white as the hawthorn buds,

That ope in the month of May.

9. One syllable of woman’s speech can dissolve more love than a man’s heart can hold.

10.

I am nearer my home to-day

Than I ever have been before.

11. Whiter than snow were his locks, and his cheeks were as brown as the oak leaves.

12.

A steed as black as the steeds of night

Was seen to pass as with eagle flight.

13. Weeds are sure to grow quicker in my garden than anywhere else.

14.

Dark as winter was the flow

Of Iser rolling rapidly.

15. I should rather see the friezes of the Parthenon molder to dust under the blue veil of the Grecian atmosphere than have them preserved in the grand halls of the British Museum.

16. The huge body of the elephant needs less sleep than anything else that lives.

293. Since the predicate is usually omitted in clauses of comparison, it follows that these clauses often consist of only two words; as, “I am as old as Mary.” “I am older than Mary.” One of these words is the connective, and the other is often the subject of the clause. When the subject is a pronoun, we must be careful to use the nominative form. We should say, “Are you older than I? than he? than she?”

Exercise 1.—Fill the blank in each of these sentences. Then supply the words omitted, and thus show that you have chosen the right pronouns:—

1. Our parents are wiser than (we or us).

2. You are not always so careful as (she or her).

3. Who knows the day better than (me or I)?

4. What! You are stronger than (who or whom)?

5. The Preston girls were just as friendly as (me or I).

6. No man could be more faithful than (him or he).

7. Who stands higher in this city than (they or them).

8. Are you older or younger than (her or she)?

9. Well, perhaps I am not so polite as (he or him).

10. Our geese are whiter than (them or they).

Exercise 2.—Justify the case of the italicized pronoun in each of these sentences:—

1. Jessie likes Julia as well as me.

2. I found her brother more easily than her.

3. I expect an angel sooner than them.

LXXIV. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

294. We are ready now to analyze sentences containing adverbial clauses. In analyzing such sentences we should state as soon as we come to an adverbial clause, (1) what it denotes and (2) what part of speech its introductory word is. We should not analyze any dependent clause in detail, however, until we have completed our analysis of the principal clause.

MODEL.—The lion fixed his great hind claws in the softer skin of the crocodile’s throat, and ripped it open as one would rip a glove.

This is a complex, declarative sentence.

The subject is the lion. The predicate is fixed his great hind claws in the softer skin of the crocodile’s throat, and ripped it open as one would rip a glove.

The predicate is compound, the two parts being joined by the conjunction and. The first predicate verb is fixed. It is completed by the direct object his great hind claws, and then modified by the prepositional phrase in the softer skin of the crocodile’s throat. The base word of the object is claws; it is modified by the adjectives hind and great, and by the possessive pronoun his. The base word of the object of the preposition in is skin. It is modified by the adjectives softer and the, and by the prepositional phrase of the crocodile’s throat. The base word of the object of the preposition of is throat; it is modified by the possessive noun crocodile’s, which is modified by the adjective the.

The second predicate verb is ripped. It is completed by the direct object it and the objective complement open, and then modified by the adverbial clause of manner as one would rip a glove, which is introduced by the subordinate conjunction as.

The subject of this clause is the adjective pronoun one. The predicate is would rip a glove. The predicate verb is would rip. It is completed by the direct object a glove.

Exercise.—Analyze the following sentences. When you write the analysis of a sentence, use abbreviations, and instead of writing out a group of words in full, as is done in the model, write only the first and last words of the group with a dash between them. Be sure to underline all words quoted from the sentence.

1.

He looks the whole world in the face,

For he owes not any man.

2. The young lion was growing so fast that the milk of three goats was scarcely sufficient for him.

3.

When the glorious sun is set,

When the grass with dew is wet,

Then you show your little light.

4. When Charles was studying shorthand, his mother read sermons to him for an hour every morning, so that he might have practice in the writing of long words.

5. If you save the pennies, the dollars will take care of themselves.

6.

Where the purple violet grows,

Where the bubbling water flows,

Where the grass is fresh and fine,

Pretty cow, go there and dine.

7. Tommy, though he was getting a big boy, retained some of the habits of a baby.

8. I was sitting on the top rail of the front fence, when a party of gypsies went by on their way to a camp.

9.

The day is done, and the darkness

Falls from the wings of night,

As a feather is wafted downward

From an eagle in his flight.

10. Whenever you see many drones, you will find plenty of young bees.

11. After the robins have pinched and shaken all the life out of an earthworm, as Italian cooks pound all the spirit out of a steak, and then gulped him, they stand up in honest self-confidence, expand their red waistcoats with a virtuous air, and outface you with their bold calm eyes.

12. Moti Guj, the elephant, never trampled the life out of his master Deesa, for, after the beating was over, Deesa would embrace his trunk, and call him his love and his life and the liver of his soul, and give him some liquor.

13. If imitation be the sincerest form of flattery, the mischief of the monkey should be regarded more leniently.

14. I liked dolls well enough, though my assortment was not a choice one.

15. Her nails were so hard that they would yield to the scissors only after a day’s soaking in hot soapsuds.

16.

His words were shed softer than leaves from the pine,

And they fell on Sir Launfal as snows on the brine.

LXXV. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

295. We learned in Lesson XX that a dependent clause often has the use of an adjective, that is, it modifies a noun; as in the sentence, “This is the house that Jack built.” Such a clause as that Jack built is called an adjective clause. Why?

296. An adjective clause may be used for two different purposes.

(1) It may serve to point out a particular person, place, or thing; as, “This is the maiden all forlorn that milked the cow with the crumpled horn.” Here the clause tells what particular maiden is meant. A clause of this sort is called a restrictive clause, because it limits, or restricts, the application of the word it modifies.

(2) An adjective clause may serve merely to bring in a new thought, something that is worth telling, of course, but still not necessary to the truth of the sentence; as, “My father had ten cows, which I had to escort to and from pasture night and morning.” This clause does not tell what particular cows my father had, but merely tells an additional fact about them. Such a clause as this is called an unrestrictive clause. It is set off by a comma.

297. A restrictive clause is usually necessary to the truth of a sentence; as, “A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid,” “A prince that is a tyrant is unfit to rule.”

To find out whether a clause is restrictive or not, determine first what word it modifies; then ask yourself the question, Did the author put this clause into the sentence to point out a particular object?

Could such a term as The Declaration of Independence, my mother’s father, Theodore Roosevelt, the planet Mars, or Boston be modified by a restrictive adjective clause?

Summary.—An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun.

A restrictive adjective clause is one that points out a particular person, place, or thing. A restrictive clause is not set off by commas.

An unrestrictive adjective clause is one that merely adds a new thought to the sentence. An unrestrictive clause is set off by a comma.

Exercise 1.—Select the adjective clauses. Tell what they modify. Then find out whether they are restrictive or not, and why.

NOTE.—Always test an adjective clause first to find out whether it is restrictive. If you decide that it is not restrictive, then it must be unrestrictive.

1. Charley Marden, whose father had promised to cane him if he ever set foot on sail or row boat, came down to the wharf in a sour-grape humor to see us off.

2. A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with constant use.

3. From one corner of St. Paul’s churchyard runs the lively street called Cheapside, from which John Gilpin started on his famous ride.

4. The reason why the women and children slept upon the floor was their fear lest the Indians should fire through the windows and kill them in their beds.

5. The king whose despotic power was felt over the entire extent of the cattle range was an old gray wolf.

6. The monks who put peas in their shoes as a penance do not suffer more than the country boy in his penitential Sunday shoes.

7. There is a girl in the carriage, who looks out at John, who is suddenly aware that his trousers are patched on each knee and in two places behind.

8. He could see the pale and naked trunk of a pine tree, which the lightning had shattered.

9. The night that was so favorable to the wild rabbits was favorable also to the fox, the wildcat, and the weasel.

10. The only days that I can remember in Yonkers were hot.

11.

All things that are on earth shall wholly pass away,

Except the love of God, which shall live and last for aye.

12. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abundance of their pens, whence sallied forth, now and then, troops of sucking pigs, as if to snuff the air.

Exercise 2.—Write sentences containing restrictive adjective clauses pointing out a certain river, a certain boy, a certain bridge, a certain house, a certain day.

Write sentences containing unrestrictive clauses that tell something about the moon, the President of the United States, Salt Lake City, the Sistine Madonna, the Eiffel Tower.

Write sentences containing adjective clauses introduced by the conjunctive adverbs when, where, and why. (See Lesson LXVI.) Tell whether your clauses are restrictive or unrestrictive.

LXXVI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS

298. Just as an adverbial clause is joined to what it modifies by a conjunctive adverb or a subordinate conjunction, so an adjective clause must be joined to the noun it modifies by some connecting word.

In Lesson LXVI it was shown that this word may be a conjunctive adverb, as in the sentence, “I can never forget the night when I first heard the whippoorwill sing.” What is the clause here? What does it modify? How is it joined to the word that it modifies?

299. Most adjective clauses are introduced by some other word than a conjunctive adverb. In the sentence, “The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world,” the adjective clause that rocks the cradle is joined to the noun hand, which it modifies, by the word that. This word is used as subject of the verb rocks, and really means hand. Since it takes the place of a noun, it is a pronoun; and since this noun, or antecedent, precedes the pronoun, we say that the pronoun relates to its antecedent, and we call it a relative pronoun.

300. The relative pronouns that introduce adjective clauses are who, which, and that.

Who has three case forms: nominative, who; possessive, whose; objective, whom.

Which has the possessive form whose; that has no possessive form.

Which and that do not change their form for the objective case.

301. A relative pronoun always has a use in the adjective clause that it introduces. This is the same use that the antecedent would have if it were used in place of the pronoun.

The four common uses are:—

(1) Subject of a verb; as, “He who fights and runs away may live to fight another day.”

(2) Object of a verb; as, “This is the day that the Lord hath made.”

(3) Object of a preposition; as, “I saw the room in which Shakespeare was born.”

NOTE.—Sometimes the pronoun comes before the preposition; as, “The buggy that we rode in was low and light.”

(4) Possessive modifier; as, “Any boy whose memory is good can learn a history lesson.”

302. The relative pronoun that introduces only restrictive adjective clauses. The pronouns who, whose, whom, and which may introduce either restrictive or unrestrictive clauses.

303. Who has for its antecedent the name of some person; which has for its antecedent the name of some thing. The antecedent of that may be the name of a person or a thing.

304. The word but may be used as a relative pronoun as a substitute for the two words that not. Instead of saying, “There is no day that has not an end,” we may say, “There is no day but has an end.” This is a better sentence than the first because it contains only one negative word.

305. The word as may be used as a relative pronoun following the words such, same, or as many. We say,—

I like such flowers as you sent me.

Your dress is the same color as mine.

I will take as many apples as will fill this basket.

I want such a chair as you are sitting in now.

In each of the sentences above, what is the use of the relative pronoun as in the clause that it introduces?

Summary.—A relative pronoun is one that refers to a preceding noun or pronoun, and joins to it an adjective clause.

The relative pronouns that introduce adjective clauses are who, which, and that.

As and but are sometimes used as relative pronouns.

306. When we parse a relative pronoun we tell,—

(1) Its antecedent.

(2) What adjective clause it joins to its antecedent.

(3) Its case.

(4) Its use in the adjective clause.

Exercise 1.—Parse all the relative pronouns in the following sentences:—

1. In came the six young followers whose hearts the Misses Fezziwig broke.

2. There were the wide sweeps of forest through which the winter tempests howled, upon which hung the haze of summer heat, over which the great shadows of summer clouds traveled.

3. Susie was a well-behaved child, who took care of her clothes and played quiet games.

4. And now the dandelion is a pest—the same yellow dandelion with its long, bitter, milky stem that we children sought for in the shady fence corners to make into spiral curls.

5. Buffers had a small moustache, which he fostered much, and a cane with which he was not yet very familiar.

6. She bade me good-by as if I were a friend of her family whom she would gladly meet again.

7. There is only one bird that terrifies the crow, and that is the owl.

8. Solomon John proposed that they should open the window, a thing which Agamemnon could easily do with his long arms.

9. There was one lady whose conversation at the best of times made my mother sleepy.

10. The two men shared those mysterious rites of smoking and shaving and discussing stocks which occupy men when they are left to themselves.

11. The turkey cock, who had been born into the world with spurs, and thought he was a king, puffed himself out like a ship with full sails, and flew at the duckling.

12. In a few moments Ned arrived at a small open glade in the middle of the forest, in which, to his horror, he saw a lion upon the body of a man, whom he seized by the throat, while Nero stood within a few yards, baying him furiously.

13. He lives longest who does most.

Exercise 2.—Analyze the following sentences:—

1.

No time is like the old time when you and I were young,

When the buds of April blossomed, and the birds of spring-time sung.

2.

No place is like the old place, where you and I were born,

Where we lifted first our eyelids on the splendor of the morn.

3. No friend is like the old friend, who has shared our morning days.

4. At the teachers’ meeting, which she regularly attended with her mother, Gertrude saw the pale-faced little lady whom the children called a “Grahamite.”

5. The old broken gate which a gentleman would not tolerate an hour upon his grounds is a great beauty in the picture which hangs in his parlor.

6. Often the road passes between lofty walls of solid rock, from the crevices of which all lovely growths are springing.

7.

Read from some humbler poet,

Whose songs gushed from his heart,

As rain from the clouds in summer,

Or tears from the eyelids start.

8. Michel was a vivacious, lean little Frenchman, who fulfilled the duties of a chambermaid very adroitly.

9. The first thing that my pet starling imitated was the rumbling of carts and carriages on the street.

10. In one corner of the fireplace sat a superannuated crony, whom the sexton called John Ange, and who had been his companion from childhood.

11. The good ship Humber is taking home a regiment whose term of service has expired.

12. Madame took for breakfast two fresh eggs, which her two hens laid for her every morning with the perfect regularity that is the politeness of all well-bred poultry.

13.

The boy stood on the burning deck,

Whence all but him had fled.

14. Lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through and steal.

15. Sycamore Ridge might have been one of the dreary villages that dot the wind-swept plain to-day, instead of the bright, prosperous elm-shaded town that it is.

LXXVII. NOUN CLAUSES

307. We have seen that a dependent clause may have the use of an adverb or of an adjective. It may also have another use, as may be seen in the sentence, “Whatever Midas touched with his finger immediately glistened and grew yellow.” If we ask the question, What glistened and grew yellow? we get the answer, Whatever Midas touched with his finger; hence this group of words must be the subject. But this group is a clause, for it contains the subject Midas and the verb touched. A clause used as the subject of a predicate is used like a noun, hence we call it a noun clause.

308. The noun clause has several other uses of a noun besides that of subject. It may be,—

(1) Object of a verb; as, “I think that life would be very dull without meals.”

(2) Subjective complement; as, “The sad part of this tale is that the trouble was not with poor little Quackalina’s eyes at all.”

(3) In apposition; as, “He had a theory that the big horned owl might be tamed.” Here the clause explains the noun theory telling exactly what the theory is. This may seem at first like an adjective clause, but there is a clear difference. We can make a sentence by putting the verb is between the noun theory and the clause. This shows that the two are identical, but we cannot do this with the noun theory and an adjective clause, as in this sentence, “I do not believe in the theory that he sets forth in his book.”

(4) Object of a preposition; as, “Aladdin’s mother listened with surprise to what her son told her.” If you ask the question, listened to what? you get the answer, what her son told her. Therefore, the group of words what her son told her, which is a dependent proposition, must be the object of the preposition to.

(5) Some adjectives, like anxious, aware, careful, certain, glad, hopeful, sorry, and sure, especially when used as subjective complements, are modified by noun clauses that take the place of adverbial prepositional phrases. We may say,—

I am sure of his election.

I am sure that he will be elected.

In the first sentence the adjective sure is modified by the phrase of his election. In the second sentence the adjective sure is modified by the noun clause that he will be elected, which answers the question sure of what? This may be called the adverbial use of the noun clause.

309. Often, when a noun clause is used as subject, it is placed after the predicate, and the sentence begins with the word it; as, “It is curious that almost every nation on earth has some particular traditions regarding the dog.” If we ask the question, what is curious? the answer is not it, for that tells nothing, but the clause. The word it is called an anticipative subject, because it comes before the real subject, and signifies also to the reader that the real subject may be expected after the predicate.

310. The tense of the verb in a noun clause is determined partly by the meaning of the sentence and partly by the tense of the verb in the independent clause. What is the meaning of each of the following sentences, and what is the tense of each verb?

I understand that he builds bridges.

I understand that he will build the bridge.

I understand that he has built the bridge.

I understood that he builds bridges.

I understood that he would build the bridge.

I understood that he had built the bridge.

Summary.—A noun clause is a dependent clause having the use of a noun.

The noun clause may be used adverbially to modify certain adjectives.

The word it may be used as an anticipative subject to throw the real subject, a noun clause, after the verb.

Exercise 1.—Select all the noun clauses, and explain the use of each.

1. Just then a shout from the boys’ tent proclaimed that the twins were awake.

2. There were two summer houses at one end of what we called a park.

3. The probability is very great that the Vikings did land on our coast.

4. What made the little silver teapot so alluring was that it held just enough for two.

5. Be careful how you handle my razor.

6. It so happened that one of his neighbors had two very beautiful daughters.

7. I discovered that the world was not created exclusively on my account.

8. Mr. Cobb had a feeling that he was being hurried from peak to peak of a mountain range without time to take a good breath in between.

9. That supply follows demand is a sure rule of political economy.

10. The truth is that my dancing days are over.

11. In choosing words it is to be remembered that there is not a really poor one in any language.

12. Are you aware that Phio has gone to the hospital?

13. On the very day of his inauguration Jefferson took a step toward what he called simplicity, and what his opponents thought vulgarity.

14. I knew that I was born at the North, but I hoped that nobody in New Orleans would find it out.

15. The Austrian commander noticed this peculiarity about the firing,—that every shot seemed to come from the same place.

16. That the monkeys had stolen the snuffbox was obvious, for both of them were seized with convulsions of sneezing.

17. I am glad that you are going to talk on the peace movement.

18. The disadvantage of being a boy is that it does not last long enough.

19. We are all sorry that some days never come but once.

Exercise 2.—Justify the tense of the verb in the noun clause in each of these sentences—

I know that fever produces thirst.

I knew that tennis is a healthful sport.

I know that the lake will freeze to-night.

I knew that the lake would freeze last night.

I know that my turn comes next.

I knew that my turn came next.

I know that she has heard the news.

I knew that she had heard the news.

LXXVIII. INTRODUCTORY WORDS OF NOUN CLAUSES

311. We have learned that adjective clauses and adverbial clauses are joined to what they modify by some connective. This word also serves to show that the clause it introduces is not independent but dependent.

The noun clause also is introduced by some connecting word. In the sentence, “That you have wronged me doth appear in this,” the first word that could be placed nowhere in the clause except at the beginning, and it reveals at once that the clause it introduces is dependent.

312. The introductory word of a noun clause may be several parts of speech:

(1) The subordinating conjunctions if, that, and whether.

Go and see if your father is coming home.

I believe that all men are created free and equal.

I do not know whether Mary is a suffragist or a suffragette.

Often the connective that is omitted; as, “You said you were coming home early,” “David thought Dora was an angel.”

(2) The interrogative pronouns who, whose, whom, which, what.

Nobody knows who first wrote the story of little Red Riding Hood.

Can you tell whose picture this is?

We cannot tell whom the baby looks like.

Have you heard which came out ahead?

Tell me what you like, and I will tell you what you are.

In sentences of this sort the interrogative pronoun is not used in a direct question, but always when a noun clause is introduced by an interrogative pronoun there is an indirect, or implied question. Make a direct question out of each of the noun clauses above.

The interrogative pronoun always has a use in the noun clause that it introduces, just as the relative pronoun has a use in the adjective clause. What is the use of each interrogative pronoun in the preceding sentences?

(3) The relative pronoun what. This pronoun is always equivalent to the two words that which, and there is no question implied in a noun clause introduced by this pronoun.

What Martha told me about the will did not surprise me.

Getting dinner is what takes most of my time.

(4) The indefinite pronouns whoever, whichever, whatever, etc.

Whoever came was made welcome.

Take whichever you like.

Whatever is, is right.

What is the use of each noun clause in these sentences? What is the use in the clause of each indefinite pronoun?

(5) The conjunctive adverbs when, where, why, how, whither, etc.

Do you know when the steamer sails?

I cannot remember where I put my spectacles.

Can you tell why he never wears a muffler?

I never understood how the purse was returned.

It is strange how the memory clings to some things.

Who knows whither the clouds have fled?

The adverb introducing a noun clause modifies some word within the clause, usually the verb.

Summary.—The noun clause may be introduced by (1) a subordinate conjunction, (2) an interrogative pronoun, (3) the relative pronoun what, (4) an indefinite pronoun, (5) a conjunctive adverb.

Exercise.—Select all the noun clauses, and tell the use of each in the sentence. Tell the introductory word of each clause, and its use in the clause.

1. What disgusted them still more was that Bluebeard had already been married several times, and no one knew what had become of his wives.

2. Ernest was always ready to believe in whatever seemed beautiful and good.

3. We asked the boatman why he did not speak Gaelic to his dog as well as to his family.

4. Whoever has been hypnotized by a book agent will understand how mother felt about the spectacles that she bought and could not wear.

5. I wonder if Burbank ever really produced a deodorized onion.

6. Shakespeare’s chair stands in the chimney nook of a small gloomy chamber, just behind what was his father’s shop.

7. Whatever was iron or brass in other houses was silver or gold in this.

8. The apothecary listened as calmly as he could to the story of how Mrs. Peterkin had put salt in her coffee.

9. The lady from Philadelphia asked where the milk was kept.

10. Fortunately, what God expects of us is not the best, but our best.

11. Why this spot was selected for a mansion was always a mystery, unless it was that the newcomer desired to isolate himself completely.

12. Whether the Indians were not early risers, or whether they were away just then on a warpath I couldn’t determine.

13. What passes for laziness in a boy is very often an unwillingness to farm in a particular way.

14. The direction of a man’s life follows the unseen influence of what he admires and loves and believes in.

15. Her only noteworthy achievement was that she had named her twin sons Marquis de Lafayette Randall and Lorenzo de Medici Randall.

16. I wonder who could describe those wonderful coral gardens on which we gazed through twenty fathoms of crystal water.

LXXIX. REVIEW OF CLAUSES

313. We have learned that clauses may be independent or dependent; that dependent clauses may be used like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs; that adjective clauses may be restrictive or unrestrictive; that adverbial clauses may denote various circumstances, such as time, place, manner, etc.; that dependent clauses are introduced by some word that indicates their dependence.

Exercise 1.—Study again Lessons XVIII, XX, LXVI-LXXVIII, and then make an outline of the subject, Clauses, having for your main topics,—

(1) Classification.

(2) Introductory word.

(3) Use.

Make a good original sentence to illustrate each point.

Exercise 2.—Analyze the following sentences:—

1. Though Diana looked very old, she looked exactly the same during all the years in which I knew her; and Aunt Maria, who had known her all her life, said that she had never looked any younger.

2. The only difference between the sisters was that while Miranda only wondered how they could endure Rebecca, Jane had flashes of inspiration in which she wondered how Rebecca would endure them.

3. Whether the pigeons dropped exhausted on some ship and were helped across the ocean, or whether some storm at sea swept them away forever, no one ever knew.

4. Did mother know who brought the scarlet-runner seeds from Whittier’s birthplace?

5. I never quite understood why a girl who climbed trees, clung to the tail end of carts, and otherwise deported herself as a well-conditioned girl should not, was called a tomboy.

6. The boy remembers how his mother’s anxiety was divided between the set of his turn-over collar, the parting of his hair, and his memory of the Sunday-school verses.

7. Most people think that the best thing they can give to a caged bird is his liberty.

8. The horrible thought came coldly over me that the tiger was keeping me company until a good chance offered for a spring.

9. Possibly the reason why monkeys have been so little on the stage is that their appearance there would emphasize too strongly the striking similarity between man and monkey.

10. An elephant who will not work and is not tied up is about as manageable as an eighty-one ton gun in a heavy seaway.

11. Nothing cleverer than was Moufflou had ever walked upon four legs.

12. The truth is that boys have always been so plenty that they are not half appreciated.

13. The professor was so pleased with his witticism that I was let off without even a scolding.

14. Those Indian nations who still preserve their ancient mode of life, have dogs which bear a strong resemblance to wolves.

15. The partridge remembered the time when the chickadees had seemed such big, important creatures.

Criticize the use of between in sentence 6.

LXXX. REVIEW OF PRONOUNS

314. We have learned that pronouns may be classified as follows:—

(1) Personal pronouns.

(2) Compound personal pronouns.

(3) Interrogative pronouns.

(4) Adjective pronouns.

(5) Relative pronouns.

(6) Indefinite pronouns.

Exercise 1.—Study again Lessons V, XXXIX-XLIII, XLVIII, LXXVI, LXXVIII, and then be prepared to explain each class of pronoun, and to tell the various uses of each class. Illustrate each point with an original sentence or with one that you yourself have found in some book.

Exercise 2.—Parse all the pronouns in the following sentences. If there is anything peculiar in the use of any pronoun, comment upon it. (See pp. 100, 106, 108, 122, 197.)

1. What was the Great Stone Face?

2. To make a quarrel needs, indeed, two; but to make peace needs only one.

3. When the swarm comes out, it consists of both old and young bees, and, indeed, some say that the old queen leads them, and the young one takes her vacant throne.

4. We could easily surmise who the Halloween rascals were, but what was the terrifying apparatus they applied to our window panes we could not imagine.

5. All of this is mine and thine.

6. Attracted by the smell either of the newly killed waterbuck or of ourselves, the hungry lions were storming our position.

7. Oh, give me my lowly thatched cottage again.

8. The interior of St. Paul’s is just what one would expect after viewing the outside. A maze of grand arches on every side encompasses the dome, which you gaze up at as at the sky; and from every pillar and wall look down the marble forms of the dead.

9. By the wholesome law of the prairie, he who falls asleep on guard is condemned to walk all day.

10.

Who has sight so keen and strong

That it can follow the flight of song?

11. The schoolhouse was a high brick building, and the yard itself was made of brick.

12. The Eskimo dogs are of great use to their masters in discovering by the scent the winter retreats which the bears make under the snow.

13. The Taj Mahal is a Mohammedan tomb, the tomb of the favorite wife of an Indian Mogul. It is her tomb, and also his own, for he lies beside her, and it was built in compliance with a request of hers before she died.

14. I procured a bowl of soup from the steward, but as I was not able to eat it, I gave it to an old man whose hungry look and wistful eyes convinced me it would not be lost on him.

15.

What’s a fair or noble face

If the mind ignoble be?

16.

Keep fresh the grass on Wordsworth’s grave,

O Rotha, with thy living wave!

Sing him thy best! for few or none

Hears thy voice right, now he is gone.

LXXXI. INFINITIVES

315. Look at the following sentences:—

Dare to be true.

It is high time to go.

The bishop seemed to have talked with angels.

You ought to have been paying attention.

We have here certain verb forms,—to be, to go, to have talked, to have been paying,—which are very familiar to all of us, but which we have not yet studied. They are not forms of the indicative, subjunctive, or imperative mode, nor are they like any of the verb phrases that we have examined. They all begin with the word to, and they contain two, three, or four words, the last of which is the important one. We call these groups of words infinitives.

316. An intransitive verb has four infinitives, two of them denoting a present action, hence called present infinitives; and the other two denoting an action already completed, hence called perfect infinitives.

The four infinitives of the intransitive verb laugh are these:—

P RESENT

P ERFECT

to laugh

to have laughed

to be laughing

to have been laughing

Which two of these infinitives belong to the progressive conjugation?

317. Transitive verbs have six infinitives. The infinitives of the transitive verb eat are these:—

P RESENT

P ERFECT

Active

to eat

to have eaten

Active Progressive

to be eating

to have been eating

Passive

to be eaten

to have eaten

318. The infinitives above are called infinitives with to, because they begin with the word to. This word is not used as a preposition, but merely as a sort of handle, or introduction, to the infinitive.

319. Besides the infinitive with to there is another form called the infinitive in -ing. The infinitives in -ing of the verb eat are these:—

P RESENT

P ERFECT

Active

eating

having eaten

Active Progressive

having been eating

Passive

being eaten

having been eaten

What are the infinitives in -ing of the verb laugh? Which two forms does it lack?

Find the infinitives in -ing in these sentences:—

He was fined for losing his temper.

“Being a Boy” is the title of a book.

He was vexed at having misspelled so many words.

320. All infinitives are forms of verbs, but they cannot be predicate verbs because they do not assert. They are spoken of as verbals.

321. A verbal is used in a sentence like some part of speech,—a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The infinitive is most frequently used like a noun. The infinitive in -ing is very much like a noun in another respect too,—it names the action or state that the predicate verb asserts. If we should ask for the name of any action that we saw a person performing, the answer would be an infinitive in -ing; as, reaping, mowing, plowing, driving.

322. The infinitive in -ing is so much like a noun that it can be modified by a possessive noun or pronoun. We say, “Your winning the victory depends on your keeping cool.” “The farmer’s chagrin was due to his hay’s having spoiled.” Explain the use of all the possessives in these sentences.

NOTE.—The infinitive in -ing is often called a gerund.

323. The infinitive may take the same complements and modifiers that any other form of the same verb might take. The infinitive, together with all the words associated with it, makes an infinitive phrase. The base word of an infinitive phrase is always an infinitive. What are the infinitive phrases in all the illustrative sentences in this lesson?

Summary.—A verbal is a verb form that denotes action or being without asserting it.

A verbal is used in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

An infinitive is a verbal that is generally used as a noun.

There are two classes of infinitives,—the infinitive with to, and the infinitive in -ing.

The infinitive has two tenses,—present and perfect.

The infinitive may be active or passive or progressive.

An infinitive phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive together with its complement and modifiers.

Exercise 1.—Write all the infinitives of the verbs be, bring, come, find, freeze, go, leave, seem, taste, turn.

Exercise 2.—Select all the infinitive phrases in the following sentences. Tell the voice and tense of each infinitive.

MODEL—It is hard to teach an old dog new tricks. To teach an old dog new tricks is an infinitive phrase. To teach is the present active infinitive of the transitive verb teach.

1. Am I to give a reason for all I choose to do?

2. The cherry pie seemed to have been left in the refrigerator for that hungry young pair.

3. Driving between these long lines of dainty-flowering and sweet-smelling rows of hedges is very delightful.

4. All the lines of pain smoothed out of her brow, and she seemed to be peacefully sleeping.

5. The lights had been extinguished, the buoys removed, and the whole coast seemed to have gone back hundreds of years.

6. Your having given me the opera glasses is no reason that you have a right to borrow them continually.

7. Any child should know that a hot stove is a thing to be avoided, but I did not seem to realize the fact.

8. The boy would like to have thrown a stone at the wagon.

9. Did you mind being reproved by your mother for sitting up so late?

10. It was already past the appointed hour for Mr. Cobb and his coach to be lumbering down the street.

11. From her having been staying at the Antlers the entire season, I should judge her to be wealthy.

12. Scrooge was not a man to be frightened by echoes.

13. There’s no use in making two bites of a cherry.

14. The fact of the letter’s having been opened was evident, but it could not be proved against the mail carrier.

Tell the part of speech and use of your, sentence 6, her 11, letter’s 14.

LXXXII. INFINITIVES AS SUBJECTS OR COMPLEMENTS

324. If we wish to make an assertion about a person, a place, or an object, we use a noun for the base word of our subject; but if we wish to make an assertion about an action, we use an infinitive or an infinitive phrase for subject; as, “Just to breathe the air and feel one’s self alive was enough,” “Going after the cows was a serious thing in my day.”

325. We have seen that a noun clause used as subject may be thrown to the end of the sentence by means of the anticipative subject it; as, “It is a good thing that somebody likes to cook.” In the same way an infinitive phrase used as subject may come after the predicate; as, “It pleased the jackal to see Mother and Father Wolf look uncomfortable.” Recast this sentence, omitting it.

326. The infinitive phrase is often used as the object of a verb. Not all transitive verbs, however, can be completed by infinitives—only those which can take for an object the name of an action or a condition; as, “The cloud began to sink softly down to the earth,” “After a struggle Bess gave up using two lumps of sugar in her coffee.”

Why cannot the verbs break, bring, buy, cut, eat, and plow take infinitives for objects?

327. The infinitive is used as a subjective complement of an intransitive verb in two ways that differ slightly; as, “The hunter’s first impulse was to laugh at his own folly,” “No trees of any magnitude were to be seen.”

In the first sentence the infinitive phrase, to laugh at his own folly, completes the verb was and explains just what the impulse was, hence it denotes identity with the subject. Its use is precisely like that of the word dime in the sentence, “My ‘lucky penny’ is a silver dime,” hence we say that it is used like a noun.

In the second sentence it is clear that the infinitive to be seen completes the verb were and tells something about the subject, hence it must be a subjective complement. But instead of being used like a noun to denote identity with the subject, it is equivalent to the adjective visible, hence may be said to be used like an adjective.

Summary.—The infinitive phrase may be the subject of a verb, the object of a verb, or a subjective complement.

By means of the anticipative subject it, the real subject, an infinitive phrase, may be placed at the end of the sentence.

As subjective complement the infinitive phrase may have the use of a noun or of an adjective.

Exercise.—Tell the grammatical use of all infinitive phrases in these sentences, and classify all infinitives:—

1. Mowgli said that he never wished to see, or hear, or smell man again.

2. That which most resembles living one’s life over again is recalling all the circumstances of it and recording them in writing.

3. To fit out a fleet, and to levy and equip an army, and to continue the forces thus raised in action during a long and uncertain campaign would cost a large sum of money.

4.

When the days begin to lengthen,

Then the cold begins to strengthen.

5. It is delightful to look upon the charming country which springs up under a watering-pot sky.

6. One of the best things in farm life is gathering the chestnuts, hickory nuts, butternuts, and beechnuts.

7. Speaking of Latin reminds me that I once taught my cows Latin.

8. The quaint, picturesque old town seems to bristle with forts.

9. When I wanted to hit a mark, my usual way was to aim at something else.

10. The one idea in Mowgli’s head was to get Messua and her husband out of the trap.

11. This boy was so forward in domestic arts that he undertook sewing on the machine when he was only five years old.

12. It is bad manners to find fault with your food at the table.

13. To climb a tree and shake it, to club it, to strip it of its fruit, and pass to the next, is the sport of a brief time.

14. One of Jakie’s amusements was dancing across the back of a tall chair, taking funny little steps, coming down hard, jouncing his body, and whistling as loud as he could.

15. The Englishman learned to fight from behind a tree, to follow a trail, and to cover his body with hemlock boughs for disguise.

16. It exactly suits the temperament of a real boy to be very busy about nothing.

17. Trotting on city pavements is very hard on the dray horses.

18. The reward of a good sentence is to have written it.

Tell the part of speech and use of that and which in sentence 2, sum 3, then 4, years 11. What is the object of from in sentence 15? Think of similar expressions.

LXXXIII. INFINITIVES AS MODIFIERS OF NOUNS

328. The infinitive phrase is often a modifier of a noun, and may be used either like an adjective or like an appositive.

In the sentence, “Ulf still had a name to win,” what noun does the infinitive modify? How do you know?

In the sentence, “The mayor gave the order to close the skating rink,” the infinitive phrase to close the skating rink modifies the noun order by telling exactly what the order was; hence we must say that it is in apposition with order.

329. The infinitive in -ing is not used as an adjective modifier of a noun except in some compound words like these: rolling-pin, laughingstock, meetinghouse, drawing-room.

330. Often the infinitive in -ing is used in apposition, as in the sentence, “Her household tasks, keeping the bedrooms tidy and caring for the canary birds, left her little time for music practice.”

Summary.—The infinitive phrase may modify a noun either as an adjective or as an appositive.

Exercise.—Select all the infinitive phrases, and explain the use of each. Classify also each infinitive, as in the preceding exercise.

1.

Is this a time to be cloudy and sad

When our Mother Nature laughs around?

2. As the Cloud became larger, this wish to do something for the people of earth was ever greater in her heart.

3. This is your last chance to see Chicago, Tom.

4. Day after day mother sat at the east window engaged in her favorite pastime—making something dainty and beautiful with her needle.

5. Almost all persons who travel in Switzerland have a great desire to go to the top of at least one of the towering peaks they see about them.

6. Now bring us something to eat. I have not patience to wait, for I am ravenously hungry.

7. The first tracks to meet our eyes were the delicate footprints of the red squirrel.

8. The Colonel’s only form of exercise, riding horseback every evening, made him a familiar figure throughout the city.

9. Nothing pleased the dog more than an order to go and fetch the cow.

10. To the deer a mystery means something to be solved.

11. A strange longing to follow the swan took possession of each of the young birds.

12. A queer freak of my chewink was her determination to get her feet into her food.

13. Never lose an opportunity to see anything beautiful.

14. This father was the comrade of his son, made so by the memory of his own boyhood sports,—playing baseball on the common, swimming in the lake off Miller’s Point, skating out to Garlic Island, and gathering hickory nuts and hazelnuts in the autumn woods.

Classify the dependent clauses in sentences, 1, 2, 5, 9. Tell the part of speech and use of figure, sentence 8.

LXXXIV. INFINITIVES AS PARTS OF “DOUBLE OBJECTS.” AS MODIFIERS OF VERBS

331. In the sentence, “I want my friends to believe in me,” we find the verb to be want. If we ask the question want what? the answer is the group of words my friends to believe in me; hence we are sure that this group of words is the object.

But this object is different from any group of words that we have studied hitherto. It does not consist of a base word and modifiers, but instead it consists of two parts that are equally important. These are my friends and the infinitive phrase to believe in me. The phrase is not a modifier of friends, but has the logical relation of predicate to friends, as may be proved by changing the whole group of words to a noun clause, that my friends should believe in me.

When the object of a verb consists of two parts, a noun element and an infinitive, having to each other the logical relation of subject and predicate, we call the whole group a double object.

332. Although the relation between the two parts of a double object is logically that of subject and predicate, still this relation is not grammatically expressed. A double object does not make sense standing alone, and we cannot speak of the infinitive in a double object as a predicate, for an infinitive cannot assert. It is customary, however, to speak of the noun element in a double object as the subject of the infinitive. The subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case, as may be plainly seen by substituting a pronoun for the noun used as subject. In the sentence quoted, the pronoun that might take the place of my friends is the objective pronoun them.

333. An infinitive in -ing is often used as part of a double object; as, “I hear their voices ringing in merry childish glee,” “I can see his gallant figure coming down the road.”

334. Notice that a double object is not two objects of equal rank, as in the sentence, “I want peace and quiet;” but is one object consisting of two equal parts so closely related, that neither of these parts could be the object if used without the other.

335. When the infinitive with to is used after the verbs hear and see, as well as after feel, let, make, the to of the infinitive is omitted; as, “Did you hear me (to) rap at your door?” “Let us (to) be true to one another,” “The mosquitoes made us (to) go indoors.”

Find and explain the double objects in each of these three sentences.

336. When a sentence containing a double object is changed to the passive voice, the noun element of the double object becomes the subject of the passive verb, and the infinitive phrase becomes the subjective complement of the verb. Change this sentence to the passive voice and explain the change, “We expected John to decorate the banquet room.”

337. We have seen that the infinitive may be used as the complement of a verb in several ways: it may be the direct object of a verb, or the subjective complement, or part of a double object. There is another very common relation of the infinitive to a verb, as shown in the sentence, “Some persons live to eat.” The infinitive to eat is in the predicate, but it is not an object of the verb live, neither is it a subjective complement. How do we know this? As the infinitive answers the question for what purpose? we conclude that it is a modifier of the verb live. Furthermore, it could be expanded into the adverbial clause of purpose, that they may eat.

The infinitive denoting purpose is very common, as seen in the familiar sentences: “We go to school to learn,” “We stood up to see,” “I sat down to rest.”

Summary.—An infinitive phrase and a noun, having the logical relation of subject and predicate, may form the double object of some transitive verbs.

An infinitive phrase denoting the purpose of an action may be used to modify a verb.

Exercise 1.—Write sentences containing double objects of the verbs cause, desire, expect, feel, hear, let, make, order, see, wish.

Explain why there are no double objects in these sentences:—

1. They could get no water to drink.

2. He has an ax to grind.

3. We found plenty to eat.

4. She bought a rose to wear.

5. I made a cake to sell.

Exercise 2.—Explain the use of all infinitive phrases in these sentences. Classify the infinitives.

1. The boy made up his mind that he would take two of the whelps home with him to be brought up in the ways of civilization.

2.

In happy homes he saw the light

Of household fires gleam warm and bright.

3. More rarely a fox or a hyena quickened his gallop to study the intruder at a safe distance.

4. When the car stopped and I looked up at the window with the pink geranium, I saw mother waiting to welcome me.

5. The whole family went to the station to see us off.

6. I do not quite know what caused me to lift my head from the friendly shelter of the blanket.

7. He felt his swift craft quiver with life beneath him in response to the rhythmic stroke of the oarsmen.

8. Jupiter bustled about to prepare some marsh hens for supper.

9. To keep the artillery dry, we stuffed wads of loose hemp into the muzzles, and fitted wooden pegs to the touch holes.

10. Down the elm-bordered road we two walked toward the sunset, and watched the mists rising ghostlike from the fields.

11. Mowgli heard the sound rumble, and rise, and fall, and die off in a creepy sort of whine behind him.

12. At recess the next noon the Centipedes met in a corner of the schoolyard to talk over the proposed lark.

13. Our Heavenly Father himself has planted that pea, and made it grow and blossom to bring joy to you and hope to me, my blessed child.

14. Nearly all the finest diamonds in the world are brought to Amsterdam to be cut into shape.

15. It was Long Tom who taught Harvey to shoot at a mark with a revolver.

16. He’s gone to fight the French for King George upon his throne.

17. We heard the meadow larks singing their wistful songs, but always instead of the black hearts upon their yellow breasts they showed us just the two white feathers in their tails.

Change sentences 2, 4, 10, 11, 13, 17 to the passive voice, and explain the change in the use of the infinitive.

LXXXV. OTHER USES OF INFINITIVES

338. The most frequent use of the infinitive in -ing is as the object of a preposition; as, “I am tired of doing nothing,” “He earned a living by sharpening scissors.”

339. The infinitive in -ing, like the noun, may be the object of any preposition, but the infinitive with to is used as the object of very few prepositions, only about, except, but, and save, the last two meaning except.

In the sentence, “He ate nothing but bananas,” the object of the preposition but must be a noun because it must be the name of a food. But in the sentence, “He did nothing but play tennis,” the object of but must be an infinitive because it must be the name of an action.

NOTE.—We often hear the expression “I was about to say.” In this familiar idiom the prepositional phrase about to say is used as the subjective complement of the verb was. How do we know this? What is the use of the infinitive to say?

340. In the sentence, “The gentleman drew out the chair for the lady to sit down,” if we ask the question for what? we get the answer the lady to sit down, hence the group of words the lady to sit down must be the object of the preposition for. But this group of words consists of two parts, the lady and the infinitive phrase to sit down, which have the logical relation of subject and predicate, hence we conclude that the preposition for may take a double object.

341. The sentences, “Sheep are apt,” “I am sorry,” “The traveler was glad,” are all incomplete. We wish to know in what respect sheep are apt, what I am sorry about, what the traveler was glad of. In other words, the adjectives apt, sorry, and glad need a modifier to make the sentence complete in meaning. This modifier may be an infinitive, “Sheep are apt to get lost,” “I am sorry to leave Warwick,” “The traveler was glad to see his home again.” We learn from these sentences that an infinitive phrase may modify an adjective.

Exercise.—Complete the following sentences by infinitive phrases. What do your phrases modify? How do you know?

1. This child is too young—

2. A man of twenty-five is old enough—

3. The water was so deep as—

4. The general was anxious—

5. Some lessons are not easy—

342. The infinitive may be used independently; as, “To be frank, I do not like it.” “To make a long story short, we were utterly defeated.”

343. A common error is the use of the perfect infinitive for the present. It is proper to say, “I ought to have gone,” when we mean that the time of the going was in the past; as, “I ought to have gone then, or yesterday, or a year ago.” But when we mean that the going is at the present time or is to be in the future, then we should use the present infinitive, and say, “I ought to go.”

What is the difference in the meaning of the following pairs of sentences?

1.

I am sorry to offend you.

I am sorry to have offended you.

2.

I am glad to see you.

I am glad to have seen you.

3.

The train is reported to be late.

The train is reported to have been late.

4.

The man is said to be a candidate.

The man is said to have been a candidate.

It is evident from the four pairs of sentences above that some verbs in the present tense may be followed by either a present or a perfect infinitive. This is likewise true of some verbs in the past tense. We say, “He seemed to be sleeping,” meaning that he was sleeping at the time we noted his appearance. We also say, “He seemed to have been sleeping,” meaning that he had slept before we noted his appearance.

What is the difference in the meaning of the following pairs of sentences:—

1.

Washington was never known to fight a duel.

Hamilton was known to have fought a duel.

2.

The ship was reported to be wrecked.

The ship was reported to have been wrecked.

3.

The child appeared to lead the old man.

The child appeared to have led the old man.

Since the verbs desire, expect, hope, want, and wish refer to something in the present or the future, but never in the past, they cannot be followed by a perfect infinitive. It is absurd to say, “I hoped to have seen you,” “I expected to have gone,” “I wished to have stayed.” We should say:—

I desire to go. I desired to go.

I expect to be there. I expected to be there.

I hope to pass. I hoped to pass.

I want to know. I wanted to know.

I wish to speak. I wished to speak.

Summary.—The infinitive phrase may be used as the object of a preposition. The preposition for may take a double object.

The infinitive phrase may modify an adjective.

The infinitive phrase may be used independently.

Exercise.—Explain the use of each infinitive phrase. Classify each infinitive.

1. The cat was just about to spring upon the window sill where the bird cage sat, when Paul shouted out a warning.

2. I am perfectly willing to dine in the kitchen beside this cool north window.

3. The gay youths spent their time in walking, hunting, fishing, feasting, and dancing.

4. It was so cold at Petoskey in July that the hotel proprietor furnished a large lamp for us to heat our room by.

5. The cherries grew too high to be picked except by the robins.

6. My lot was indeed a hard one; I was too old to play out of doors with my brothers, and too young to go to parties with my sisters.

7. After supper, the boy who has done nothing all day but turn grindstone, and spread hay, and run his little legs off at everybody’s beck and call, is sent on some errand or some household chore lest time may hang heavy on his hands.

8. Bark is only good to sharpen claws.

9. John was hungry enough to have eaten the New England Primer.

10. Franklin was employed in cutting wicks for the candles, filling the molds for cast candles, attending the shop, going of errands, etc.

11. To tell the truth, I prefer to stay at home.

12. The only way to make the world better is for each man to do his best.

13. A dog is good to bite peddlers and small children, and to run out and yelp at wagons that pass by, and to howl all night when the moon shines.

14. To sum up, the infinitive is used chiefly as a noun, but also as an adjective and an adverb.

15. The teacher’s eyes glanced half a dozen different ways at once,—a habit probably acquired from watching the boys.

16.

None knew thee but to love thee,

Nor named thee but to praise.

17. To see the sparks rush like swarms of red bees skyward through the smoke is an experience long to be remembered.

18. To make way for hemp the magnificent forests of Kentucky were felled.

19. The crow and the blackbird seem to love these plants.

20. It takes a hundred days to lift out of the tiny seed these powerful hollow stalks.

21. The seeds fall to the ground, there to be folded in against the time when they shall rise again.

Classify the dependent clauses in sentence 1. What is the object of except in sentence 5?

LXXXVI. SUMMARY OF INFINITIVES

344.

- I. DEFINITION.—An infinitive is a verbal noun.

- II. FORMS.

- 1. The infinitive with to.

- (a) Intransitive verbs.

- Present, to go, to be going.

- Perfect, to have gone, to have been going.

- (b) Transitive verbs.

- Present, to see, to be seeing, to be seen.

- Perfect, to have seen, to have been seeing, to have been seen.

- 2. The infinitive in -ing.

- (a) Intransitive verbs.

- Present, going.

- Perfect, having gone, having been going.

- (b) Transitive verbs.

- Present, seeing, being seen.

- Perfect, having seen, having been seeing, having been seen.

- III. USES.

- 1. As a noun.

- (a) Subject of a verb.

- To err is human.

- Hunting is a sport.

- (b) Object of a verb.

- He expects to win.

- They stopped working.

- (c) Subjective complement.

- My desire is to own a boat.

- His task is feeding the sheep.

- (d) Appositive.

- His idea, to use coal ashes, was carried out.

- His work, running a machine, is monotonous.

- (e) Object of a preposition.

- The patient did nothing but eat and sleep.

- The child was praised for telling the truth.

- 2. As an adjective.

- (a) Modifying a noun.

- I have a garden to make.

- (b) Completing a verb.

- These boats are not to let.

- 3. As an adverb.

- (a) Modifying a verb.

- I went back to get some matches.

- (b) Modifying an adjective.

- We are sure to succeed.

- 4. As part of a double object.

- (a) Of a verb.

- I made her tell me.

- (b) Of a preposition.

- I made room for her to sit with me.

- 5. Independent use.

- To speak plainly, I don’t believe it.

LXXXVII. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES CONTAINING INFINITIVE PHRASES

345. The infinitive phrase is analyzed very much like a predicate. First, the infinitive should be given as the base word; then its complement and modifiers should be given.

MODEL.—By the law of the jungle the tiger has no right to change his quarters without fair warning.

This is a simple, declarative sentence.

The subject is the tiger. The predicate is has by the law of the jungle no right to change his quarters without fair warning.

The predicate verb is has; it is completed by the direct object no right to change his quarters without fair warning, and then modified by the prepositional phrase by the law of the jungle.

The base word of the object is the noun right; it is modified by the infinitive phrase to change his quarters without fair warning, and then denied by the adjective no.

The base word of the infinitive phrase is the infinitive to change; it is completed by the direct object his quarters and modified by the prepositional phrase without fair warning. The base word of the object is the noun quarters, modified by the possessive pronoun his. The base word of the object of the preposition without is the infinitive warning, which is modified by the adjective fair.

The base word of the object of the preposition by is the noun law, which is modified by the prepositional phrase of the jungle and the article the.

Exercise.—Analyze the following sentences:—

1. Turning grindstones to grind scythes is one of those heroic but unobtrusive occupations for which one gets no credit.

2. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.

3. When Kotick felt his skin tingle all over, his mother told him he was learning the feel of the water.

4. Mother made and embroidered a white linen pocket for me to wear at my belt.

5. The neighbors and friends did not wait for an invitation to go to the house of the young wife, so impatient were they to see her treasures.

6. The Boy had no desire to investigate further, with the risk of finding the lynx at home.

7. It seems hard any day to think what to have for dinner.

8. The next thing was to cord up the trunk, and Mr. Peterkin tried to move it.

9. I have seen wild bees and butterflies feeding at a height of 13,000 feet above the sea.

10. If you wear an automobile veil to pick cherries in, I must get an automobile to take you to the cherry trees.

11. No person but yourself is permitted to lift this stone or enter the cave.

12. Very sweet were the child’s ways of loving her father,—putting flowers on his study table, learning to read so that she could read his books, reaching up to rub her cheek against his, praying for him, and letting him put her to bed.

13. The Oldest Inhabitant refused to go to bed on any terms, but persisted in sitting up in a rocking-chair until daybreak.

14. The Eskimo never knows when his own time may come to beg.

15. Fate tried to conceal him by naming him Smith.

16. The only department of life in which Mr. Randall failed to shine was the making of sufficient money to live upon.

17. He saw an eagle swoop across the gigantic hollow, but the great bird dwindled to a dot ere it was halfway over.

18. After she began wearing the bracelet, she was unwilling to go without it even for a day.

19. Hewing wood and sawing plank leave me no time to take part in disputes.

20. The one object of Polly’s life was to get out of her cage.

21. The skipper had taken his little daughter to bear him company.

22. Every boy is anxious to be a man.

23. A man has no more right to say a rude thing to another than to knock him down.

24. To travel in Switzerland it is generally necessary to cross the mountains, to go around the sides, or to go through them.

25. Even the blind men’s dogs appeared to know Scrooge.

26. Let dogs delight to bark and bite.

27. When a bear kills a sheep, he skins it deftly and has the politeness to leave the pelt in a neat bundle, just to indicate to the farmer that he has been robbed by a gentleman.

28. The first tracks to meet their eyes were the delicate footprints of the red squirrel.

29. It is not good to make a jest of thy teacher.

30. Angels seemed to have sat with Ernest by the fireside.

31. My joy was greater than I can express when I saw the tiger rise and slink into the jungle.

LXXXVIII. PARTICIPLES

346. In Lesson LIV we learned that the perfect tenses of any verb are formed by combining certain auxiliaries with the past participles of the verb; as, “I have heard,” “I had heard,” “I shall have heard.” We learned also that the past participle is one of the principal parts of a verb.

In Lesson LV we learned that the passive voice of any transitive verb is formed by adding its past participle to the conjugation of the verb be; as, “It is caught,” “It was caught,” “It will be caught.”

In Lesson LVI we learned that the past participle of a verb may be used like an adjective as the subjective complement of a verb; as, “The potatoes seem done,” “The flowers are withered now.”

347. In Lesson LVII we learned that the present participle of a verb always ends in -ing, and that this participle is used in forming the progressive conjugation, as, “I am sleeping,” “I was sleeping,” “I shall be sleeping.”

We are ready now to study participles in all their relations.

348. Intransitive verbs have four participles:—

P RESENT

P AST

P ERFECT

coming

come

having come

Progressive

having been coming

Transitive verbs have six participles:—

P RESENT

P AST

P ERFECT

Active

writing

having written

Active Progressive

having been writing[1]

Passive

being written

written

having been written

[1] This form is rarely used.

The active participles denote action performed; they make us think of the doer of the action. On the other hand, the passive participles denote action received; they make us think of the receiver of the action.

The present participle expresses action as still in progress; the past participle expresses action completed in past time; the perfect participle expresses past action completed before some particular past time.

349. The participle, like the infinitive, is a verbal, because it is a verb form without the power to assert. Just as an infinitive is oftenest used as a noun, so the participle is oftenest used as an adjective; that is, it is usually associated with some noun. Indeed, it is by their adjective use that we are able to distinguish participles from infinitives in -ing, for in form they are almost exactly the same.

What nouns do the participles belong with in the following sentences?

I hear the sound of trickling water.

The lost child had wandered far.

The diamonds sparkling in her dark hair rivaled the stars.

The chair made two hundred years ago tilted one forward very uncomfortably.

350. The participles used oftenest are the simplest of all, the present active participle and the past passive participle.

351. A participle, like an infinitive, may have all the complements and modifiers that a verb may have; as, “The man turning the switch is faithful,” “Feeling sleepy after lunch, I took a nap.”

The participle and all its accompanying words form together a participial phrase.

Summary.—A participle is a verbal that is generally used as an adjective.

Participles may be active or passive or progressive in meaning.

Participles have three tenses,—present, past, and perfect. The present participle expresses continuing action, the past participle completed action, and the perfect participle past action completed before a particular time.

Participles have the same complements and modifiers as verbs.

A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and its complement and modifiers.

Exercise 1.—Form all the participles of the verbs choose, draw, drink, go, find, know, tell, think, turn, shine.

Exercise 2.—Select all the participial phrases in these sentences. Tell what noun or pronoun they belong with. Classify the participles.

1. Two children sat on the grass under the lilacs, making dandelion chains and talking happily.

2. Those three tall poles now being lifted to position will enable us to have a telephone.

3. From a little hill called Hutchinson’s Hill you could look over three and a half miles of ground covered with fighting seals.

4. Having given away the old candle mold, she was anxious to get it back again.

5. Mrs. Merrithew, knowing well that little folk are generally troubled with a wonderful thirst, had also brought a cup and a bottle of lemonade.

6. The floors were bird’s-eye maple, and having been lately waxed, they looked too fine for my desecrating tread.

7. The workmen, having been painting for hours on the sunny side of the house, grew faint and dizzy.

8. The boy took his seat, frowning and blinking at the candle light, while his mother, placing his coffee before him, let her hand rest on his shoulder.

9. Having passed at the turnstile into the campus, David stood before the college.

10. In one hand he carried a faded valise made of Brussels carpet sprinkled with pink roses.

11. The old peasant woman, having eaten three meals with the servants and three with the mistress, declared at evening that she was satisfied.

12. If all the money being spent for ice-cream sodas were put to some useful purpose—cement sidewalks, for instance,—few of us would be stubbing our toes on old board walks.

13. A snowball soaked in water and left out to cool was a projectile which had been resorted to with disastrous results.

14. No flying or crawling creature escapes the sharp little eyes of the birds.

15. Its roots having been cut, the top of the tree suffered.

16. The tourists, having watched the bears nose about among the tin cans in the garbage piles, went back to the hotel to avoid being devoured by mosquitoes.

17. Very soon their path led them out into a wide glade, fenced all about with the serried and formal ranks of the young firs.

18. That log just being sawed will produce eight hundred feet of lumber.

19. The whale is the largest animal now living in the world.

20. Having been told by his master that he too could go to the village, Shep bounded away down the road like mad.

21. Sleep, having descended upon him, spread a quiet mist through his brain.

22. Having been tramped down by the cattle, the snow was smooth like a floor.

Tell the use of all the infinitive phrases in sentences 2, 4, 10, 13.

LXXXIX. PARTICIPLES MODIFYING NOUNS

352. The participle may be associated with a noun in several ways.

(1) The participle may modify a noun precisely like an adjective, as when we say boiling water, pleading eyes, revolving turret, educated men, hammered brass, plowed land, dried apples.

The participle in this use can be distinguished from a real adjective in two ways:—(a) it comes from a verb, (b) it cannot be compared.

Apply these two tests to the seven participles just given.

Some participles have become real adjectives, as loving, learned, striking (in striking appearance), annoying, exciting. Any one of these adjectives may be compared.

(2) The participle or participial phrase may take the place of an adjective clause. Sometimes it is used instead of a restrictive clause, thus pointing out a particular thing or class of things; as, “The men shoveling coal on the docks were prostrated by the heat.” Sometimes the participial phrase takes the place of an unrestrictive clause, thus adding a new thought to the sentence; as, “Here comes a turbaned negress, balancing a basket of lemons on her head.”

In both the sentences just given the participial phrase comes after the noun it modifies, thus taking in the sentence the same position as the appositive adjective.

The restrictive participial phrase is not set off by a comma. The unrestrictive participial phrase is set off by a comma.

(3) The participial phrase may take the place of a clause of time or cause, and yet modify a noun, as in the following sentences:—

Those pens, having been given to me by my dear master, were never put to any common uses.

Having said these words, Beowulf plunged into the water and disappeared among the dark waves.

In the first sentence, change the phrase to a clause of cause. What noun does the phrase modify?

In the second sentence, what does the participial phrase modify? What can you say of its position? Change it to a clause of time.

Note that although the participial phrase may take the place of a clause of time or cause, it is still an adjective element; for, as shown in the sentences just studied, such a participial phrase may modify a noun.

Summary.—The participle may be used alone to modify a noun precisely like an adjective.

The participial phrase may modify a noun, taking the place of a clause.

The participial phrase sometimes comes before, and sometimes after, the noun it modifies.

A participial phrase is set off by a comma when it is unrestrictive, whether it follows or precedes the word it modifies.

Exercise.—Explain the use of all the participial phrases. Classify the participles. Account for the punctuation.

1.

The breaking waves dashed high

On a stern and rock-bound coast.

2. Being direct descendants of Adam and Eve, we had much of their inquiring turn of mind.

3. Worms are elongated, soft-bodied animals, differing greatly in form and habits.

4. The books bound in red morocco belonged to my mother, and the “Iliad” illustrated by Flaxman was one of my father’s treasures.

5. The Temple School was a two-story brick building, standing in the center of a great square piece of land, surrounded by a high picket fence.

6.

Then [comes] the whining schoolboy with his satchel

And shining morning face, creeping like snail

Unwillingly to school.

7. That tree toad squatting on the trellis and peering down at us reminds me of the gargoyles on the Cathedral of Notre Dame.

8. The boys looked like a legion of imps, coming and going in the twilight, busy in raising some infernal edifice.

9. At last, finding himself hungry and weary, and seeing that there were herds of wild asses in the plain which he was traversing, Rustum thought that he would catch one of them for his meal, and rest for the night.

10. It is only he who is weary of life that throws himself in the way of a roaring lion.

11. Like most things connected in their first associations with schoolbooks and schooltimes, the Leaning Tower of Pisa seemed much too small.

12. In the morning it was raining, with little prospect of fair weather, but having expected nothing better, we set out on foot for the Causeway.

13. In this tavern the visitor may derive good entertainment from real Genoese dishes,—sausages, strong of garlic, sliced and eaten with fresh green figs; cocks’ combs and sheep kidneys, chopped up with mutton chops and liver; small pieces of some unknown part of a calf, twisted into small shreds, fried, and served up in a great dish; and other curiosities of that kind.

14. Having supposed the Giant’s Causeway to be of great height, I was somewhat disappointed at first for I found the Loom, which is the highest part of it, to be but fifty feet from the water.

XC. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES IN THE PREDICATE

353. Although the participial phrase is in the sentence for the purpose of telling something about some person or thing, still it does not always go with the noun that names that person or thing. In the sentence, “The children stood watching them out of the town,” the participial phrase watching them out of the town tells something about the children, but it is not a direct modifier of the noun children, for it belongs in the predicate of the sentence. It does not modify the verb stood, for it does not tell how the standing was done. It really takes the place of a second predicate, watched them out of the town, but participles are not asserting words, hence we cannot call this phrase a predicate. The best way to tell about it is this: The verb stood is accompanied by the participial phrase watching them out of the town, which denotes an action taking place at the same time as the standing.

Tell about the participial phrases in these sentences:—

Fred entered the house calling as usual for his mother.

The Indians advanced, shouting their war cries.

She gazed forward, shading her eyes with both hands.

NOTE.—Sometimes the participle is used adverbially to modify a verb; as in the sentence, “The children went scampering off to the woods.” This sentence does not mean that the children went and scampered. They only scampered, and the scampering was what made them go. Since the participial phrase tells just how the children did the going, it must be a modifier of the verb went.

What is the difference between the sentence just given and the following?—“The children went singing to the woods.” It is plain that not every verb can be modified by a participle. Usually only a verb meaning come or go may be so modified.

354. In Lesson LV it was shown that the past participle is often used as a subjective complement; as, “This dress is soiled,” “My money is spent.”

355. In a few idiomatic expressions the participle is used adverbially to modify an adjective; as, freezing cold, steaming hot, hopping mad, dripping wet. Here the participle tells how cold, how hot, etc., and thus denotes degree.

356. Sometimes the noun that a participle modifies is omitted, and the participle is said to be used as a noun; as, “The loving are the daring,” which means that loving persons are daring persons. We also speak of the killed and wounded.

Summary.—The participle or the participial phrase may be a part of the predicate in three ways.

(1) It may be an accompaniment of the verb.

(2) It may be a subjective complement of the verb.

(3) It may be a modifier of a few verbs, denoting the way in which an action was performed.

The participle may be used adverbially to modify an adjective and thus denote the degree of some quality.

The participle may be used as a noun.

Exercise.—Explain the use of all participles and participial phrases. Classify the participles.

1. The little mare gave me all the sympathy I could ask, repeatedly rubbing her soft nose over my face, and lapping up my salt tears with evident relish.

2.

Three fishers went sailing out into the west,

Out into the west as the sun went down.

3. The warriors of the king were little pleased to hear such talk from his lips.

4. After her conference with the superintendent, this undignified young schoolmistress went dancing and skipping home to tell her mother of her promotion.

5. The sun shining on the rippling water made it so dazzling bright that we were almost blinded.

6.

Little white Lily sat by a stone,

Drooping and waiting till the sun shone.

7. On my first day in Tangiers the spectacle was bewildering, and only by concentrating my attention on detached groups could I form any distinct impression of it.

8. Then Rustum made his way to the bazaar, taking his camel drivers with him.

9. After licking his lips and polishing his whiskers, the lynx went loping off through the woods with the limp body of the mink in his jaws, to eat it at leisure in his lair.

10. In October the woods were a blaze of color,—clear gold, flaming scarlet, crimson, amber, and coppery brown.

11.

I watch him as he skims along,

Uttering his sweet and mournful cry.

12. Society may be divided into two classes—the bores and the bored.

13.

O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done,

The ship has weathered every rock, the prize we sought is won.

14. Three kings came riding from far away.

15. One day as the king sat drinking in one of the chambers of his palace, and boasting after his custom, a genius, disguised as a minstrel, desired to be admitted to the royal presence.

16. The underfed dogs snapped and growled in the passages, glaring at the cold stars, and snuffing into the bitter wind, night after night.

17. Drops of nightly dews trickle down to the seeds, moistening the dryness, closing up the little hollows of the ground, drawing the particles of maternal earth more closely.

18. The barley and the rye are garnered and gone, the landscape is bare and deserted.

19. The air was stinging cold and felt like ice upon the boy’s bare, hot throat.

20. Her heart overflowed with sympathy for all the weary, the beaten, the oppressed.

Explain the use of the infinitive phrases in sentences 3, 4, 7, 9, 15.

XCI. ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

357. In the sentence, “When the snow had left the lawns bare, the crocuses appeared,” we have an adverbial clause. What is it? What does it denote? Such a clause is frequently condensed into a group of words like this, the snow having left the lawns bare. In this group there are two parts,—the noun element the snow, which was subject of the clause, and the participial phrase having left the lawns bare, which is made out of the predicate of the clause. It is clear then that the two parts of this group of words have the logical, though not the grammatical, relation of subject and predicate.

Such a group of words is called an absolute phrase.

358. The absolute phrase is generally spoken of by grammarians as an independent element; that is, it is not a modifier of any part of the sentence.

359. Occasionally, as in the example given, the absolute phrase is an abridgment of an adverbial clause of time. Oftener it is used instead of a clause of cause, as in the sentence, “The drought having lasted so long, the foliage began to turn yellow.”

360. Sometimes an absolute phrase is used instead of an independent clause, thus changing a compound sentence to a simple sentence; as, “The crew escaped from the ship in three boats, only two reaching Siberia.” What clause would you make out of the absolute phrase here? By what conjunction would you join it to the first independent proposition?

361. The noun or the pronoun that is the base word of the noun element in an absolute phrase is said to be in the nominative case, used absolutely.

Summary.—An absolute phrase is a group of words used independently and consisting of a noun or a pronoun and a participle, having to each other the logical relation of subject and predicate.

An absolute phrase is an abridgment of an adverbial clause or an independent clause.

Exercise.—Select all the absolute phrases. Separate them into their two parts. Expand them into adverbial clauses or independent clauses.

1. His feet were clad in half slippers of red leather, the toes being pointed and turned upward.

2. She had paused in reverie, her hands clasped behind her head.

3. Jack telling his condition, the giant bade him welcome.

4. Grandma and Norman were sitting on the floor in front of the ice box, the child having manifested a peculiar desire for cold boiled potato.

5. From a balcony above leaned the lovely Ermengarde, her golden tresses crowned with a nightcap of rare and curious design.

6. The Frey home was made up of cheery workers, even little Dorothea having her daily self-assumed tasks.

7. The laws of that country being very severe against slaves, Androcles was sentenced to be torn in pieces by a furious lion.

8. Through wild and desolate scenes, by forests, rocks, and waterfalls, we pass, the little locomotive always puffing and pushing vigorously behind us.

9. Mowgli had been looking from one to the other of his friends, his chest heaving and his eyes full of tears.

10. These eggs being sold, Jack and his mother got plenty of money.

11. Everywhere, scattered about the country, we have seen windmills, their great arms moving slowly around.

12. Under Rebecca’s delicately etched brows her eyes glowed like two stars; their dancing lights half hidden in lustrous darkness.

13. The eagerness of Barnum to obtain a white elephant is easily understood, that animal being considered by showmen the greatest attraction in the country.

XCII. AGREEMENT OF PARTICIPLES. OTHER WORDS IN -ING

362. A sentence containing a participial phrase should be so constructed that there is no doubt as to what noun or pronoun the phrase modifies.

In the sentence, “I had a fine view of your new hospital coming in on the train this morning,” the participial phrase seems by its position to modify the noun hospital; but it really modifies the pronoun I, and hence should be placed at the beginning of the sentence. If the phrase is expanded into an adverbial clause of time, it may remain where it is.

363. In the sentence, “Opening the door, my lamp went out,” the participial phrase has nothing to modify.

This is called a dangling or a floating participle. The best way to deal with such a sentence is to expand the participial phrase into an adverbial clause,—“When I opened the door.”

Exercise.—Point out the error in each of these sentences. Reconstruct each sentence.

1. We never once thought of the baby, rushing out of doors to see the fire.

2. I heard the whistles plainly, sailing across the bay.

3. I met your sister coming home from my music lesson.

4. Mother saw the flames first sitting on the veranda.

5. Entering the hall, her foot slipped on the waxed floor and she fell.

6. Putting two and two together, it is quite plain that he wants an appointment.

7. Knitting mittens and piecing quilts, I think Grandmother is very happy.

8. Having been recently painted, Mr. Graham did not recognize his own house.

9. Grasping the rope and plunging into the surf, the huge receding wave carried him out almost to the wreck.

364. We have seen that certain participles are in form precisely like infinitives in -ing, and can be distinguished from them only by their use. The participle is used like an adjective, and the infinitive in -ing is used like a noun.

Take, for instance, the word running in the following sentences:—

Water running down hill acquires great force.

Running races is a small boy’s pastime.

Running water is clear.

I shall never forget the running of that race.

In the first sentence it is clear that running is a participle, because the participial phrase running down hill modifies the noun water and is, therefore, used like an adjective.

In the second sentence it is equally clear that running is an infinitive, for the infinitive phrase running races is subject of the sentence and is therefore used like a noun.

In the third sentence running is a participle, because it is derived from a verb and cannot be compared. (See § 352.) In other respects it resembles a pure descriptive adjective. In the phrase “an interesting book” interesting is a pure adjective; it can be compared.

In the fourth sentence running is an infinitive in -ing. It is modified by an article and is used, like a noun, as the object of the verb.

In the sentences, “It is a wise saying,” “Take my blessing,” saying and blessing are pure nouns without verbal force, as is shown by the fact that they have plural forms.

Exercise 1.—Classify the -ing words in the following sentences as infinitives, participles, adjectives, or nouns:—

1. The half back was cheered by the admiring crowd.

2. The time of the singing of birds is come.

3. I distinctly said that I wanted a singing bird.

4. Singing hymns was her favorite diversion.

5. Painting high buildings is a dangerous occupation.

6. The old lady painting in the Louvre was an excellent copyist.

7. Mr. Morgan paid a large sum for this small painting.

8. The child was pleased with the painting book.

9. A setting hen looks very placid.

10. They should have been arrested for setting fire to the old house.

11. I will ask the photographer when he can give you a sitting.

12. The child sitting on the curbing said sweetly, “Hello, old lady.”

13. The smiling days are not always the friendliest.

14. “I am better,” said Agnes, smiling brightly.

15. A short saying oft contains much wisdom.

16. Ever charming, ever new, when will the landscape tire the view?

17. Health is a blessing that money cannot buy.

18. Another duty the robin took upon himself,—to assist me in seeing that every bird in the room had his daily outing.

19. Turning a canary out into the world is about like turning a two-year old baby out to get its own living.

20. We require from buildings as from men two kinds of goodness: first, the doing their practical duty well; then that they be graceful and pleasing in doing it.

Exercise 2.—Explain the use of each verbal in the following sentences. Analyze sentences 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21.

1. The garret is a fine place to sit of an afternoon and hear the rain pattering on the roof.

2. To be called to the principal’s office filled the stoutest heart with alarm.

3.

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,

The lowing herd wind slowly o’er the lea.

4. The old German carpenter packed Mrs. Howe’s heavy furniture in an empty store beneath her apartment, and when she refused to pay him an exorbitant sum, he locked the door on her and her boxes and went off to find a policeman.

5. I had views of many interesting scenes in this family of crows, supposed by the wary parents to be visible only to the cows stolidly feeding on the hillside.

6. The chickens seemed to be well cared for by the women; but the men appeared to be the laziest of mortals.

7. Let us stand on the long iron bridge that spans the St. Lawrence just above Montreal, the very place to study the river as it narrows and runs swifter for its smashing plunge through yonder rapids to the east,—the dreaded Lachine Rapids, whose snarling teeth flash white in the sun.

8. To keep Jim from following the regiment or from staying and getting lost in search of it, the wagoner had tied him to the rear axle of his wagon with a strong twine.

9. The engine mounted the curve faster and faster, roaring through a tunnel, growling over a bridge, and snarling at a paling alongside, but no glimpse of the runaway locomotive could the pursuers get.

10. Daddy felt, like the midshipman, sadly perplexed when the dog was finally missing, but he could suggest no mode of revenge which was not too dangerous for them to put in practice.

11. The thought of my shortcomings in this life falls like a shadow on my life to come.

12. Launching majestically from the edge of the nest, the great eagle had swooped down into the cold shadow, and then, rising into the light by a splendid spiral, he had taken a survey of the empty, glimmering world.

13. Our terrier was never known to spend a night away from home.

14. It is inexplicable to me that any bird should be either so unobservant as not to recognize a foreign egg at sight, or so easy-tempered as not to insist on straightway being rid of it.

15. It is easier to do what you please than to do what you ought.

16. The blue-white moon of midwinter, sharply glittering like an icicle, hung high in a heaven clear as tempered steel.

17. Sometimes the fox resorts to numerous devices to mislead and escape the dog altogether,—walking in the bed of a small creek, running along a rail fence, or leaping into a hollow stump.

18. The elephants simply moved their legs mechanically up and down, and swung their trunks to and fro; but they were determined not to pull or exert the slightest power, neither did they move forward a single inch.

19. The only way to mitigate the hard lot of a canary is to make him so happy that he will not wish to be free.

20. The best part of a journey is getting home again.

21. Jefferson sent Lewis and Clark to penetrate the vast regions west of the Mississippi.

22. While the old turkey perched upon a tree top to keep an eye on the enemy, the brood went sailing over the trees toward home.

23. The officers ordered the crape to be instantly cut off from the dogs’ legs.

XCIII. SUMMARY OF PARTICIPLES

365.

- I. DEFINITION.—A participle is a verbal adjective.

- II. FORMS.—

- 1. Of intransitive verbs.

- Present, going.

- Past, gone.

- Perfect, having gone, having been going.

- 2. Of transitive verbs.

- Present, seeing, being seen.

- Past, seen.

- Perfect, having seen, having been seeing, having been seen.

- III. USES.

- 1. To form the perfect tenses, the passive voice, and the progressive conjugation.

- I have trusted you.

- You were trusted by me.

- I am trusting you.

- 2. As an adjective modifier of a noun or a pronoun.

- (a) Restrictive.

- Barking dogs seldom bite.

- The picture painted by Leonardo da Vinci was stolen.

- (b) Unrestrictive.

- (1) Used in place of an adjective clause.

- The silver moon, shining in the rosy eastern sky, must have looked upon the setting sun.

- (2) Used in place of a clause of time or cause.

- Having built a magnificent church, we had to have a magnificent organ.

- 3. As subjective complement of a verb.

- Christ is risen.

- Everybody is gone.

- 4. As an accompaniment of a verb.

- Then the blind girl came nearer, reaching out her hands toward my face.

- 5. As part of an absolute phrase.

- The roast turkey having received due attention, the boys were ready for mince pie.

- IV. MODIFIERS AND COMPLEMENTS.

- Participles have the same modifiers and complements as verbs.

- Having earned the money, I spent it.

- Growing tired, we walked slower.

- Calling me a coward, he went on.

- Turning sharply to the right, he struck the tree.

- V. AGREEMENT.

- 1. The construction of a sentence should leave no doubt as to what word a participial phrase modifies.

- 2. Dangling participles should be avoided.

Make two good sentences to illustrate each use of the participle.

XCIV. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

366. A participial phrase is analyzed very much like an infinitive phrase. First the participle should be given as the base, then its complement and modifiers.

MODEL.—Behind each islet of tall reeds is a fishing boat held fast by two poles stuck in the bottom of the river.

This is a simple, declarative sentence. The subject is a fishing boat held fast by two poles stuck in the bottom of the river. The predicate is is behind each islet of tall reeds.

The base word of the subject is boat. It is modified by the infinitive fishing, the article a, and the participial phrase held fast by two poles stuck in the bottom of the river.

The base word of this phrase is the participle held. It is modified by the adverb fast and by the prepositional phrase by two poles stuck in the bottom of the river. The base word of the object of the preposition by is the noun poles. It is modified by the adjective two and the participial phrase stuck in the bottom of the river. The base word of this phrase is the participle stuck. It is modified by the prepositional phrase in the bottom of the river, etc.

367. A sentence containing an absolute phrase should be analyzed as follows:—

MODEL.—Amy having gone to Vermont, the lady was lonely.

This is a simple, declarative sentence containing the absolute phrase Amy having gone to Vermont, which is used instead of the adverbial clause of cause, since Amy had gone to Vermont.

The subject is the lady. The predicate is was lonely, etc.

The absolute phrase consists of the noun Amy and the participial phrase having gone to Vermont, which have the logical relation of subject and predicate. The base of the participial phrase is the participle having gone, etc.

Exercise.—Analyze the following sentences:—

1. In one store I would find a catbird moping on a high shelf or in a dark back room; in another a bluebird scared half to death, and dumb in the midst of squawking parrots and singing canaries.

2. In that first battle, Jim ran barking after the very first shell that came screaming over our heads.

3. The island is supplied with the best water imaginable, small streams leaping down from the sides of the hills and running through every valley.

4. The biting cold wind that shrunk our faces and pinched our noses blue only brought a wild-rose bloom to mother’s delicate cheeks.

5. The doings of the people thus suddenly become his neighbors, Bobby studied with all a bird’s curiosity.

6. Coming out into the road on my way home again, I fell in with an old friend.

7. The soldiers were miserably clad, and asked whether we had shoes to sell.

8. It is difficult to describe the left-half’s agony as he picked himself up and went limping back to his place.

9. At daylight, directly ahead of us was the island of Juan Fernandez, rising like a deep blue cloud out of the sea.

10. Long ears twinkling, round eyes softly shining, the rabbits leaped lightly hither and thither, pausing every now and then to touch each other with their sensitive noses, or to pound on the snow with their strong hind legs in mock challenge.

11. In long, graceful leaps, barely touching the fence, the fox went careering up the hill as fleet as the wind.

12. Joel’s long legs began to ache, and seemed stiffening at the thighs and knees.

13. After their supper of milk and oatmeal porridge, the children sat down, waiting and watching, and fancying they heard sounds in the hills.

14. Hearing loud cries of distress coming from the lawn, the gardener rushed across and found the crow lying on his back, his claw tightly gripping the end of one of the wings of a large hawk.

15. We soon found the vireo’s nest, suspended within the angle of two horizontal twigs, and trimmed outwardly with some kind of white silky substance.

16. He lay like a warrior taking his rest.

17. For four miles the pilot must race along a squirming, twisting, plunging thread of water, that leaps ahead like a greyhound, and changes its crookedness somewhat from day to day with wind and tide.

18. For centuries the trees had developed strength to resist the winds when they were clad in all their leaves, or to carry the load of those leaves weighted with raindrops, or to bear the winter snows; but they had no strength that would enable them to be coated thick with ice and then wrenched by angry blasts.

19. The servants having gone to their cabins, the great house was filled with the quiet of a Sunday afternoon.

XCV. ANTICIPATIVE SUBJECT

368. We have learned that the pronoun it may be used as an anticipative subject to throw the real subject after the predicate. This real subject may be a noun clause or an infinitive phrase.

It will never be known whether the lady came out of that door or the tiger.

It is a mistake to suppose that the fox cannot be tamed.

369. We must not conclude that the word it at the beginning of a sentence is always an anticipative subject. Sometimes it is the real subject, that is, it is a neuter personal pronoun having for its antecedent some term perfectly understood by both speaker and listener; as, “Have you read ‘The Call of the Wild’? It is the story of a dog that reverted.”

370. Sometimes it is used for subject with no special word for antecedent; as when we say, “It was blowing great guns.” (See § 252.)

371. In the familiar expression, “It is time to get up,” the antecedent of it is the word now or the term the present moment.

372. It is not the only word used as anticipative subject. Another word is there; as in the sentence, “There is snow on the top of Pike’s Peak.” If we ask the question, What is on the top of Pike’s Peak? the sensible answer is not there, but snow, hence snow is the subject. The word there does not denote place, hence it is not an adverb. It is used merely to fill a gap in a declarative sentence in which the subject has been placed after the verb, for if the gap were not filled and the sentence began with a verb, it would seem to be interrogative. When so used the word there is called an expletive, which means a word used to fill up a gap.

373. Of course there at the beginning of a sentence is not always an expletive. Sometimes it is an adverb denoting place; as, “There will I build me a nest.”

NOTE.—When there is an adverb we pronounce it distinctly, but when it is an expletive used as anticipative subject, we slur it.

Summary.—The word it is often used as an anticipative subject so that the real subject may come after the verb. The word there may be an anticipative subject. It is then called an expletive.

Exercise.—Analyze the following sentences. If there is an anticipative subject, state that fact before giving the real subject; thus,—In the sentence, “Once upon a time there were four little rabbits,” the anticipative subject is the expletive there; the real subject is four little rabbits. The predicate is were once upon a time.

1. There would be several insuperable difficulties in adopting the moon as a residence.

2. Every object on the moon would be only one sixth as heavy as the same object on the earth. There a box containing a pound of chocolate bonbons would weigh only two or three ounces.

3. It is a little curious that the effect of a short allowance of food does not show itself in hunger.

4. There never was such a hailstorm in Wisconsin.

5. It is just the right time of the moon for planting sweet peas.

6. There were dances, theatricals, and sleighrides that winter.

7. It would amuse me very much to sing while I am hunting.

8. A cannon that breaks loose from its fastenings on a ship is suddenly transformed into a supernatural beast. It is a monster developed from a machine; it has the weight of an elephant, the agility of a mouse, the obstinacy of the ox; it takes one by surprise, like the surge of the sea; it flashes like lightning; it is deaf as the tomb; it weighs ten thousand pounds, and it bounds like a child’s ball.

9. That day there came our first great snowstorm.

10. There lay the beautiful piece of embroidery that mother had put away so carefully and forgotten so completely.

11. There’s a special providence that watches over idiots, drunken men, and boys.

12. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin.

13.

It made the children laugh and play,

To see a lamb at school.

14. In the reign of King Arthur, and in the county of Cornwall, near to the Land’s End in England, there lived a worthy farmer, who had an only son, named Jack.

15. There the two old dogs sat and talked of the wonderful tenacity of rheumatism that has once settled in a dog’s shoulder.

16. There was one passenger in the coach,—a small, dark-haired person in a glossy buff calico dress.

17. Professor Boyesen describes what he calls the saeter, the spring migration of the dairy and dairymaids. It is the great event of the year in all the rural districts.

18. There were three Catherines, two Annes, and a Jane.

19. It is said in Ceylon that the cocoanut, like the magpie and the robin, will flourish only within sound of the human voice.

20. There is always a sad element in the departure of a steamer.

XCVI. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

374. We have noted several constructions in which there is an ellipsis, or omission of some word or words necessary to the grammatical structure of the sentence.

(1) The subject of an imperative sentence, the pronoun you, thou, or ye is usually omitted; as, “(You) Honor the flag.”

(2) A noun is often omitted after a possessive modifier; as, “Let us go over to Baker’s (house) this evening.”

(3) An auxiliary verb is often omitted; as, “Somebody has entered the hall and (has) taken my umbrella.”

(4) The predicate is often omitted in a clause of comparison; as, “I am not so tired as you (are or are tired).” “He has no better right than I (have or have right).”

(5) The relative pronoun that is often omitted in an adjective clause; as, “The ring (that) you gave me is too small.”

(6) The subordinate conjunction that is often omitted in a noun clause; as, “You said (that) I might take your skates.”

375. The elliptical sentence is very common, especially in conversation, where we do not have to depend entirely upon words to convey our meaning, as we have the help of emphasis, tone of voice, and gesture. It follows that in oral language we leave out many words that can easily be supplied by our listeners.

(1) In answering questions, we seldom make complete statements, as,—

What is your name? (My name is) Donald.

Whose boy are you? (I am) Mr. Hill’s (boy).

Where do you live? (I live) On Jackson Street.

(2) We often omit a word that has already been expressed in the sentence; as, “Our first maid was an Irish girl; our second (maid was) a Norwegian (girl).”

(3) In sentences beginning with no wonder or no matter we omit the main verb and the anticipative subject it.

“No wonder he died,” means “It is no wonder that he died.”

“No matter what I said,” means “It is no matter what I said.”

(4) Two very common questions are What of it? and What if I do? We may expand the first question thus, “What (will come) of it?” and the second thus, “What (difference will it make) if I do?”

(5) In adverbial clauses we find many cases of ellipsis, but the words omitted can readily be supplied; as,—

I lived on the south side when (I was) a child.

I cut my finger while (I was) paring an apple.

She sings as if (she were singing) by note.

I will be there if (it is) possible.

Though (we were) tired and hungry we plodded on.

I will go (though it) rain or (though it) shine.

Exercise.—Analyze the following sentences, supplying the words omitted wherever there is an ellipsis.

1. Wisdom is better than rubies.

2. A song to the oak, the brave old oak!

3. The sun shall not smite thee by day nor the moon by night.

4. She will close the house and go to her son’s.

5. Cæsar had his Brutus; Charles the First his Cromwell.

6. It is more blessed to give than to receive.

7. And then to breakfast with what appetite you have.

8. To-day he puts forth the tender leaves of hope; to-morrow blossoms.

9. Love’s wing moults when caged and captured.

10. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty, and he that ruleth his spirit than he that taketh a city.

11. Few and short were the prayers we said.

12. All the world’s a stage and all the men and women merely players.

13.

Stone walls do not a prison make,

Nor iron bars a cage.

14. Though mild, Calvin was also intolerant.

15.

Happy the man whose wish and care

A few paternal acres bound.

16. Drink to me only with thine eyes.

17.

True hope is swift and flies with swallow’s wings,

Kings it makes gods and meaner creatures, kings.

18. My true love hath my heart, and I have his.

19.

Lives of great men all remind us

We can make our lives sublime.

20. What if the river is too deep for the cattle to ford?

21.

If all the year were playing holidays

To sport would be as tedious as to work.

22. My kingdom for a horse!

23.

No matter what the daisies say,

I know I’ll be married some fine day.

24. Blessings on thee, little man!

25.

Six white eggs on a bed of hay,

Flecked with purple, a pretty sight.

26.

“Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving?”

“Over the sea.”

27. The wind has a language, I would I could learn.

XCVII. REVIEW OF ANALYSIS

Exercise.—Analyze the following sentences. These sentences contain examples of the various constructions that have been presented in this book. If there is any doubt as to what part of speech a certain word is, the dictionary will usually enable you to decide. Where an ellipsis occurs, the word or words omitted should be supplied.

1. How the black cat had captured the alert and restless squirrel so quickly was a great mystery to me.

2. If a woman puts on airs with her equals, she probably has something about herself or her family that she is ashamed of.

3. In writing these memoirs I shall yield to the inclination so natural to old men, of talking of themselves and their own actions.

4.

When ye come where I have stepped,

Ye will wonder why ye wept.

5. I sought out one of these few, Fred Ouillette, pilot and son of a pilot, an idol in the company’s eyes, a hero to the boys of Montreal, a figure to be stared at always by anxious passengers.

6. Must we conclude that the dignity of a bird depends upon the length of his tail?

7. During these gales, the top of the tableland is enveloped in thick clouds, which the people of the Cape call the Devil’s Table Cloth.

8. The sand-hills were gashed with numberless ravines; and as the sky had suddenly darkened, and a cold gusty wind arisen, the strange shrubs and the dreary hills looked doubly wild and desolate.

9.

Floweret and hope may die,

But love with us shall stay.

10. There are three beautiful dandelions out on the terrace.

11.

I hope to see my Pilot face to face

When I have crossed the bar.

12. Gray Brother did not come upon the night when I sent him the word.

13. The beasts cannot use me more cruelly than I have been used by my fellow creatures.

14. If I stroked the cat in my pet monkey’s presence, he would get into a paroxysm of rage and make great efforts to bite me.

15.

The spangled heavens, a shining frame,

Their great Original proclaim.

16. He was a strange figure, this tattered, long-haired man, with the spear and wallet, and his boots cut down into sandals.

17. Gordon waited long for an opportunity to sing in the choir at old St. George’s.

18. When shall you leave Yarmouth? On the fifteenth, if possible.

19. The captain, whose ideas of hard riding were all derived from trans-Atlantic sources, expressed the utmost amazement at the feats of Sorel, who went leaping ravines, and dashing at full speed up and down the sides of precipitous hills, lashing his horse with the recklessness of a Rocky Mountain rider.

20. The Great American Desert is a land where no man permanently abides; for in certain seasons of the year there is no food either for the hunter or his steed.

21.

One constant element in luck

Is genuine, solid, old Teutonic pluck.

22. Did you ever think why a dog’s nose is always wet?

23. One of the most difficult things is to get any wild animal to allow himself to be touched with the human hand.

24. Old Trinity’s steeple probably sways eighteen inches whenever an elevated train passes.

25. Do steeple climbers always work in pairs?

26. The chipmunk had made a well-defined path from his door out through the weeds and dry leaves into the territory where his feeding ground lay.

27. No wonder Eve ate the forbidden fruit.

28. In Bermuda the banana is as omnipresent as the onion.

29. We called the mice Jack, Jill, and Jenny, and they seemed to know their names.

30. Shooting the Lachine Rapids is like taming a particularly fierce lion.

31. Turk slept at night outside his master’s door, and no sentry could be more alert upon his watch than this faithful mastiff, who had apparently only one ambition,—to protect and to accompany his owner.

32. We fancied we could hear the huge bodies of the whales burrowing through the water.

33. At length, finding my life very solitary, I accepted the claw and heart of a rich and respectable green parrot, who offered me a good home and the devotion of a lifetime.

34. Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home.

35. Presently the doe stepped away, and left her little one lying on a spotted heap of dead leaves and moss.

36. While traveling along the Rhine, we observed that when the German has nothing else to do, he eats and drinks.

37. The Spaniards changed the whole character and habits of the Indians when they brought the horse among them.

38. The fires in the Australian bush are often the work of the natives, to frighten away the white men; and sometimes the work of the shepherds, to make the grass sprout afresh.

39. Near the Pyramids, more wondrous and more awful than all else in the land of Egypt, there sits the lonely Sphinx.

40. The sexton had lived in Stratford for eighty years, and seemed still to consider himself a vigorous man, with the trivial exception that he had nearly lost the use of his legs.

41. What if this were my last day at school?

42. It was something to have seen the dust of Shakespeare.

43. A queen bee will lay two hundred eggs in a few hours, and in the year she will generally have laid twenty or thirty thousand.

44. The ground was carpeted with softest moss, into which the boy’s feet sunk so deep that they were almost covered; and all over the moss were sprinkled little star-shaped pink flowers.

45. The wolf asked little Red Riding Hood whither she was going.

46.

O happy harbor of God’s saints!

O sweet and pleasant soil!

In thee no sorrow can be found,

Nor grief, nor care, nor toil.

47. She fell back upon the floor as if by the stroke of an unseen hand.

48. Whether she was attended by a physician from Canton or from Milton, I was unable to say; but neither the gig with the large allopathic sorrel horse, nor the gig with the homœopathic white mare was ever seen hitched at the gate during the day.

49. No sooner did I open their door than out the little starlings would all fly, and seat themselves on my head and shoulders.

50. Neither eye nor ear revealed him anything.

51. Small leisure have the poor for grief.

52. By a flight of winding stairs we reached a covered balcony, over which a tropical vine wanders at will.

53. Dora heard Marjorie singing, laughing, chatting, as she flashed here and there, helping and hindering in about equal proportions.

54. No matter what honors your ancestors attained, make your own name honorable.

55. As I trod the sounding pavement, there was something intense and thrilling in the idea that the remains of Shakespeare were moldering beneath my feet.

56. The lark, springing up from the reeking bosom of the meadow, towered away into the bright fleecy cloud, pouring forth torrents of melody.

57. I now found myself among noble avenues of oaks and elms, whose vast size bespoke the growth of centuries.

58. The air within the tunnel is somewhat damp, but fresh and agreeably cool, and one can scarcely realize in walking along the light passage, that a river is rolling above his head.

59. No frog egg may hope to develop into a turtle, or a bird, or anything but a frog.

60. I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft.

61. Everybody knows that the porcupine is ridiculously fastidious in his choice of food.

62.

The daisy, by the shadow that it casts,

Protects the lingering dewdrop from the sun.

63. If I choose to work eleven hours a day, what of it?

64. Far below lay the earth, brown, dry, and desolate, from drouth.

65. There was no sleep that long night for the little duck mother Quackalina.

66. One evening, after the ice of a sleet storm had clogged their wings, the pigeons settled on one of the highest buildings they could find, and sat and shivered through the long night.

67. The taking down of a steeple two hundred and thirty-eight feet high, that rises on a closely built city street, is not a simple proceeding.

68.

The legend of Felix is ended, the toiling of Felix is done;

The master has paid him his wages, the goal of his journey is won.

69. There we were shown the chair on which the English monarchs have been crowned for several hundred years.

70. Under the seat is the stone brought from the Abbey of Scone, whereon the kings of Scotland were crowned.

71. Sleeping or waking, my thoughts are all of Ireland and of you.

72. Fortunately for us, our two lean, wiry little horses did not object to being used as aquatic animals.

73. Many Russian villages possess a public bath of the most primitive construction, but in some parts of the country the peasants take their vapor bath in the household oven in which the bread is baked!

74. This aptly illustrates a common Russian proverb, which says that what is health to the Russian is death to the German.

75. Scarfs, shawls, stuffs for dresses, morning gowns, and vests, handkerchiefs, sashes, purses, and tobacco bags are heaped in rich profusion.

76. When a man of fourscore, he continued his weekly visits to the schools.

77. His master having been honorably discharged before the close of the war, Jim was left with the regiment in care of Wiggins, the wagoner.

78. No other pigeon is so bold and fearless, so full of bulldog tenacity, so full of royal courage, as the homer.

79. The French carried their imitation of Indians so far that they often disguised themselves to resemble their allies, with paint, feathers, and all.

80. It was sometimes impossible to tell in an attacking party which were French and which were Indians.

81. The sea was dotted everywhere with the heads of seals hurrying to land and begin their share of fighting.

82. Old Marley was as dead as a door-nail.

83.

If eyes were made for seeing,

Then beauty is its own excuse for being.

84.

Out on the lawn there arose such a clatter

I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter.

85.

There is a pleasure in the pathless woods,

There is a rapture on the lonely shore.

86. How I wish that when the Angel comes for me, I might reach out and feel your hand!

GENERAL REVIEW

Exercise 1

(1) The family of the Lambs had long been among the most thriving and popular in the neighborhood; the Miss Lambs were the belles of Little Britain, and everybody was pleased when old Lamb had made money enough to shut up shop, and put his name on a brass plate on his door. (2) In an evil hour, however, one of the Miss Lambs had the honor of being a lady in attendance on the Lady Mayoress, at her great annual ball, on which occasion she wore three towering ostrich feathers on her head. (3) The family never got over it; they were immediately smitten with a passion for high life; set up a one-horse carriage, put a bit of gold lace round the errand-boy’s hat, and have been the talk and detestation of the whole neighborhood ever since. (4) They could no longer be induced to play at Pope-Joan or blindman’s buff; they could endure no dances but quadrilles, which nobody had ever heard of in Little Britain; and they took to reading novels, talking bad French, and playing upon the piano. (5) Their brother, too, who had been articled to an attorney, set up for a dandy and a critic, characters hitherto unknown in these parts; and he confounded the worthy folks exceedingly by talking about Kean, the opera, and the “Edinburgh Review.”

—WASHINGTON IRVING, Sketch Book.

1. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of all words in this paragraph that you do not understand.

2. Account for the capitalization and punctuation. Why is the term Edinburgh Review inclosed in quotation marks?

3. What kind of noun is family in sentence (1)? Use it in a sentence so as to reveal its number and its gender. What is its number in sentence (3)? How do you account for it?

4. What two plural forms has the term Miss Lamb? What is the plural of Lady Mayoress? What does the dictionary say about the plural form folks? What is the number of everybody in sentence (1)? What is the plural of attorney? of dandy?

5. Tell the part of speech and use of long, enough, sentence (1); however, one, which, sentence (2); ever, since, sentence (3); no, longer, no, but, sentence (4); too, up, hitherto, sentence (5). Which of these words can be used as other parts of speech? Illustrate in sentences.

6. Are thriving in sentence (1) and towering in sentence (2) participles or adjectives? How do you decide? Is pleased in sentence (1) a complement of was or a part of a passive verb was pleased? How do you decide? How is smitten used in sentence (3)? Find two passive verbs, and prove that they are passive.

7. Supply the ellipsis before and after popular in sentence (1); before put in sentence (1).

8. Tell the use of each of the following verbals: being (2); reading, talking, playing (4); talking (5). Tell how each of these verbals is modified or completed.

9. Select each prepositional phrase and tell what it modifies.

10. Select all the infinitives with to and tell the grammatical use of each.

11. Parse the relative pronouns in sentences (4) and (5). Are the clauses that they introduce restrictive or unrestrictive?

12. Tell the use and case of each of the following nouns: belles (1); talk, detestation (3); characters (5).

13. Tell the principal parts of each of these verbs: put (1); had, wore (2); got, set (3); took (4).

Exercise 2

(1) Ahem! Dry work, this speechifying, especially to an unpracticed orator. (2) I never conceived till now what toil the temperance lecturers undergo for my sake; hereafter they shall have the business to themselves. (3) Do, some kind Christian, pump a stroke or two, just to wet my whistle. (4) Thank you, sir! (5) My dear hearers, when the world shall have been regenerated by my instrumentality, you will collect your useless vats and liquor casks into one great pile and make a bonfire in honor of the town pump. (6) And when I shall have decayed like my predecessors, then, if you revere my memory, let a marble fountain, richly sculptured, take my place upon this spot. (7) Such monuments should be erected everywhere and inscribed with the names of the distinguished champions of my cause.

(8) One o’clock! (9) Nay, then, if the dinner bell begins to speak, I may as well hold my peace. (10) Here comes a pretty young girl of my acquaintance with a large stone pitcher for me to fill. (11) May she draw a husband while drawing her water, as Rachel did of old! (12) Hold out your vessel, my dear! (13) There it is, full to the brim; so now run home, peeping at your sweet image in the pitcher as you go, and forget not, in a glass of my own liquor, to drink “Success to the town pump.”

—NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE, Twice Told Tales.

1. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of words in these paragraphs that you do not understand.

2. Classify each sentence both as to purpose and structure.

3. What part of speech is ahem? What feeling does it express in sentence (1)?

4. Supply the ellipsis in sentence (1). What part of speech is speechifying? What is its grammatical use?

5. What does the adverb especially in sentence (1) modify?

6. Account for the use of shall and will in these paragraphs.

7. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the class and use of each, and the introductory word.

8. Select all the terms of address. What is the base word of each?

9. What is the use of now sentence (2)? old (11)? dinner (9)?

10. Parse each predicate verb in sentences (3), (5), (6), (7).

11. Tell the part of speech and use of themselves, sentence (2); stroke, two (3); there, full, peeping, glass, own (13).

12. Tell the use of all infinitive phrases in sentences (3), (6), (9), (10), (13).

Exercise 3

(1) Once upon a time there came to this earth a visitor from a neighboring planet. And he was met at the place of his descent by a great philosopher, who was to show him everything.

(2) First of all they came through a wood, and the stranger looked upon the trees. “Whom have we here?” said he.

(3) “These are only vegetables,” said the philosopher. “They are alive, but not at all interesting.”

(4) “I don’t know about that,” said the stranger. “They seem to have very good manners. Do they never speak?”

(5) “They lack the gift,” said the philosopher.

(6) “Yet I think I hear them sing,” said the other.

(7) “That is only the wind among the leaves,” said the philosopher. “I will explain to you the theory of winds; it is very interesting.”

(8) “Well,” said the stranger, “I wish I knew what they are thinking.”

(9) “They cannot think,” said the philosopher.

(10) “I don’t know about that,” returned the stranger; and then laying his hand upon a trunk: “I like these people,” said he.

(11) “They are not people at all,” said the philosopher. “Come along.”

(12) Next they came through a meadow where there were cows.

(13) “These are very dirty people,” said the stranger.

(14) “They are not people at all,” said the philosopher; and he explained what a cow is in scientific words which I have forgotten.

(15) “That is all one to me,” said the stranger. “But why do they never look up?”

(16) “Because they are graminivorous,” said the philosopher; “and to live upon grass, which is not highly nutritious, requires so close an attention to business that they have no time to think, or speak, or look at the scenery, or keep themselves clean.”

(17) “Well,” said the stranger, “that is one way to live, no doubt. But I prefer the people with the green heads.”

(18) Next they came into a city, and the streets were full of men and women.

(19) “These are very odd people,” said the stranger.

(20) “They are the people of the greatest nation in the world,” said the philosopher.

(21) “Are they indeed?” said the stranger. “They scarcely look so.”

—R. L. STEVENSON, Fables.

1. Rewrite this selection, changing the direct to indirect discourse and noting the changes made in verbs, pronouns, and other words.

2. Fill out the elliptical sentences, and tell the grammatical use of each of the words that you supply.

3. Comment on the use of and (1), but (15), and but (17).

4. Explain how each of the following verbs and verbals is completed and modified: was, to show, paragraph (1); have (2); are, and are (3); seem (4); lack (5); think, hear, said (6); wish, knew, are thinking (8); laying (10); explained, is, have forgotten (14); is (15); keep (16).

5. Find the subject of came in the first sentence, and explain the use of there. Prove that was met in paragraph (1) is a true passive verb.

6. Tell the grammatical use of each infinitive in paragraphs (16) and (17).

7. Tell the part of speech and use of once, paragraph (1); first (2); highly, so (16); well (17); next (18); very (19); indeed, scarcely, so (21).

8. Parse all the adjective pronouns, interrogative pronouns, and relative pronouns.

9. Find all the prepositional phrases, and tell what each phrase modifies. Tell the object of each preposition, and if there is anything peculiar about any object, comment upon the peculiarity.

10. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the kind and use of each clause, and its introductory word. Classify the adjective clauses as restrictive or unrestrictive, and tell what the adverbial clauses denote.

If a word is used in a peculiar or uncommon way, consult the dictionary for information regarding it.

Exercise 4

(1) There troop the three most roguish boys that ever made parents scold or laugh. (2) They have nothing to do but to set each other on to mischief. (3) They pull off buds from the unblossomed rose bushes; they pick cucumbers by the half bushel that were to have been let alone; they break down rare shrubbery to get whips, and instead get whippings; they kill the guinea-pigs; chase the chickens; break up hens’ nests; get into the carriages and wagons only to tumble out, and set all the nurses a-running; they study every means of getting under the horses’ feet, and, as the more dangerous act, they are fond of tickling their hind legs, and pulling at their tails; they fill the already fed horses with extra oats, causing the hostler to fear for his charges’ health, since they refuse oats at the next regular feeding; they paddle in all the mud on the premises; sit down in the street and fill their pockets with dirt; they wet their clothes in the brook, tear them in the woods, lose their caps a dozen times a day, and go bare-headed in the blazing sun; they cut up every imaginable prank with their long-suffering nurses when meals are served, or when bedtime comes, or when morning brings the washing and dressing. (4) They are little, nimble, compact skinfuls of ingenious, fertile, endless, untiring mischief. (5) They stub their toes, or cut their fingers, or get stung, or eat some poisonous berry, seed, or root, or make us think that they have, which is just as bad; they fall down stairs, or eat green fruit till they are as tight as a drum; and yet there is no peace to us without them, as there certainly is none with them. Mischievous darlings! Joyful plagues! Loving, rollicking, laughing rogues!

—HENRY WARD BEECHER, Star Papers.

1. Give the principal parts of each predicate verb in this selection; its tense. Read the selection with the predicate verbs in the past tense.

2. Explain how the following verbs are completed and modified: made, sentence (1); have (2); pull, were, lose, go, cut (3); are (4); get, make (5).

3. Select all the adjectives and tell what they modify. Classify them as limiting or descriptive. Compare them, if possible. If any of them do not admit of comparison, tell why.

4. Tell the use of there, sentence (1) and there (5).

5. Tell the use and case of each of the following nouns: boys, sentence (1); legs (3); hostler (3); times (3); day (3); drum (5); darlings (5).

6. Find three nouns in the possessive case, and tell what each of them modifies. Decline each of these nouns.

7. Select all the infinitives with to and tell the use of each.

8. Select and classify all the words in -ing.

9. Account for the punctuation of this selection.

10. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the kind and use of each, and the introductory word.

11. Tell the part of speech and use of on (2); off, alone, down, up, already (3); just, down, certainly (5).

12. Select all the coördinate conjunctions in sentences (3) and (5) and tell what each conjunction joins.

INDEX

- Absolute phrases, 237.

- Absolute use of noun, 237.

- Abstract nouns, 14.

- Active voice, 40.

- Address, term of, 39, 40.

- Adjective clauses, 171.

- restrictive, 193.

- unrestrictive, 194.

- Adjective elements, 29.

- Adjective phrases, 31.

- Adjective pronouns, 121.

- declension of, 122.

- Adjectives, appositive, 88.

- classified, 110.

- comparison of, 116, 117.

- defined, 25.

- errors in use of, 118, 119.

- misused for adverbs, 70, 71.

- modifying pronouns, 26.

- objective complement, 94.

- parsing of, 120.

- review of, 120.

- subjective complement, 69.

- Adverbial clauses, of cause, 183.

- of comparison, 188, 189.

- of concession, 186.

- of condition, 186.

- of manner, 181.

- of place, 181.

- of purpose, 184.

- of result, 184.

- of time, 180, 181.

- office of, 171.

- Adverbial nouns, 91.

- Adverbial noun phrases, 91.

- modifying adjectives or adverbs, 92.

- Adverbial noun phrases, modifying verbs, 91.

- what they denote, 91.

- Adverbial phrases, 31.

- Adverbs, comparison of, 170.

- conjunctive, 172.

- defined, 28.

- formation of, 31.

- interrogative, 170.

- introducing noun clauses, 204, 205.

- meaning of, 28.

- misused for adjectives, 70, 71.

- modifying adjectives, 29.

- modifying adverbs, 29.

- modifying sentences, 175.

- modifying verbs, 28.

- parsing of, 174.

- simple, 170.

- summary of, 173.

- After, 178.

- Agreement, of participle and noun, 239.

- of subject and verb, 165, 166.

- Among, 37.

- Analysis, models for, 34, 48, 191, 225, 244.

- Antecedent, of personal pronoun, 98.

- of relative pronoun, 197.

- Anticipative subject, 201, 212, 247.

- Appositive, adjective, 88.

- case of, 87.

- in possessive case, 86.

- infinitive, 215.

- noun, 85, 86.

- Appositive, noun clause, 201.

- position of, 86.

- punctuation of, 86, 87.

- Articles, definite and indefinite, 113.

- uses of, 114.

- As, relative pronoun, 197.

- At, 37.

- Auxiliary verbs, 124.

- can, could, etc., 154-156.

- shall and will, 151, 152.

- Before, 178.

- Beside, 38.

- Besides, 38.

- Between, 37.

- But, conjunction and preposition, 46.

- relative pronoun, 197.

- uses of, 178.

- By, 38.

- Can and could, 155, 156.

- Capitalization, of proper adjectives, 111.

- of proper nouns, 13, 14.

- Case, 83-95, 100, 108, 196.

- Cause, clauses of, 183.

- Clauses, adjective, 171, 193-197.

- adverbial, 171, 180-191.

- defined, 48.

- dependent, 52, 53.

- independent, 48.

- noun, 200, 201.

- review of, 206.

- Collective nouns, 166.

- Common gender, 78.

- Common nouns, 13, 14.

- Comparative degree, 116.

- Comparison, clauses of, 188, 189.

- of adjectives, 116.

- of adverbs, 170.

- how denoted, 116, 117.

- irregular, 117.

- Complement, defined, 61.

- Complement, direct object, 61.

- double object, 216.

- objective, 94, 145.

- subjective, 67, 68.

- Complex sentences, 53.

- Compound personal pronouns, 106.

- uses of, 106.

- Compound predicate, 19, 20.

- Compound sentences, 50.

- Compound subject, 20.

- Concession, clauses of, 186.

- Condition, clauses of, 186.

- Conjugation, active voice, 128-130, 132, 134.

- defined, 127.

- emphatic, 149.

- imperative mode, 134.

- indicative mode, 128-130.

- interrogative, 129.

- passive voice, 140-142.

- progressive, 148.

- subjunctive mode, 132.

- Conjunctions, 46.

- coördinate, 174.

- correlative, 175.

- in compound sentences, 50.

- subordinate, 176, 177.

- Conjunctive adverbs, 172.

- in noun clauses, 204.

- Contractions, 130.

- Coördinate conjunctions, 174.

- Correlative conjunctions, 175.

- Dangling participles, 239.

- Declarative sentences, 9, 10.

- Declension, of nouns, 84.

- of personal pronouns, 98.

- of relative pronouns, 196.

- Defective verbs, 154-157.

- Demonstrative adjectives, 113.

- Dependent clauses, 52.

- Descriptive adjectives, 110, 111.

- Direct and indirect discourse, 162-165.

- Direct and indirect quotations, 162-165.

- Do, as principal verb, 157.

- Double object, of preposition for, 220.

- of verb, 216-218.

- Double possessive, 81, 104.

- Each other, 122.

- Elliptical sentences, 249, 250.

- Else, as limiting adjective, 113.

- uses of, 178.

- Emphatic conjugation, 149, 150.

- Enough, 113.

- Errors, in adjectives, 70, 71, 118, 119.

- in adverbs, 70, 71.

- in infinitives, 221, 222.

- in interrogative pronouns, 109, 110.

- in participles, 239.

- in personal pronouns, 101, 103.

- in verbs, 130, 137-142.

- Exclamatory nouns, 40.

- Exclamatory sentences, 44, 45.

- Feminine gender, 78.

- Floating participle, 239.

- For, 179.

- Gender, 77, 78.

- how denoted, 78.

- Gerund, 211.

- Going, in verb phrase, 156.

- Have, as principal verb, 157.

- Hence, 179.

- Idiomatic expressions, 104, 201, 220, 235, 247.

- Imperative mode, 134.

- conjugation of, 134.

- Imperative sentences, 41.

- subject omitted, 42.

- Impersonal verbs, 157.

- In, 37, 38.

- Independent elements, 39, 40.

- Indicative mode, 127.

- Indirect discourse, 162-165.

- Indirect object, 89, 90.

- becoming subject of passive verb, 141.

- position of, 90.

- Infinitive phrases, 211.

- Infinitives, defined, 209.

- errors in use of, 221, 222.

- in apposition, 215.

- in -ing, 210.

- modified by possessive, 211.

- modifier of adjective, 220, 221.

- modifier of noun, 215.

- modifier of verb, 218.

- object of preposition, 220.

- object of verb, 213.

- part of double object, 216-218.

- subjective complement, 213.

- summary of, 224, 225.

- used independently, 221.

- with to, 209, 210.

- Interjections, 43.

- Interrogative adjectives, 113.

- Interrogative adverbs, 170.

- Interrogative conjugation, 129.

- Interrogative pronouns, 108.

- errors in use of, 109, 110.

- in noun clause, 204.

- uses of, 108.

- Interrogative sentences, 23, 24.

- order of, 24.

- Into, 38.

- Intransitive verbs, of action, 64.

- of being, 64, 66, 67.

- Irregular verbs, defined, 135, 136.

- errors in use of, 137-140.

- principal parts of, 137.

- It, as anticipative subject, 201, 212, 247.

- Lay and lie, 137.

- Like, 181.

- Limiting adjectives, 110, 113, 114.

- Manner, clauses of, 181.

- Masculine gender, 77.

- May and might, 155, 156.

- Mode, defined, 127.

- imperative, 134.

- indicative, 127.

- subjunctive, 131, 132.

- Modifier, 26.

- Must, 155, 156.

- Natural order, 22.

- Neuter gender, 78.

- Nominative case, 83, 84, 100.

- Noun clauses, 200.

- introductory word of, 203, 204.

- uses of, 200, 201.

- Nouns, abstract, 14.

- adverbial, 91, 92.

- as adjectives, 27.

- as interjections, 43.

- case of, 83, 84.

- collective, 166.

- common, 13, 14.

- compound, 81.

- declension of, 84.

- defined, 11, 12.

- direct object, 61.

- gender of, 77, 78.

- in apposition, 85-87.

- in exclamation, 40.

- in -ing, 240.

- indirect object, 89.

- number of, 74-76.

- object of preposition, 35.

- objective complement, 94.

- parsing of, 96.

- possessive, 79-82.

- proper, 13, 14.

- term of address, 39, 40.

- used absolutely, 237.

- Number, defined, 74.

- singular and plural, 74, 75.

- Numeral adjectives, 113.

- O, 43.

- Object, double, 216.

- indirect, 89, 90, 141.

- of preposition, 35, 36.

- of verb, 61.

- retained, 146.

- Objective complement, 94.

- becoming subjective complement of passive verb, 145.

- Off, 38.

- One, declined, 122.

- One another, 122.

- Only, 179.

- Other, declined, 122.

- Own, with possessives, 100.

- Parsing, of adjectives, 120.

- of adverbs, 174.

- of nouns, 96.

- of prepositions, 179.

- of pronouns, 100, 208.

- of verbs, 150, 168.

- Participial phrases, 229.

- Participles, agreement of, 239.

- dangling, or floating, 239.

- defined, 228, 229.

- differing from adjectives, 231.

- errors in use of, 239.

- forms of, 228.

- summary of, 243, 244.

- uses of, 140, 144, 145, 148, 228, 229, 231, 235, 237.

- Parts of speech, summary of, 57.

- Passive voice, 140-142.

- Past participle, 135, 228.

- as subjective complement, 144, 145.

- in passive conjugation, 140.

- Person, of nouns, 98.

- of pronouns, 98.

- of verbs, 127.

- Personal pronouns, 98.

- compound, 106.

- declension of, 98.

- errors in use of, 101-103.

- uses of, 100, 103-105.

- Phrases, 31, 33.

- absolute, 237.

- adjective, 31.

- adverbial, 31.

- as subjective complement, 69.

- defined, 33.

- denoting possession, 81.

- in a series, 32.

- infinitive, 211.

- participial, 229.

- position of, 32.

- prepositional, 35, 36.

- Place, clauses of, 181.

- Plurals, foreign, 75.

- formation of, 74, 75.

- compound nouns, 75.

- letters and figures, 75.

- titles, 75.

- regular and irregular, 74.

- same as singular, 74.

- Positive degree, 116.

- Possessive case, 83.

- of compound nouns, 81.

- Possessive nouns, 80, 83.

- form of, 80, 81.

- in double possessives, 81.

- what they denote, 81.

- Possessive pronouns, 103.

- how used, 104.

- in double possessives, 104.

- Predicate, compound, 19, 20.

- defined, 9, 10.

- simple, 16.

- transposed, 22.

- Prepositions, 34, 35.

- correct use of, 37-39.

- parsing of, 179.

- Present participle, in progressive conjugation, 148, 228.

- Principal parts, 135.

- Principal parts, of irregular verbs, 137.

- Progressive conjugation, 148.

- Pronouns, adjective, 121.

- compound personal, 106.

- defined, 18.

- in clauses of comparison, 190, 191.

- indefinite, 204.

- interrogative, 108.

- parsing of, 100, 208.

- personal, 98, 100, 103.

- Pronouns, relative, 196, 197.

- review of, 207.

- Proper adjectives, 111.

- Proper nouns, 13, 14.

- Punctuation, of a series, 20, 25, 26, 32.

- of appositives, 86-88.

- of compound sentences, 50.

- of compound subject and predicate, 20.

- of declarative sentences, 10.

- of exclamatory sentences, 44.

- of interrogative sentences, 24.

- of phrases, 32.

- Purpose, clauses of, 184.

- Raise and rise, 138.

- Reflexive use of pronouns, 106.

- Regular verbs, 135, 136.

- Relative pronouns, 196, 197.

- what, 204.

- Result, clauses of, 184.

- Retained object, 146.

- Review, general, 257-264.

- of adjectives, 120.

- of adverbs, 173.

- of analysis, 252.

- of clauses, 206.

- of infinitives, 224, 225.

- of nouns, 96, 97.

- of participles, 243.

- of parts of speech, 57.

- of prepositions, 179.

- Review, general, of pronouns, 207.

- of sentences, 55.

- of verbs, 72, 168.

- Sentences, complex, 53.

- compound, 50.

- declarative, 9, 10.

- defined, 9, 10.

- elliptical, 249, 250,

- exclamatory, 44, 45.

- imperative, 41.

- interrogative, 23, 24.

- review of, 55.

- simple, 48.

- Sequence of tenses, 125, 163.

- Series, of adjectives, 25.

- of phrases, 32.

- of predicates, 20.

- Set and sit, 138.

- Shall and will, 151.

- in indirect discourse, 163.

- in interrogative sentences, 152.

- rules for use of, 152.

- Should and would, 160-162.

- in subjunctive mode, 155.

- Simple adverbs, 170.

- Simple predicate, 16.

- Simple sentences, 48.

- Simple subject, 11.

- Since, 179.

- Singular number, 74.

- So, 179.

- Subject, compound, 20.

- defined, 9, 10.

- how found, 16.

- simple, 11.

- transposed, 22.

- Subjective complement, 67, 68.

- adjective, 69.

- infinitive, 213.

- noun, 67, 69.

- participle, 144, 145.

- prepositional phrase, 69.

- Subjunctive mode, 131.

- conjugation of, 132.

- Subjunctive mode, tenses of, 132.

- Subordinate conjunctions, 176, 177.

- Summary, of adverbs, 173.

- of case relations, 97.

- of infinitives, 224, 225.

- of participles, 243, 244.

- Superlative degree, 116.

- Tense, 123.

- errors in, 125, 126.

- in noun clauses, 201.

- primary, 124.

- secondary, 124.

- sequence of, 125, 163.

- Term of address, 39.

- The, an adverb, 170.

- There, 247, 248.

- Till, 179.

- Time, clauses of, 180, 181.

- To, omitted in infinitives, 217.

- To, use of, 37.

- Transitive verbs, 60, 61.

- followed by indirect object, 90.

- followed by objective complement, 94.

- what they denote, 62.

- Transposed order, 22.

- Until, 179.

- Used, in verb phrases, 156.

- Verb phrases, 155, 156.

- Verbals, 210, 211.

- Verbs, defective, 154-157.

- defined, 16.

- errors in use of, 130, 137-142.

- intransitive, 64, 66, 67.

- mode of, 127, 131, 134.

- parsing of, 150, 168.

- principal parts of, 135, 137.

- regular and irregular, 135, 136.

- review of, 72, 168.

- tense of, 123-126.

- transitive, 60, 61.

- used as interjections, 43.

- used transitively or intransitively, 64, 66.

- voice of, 140-142.

- Voice, active and passive, 140.

- conjugation of passive, 140-142.

- test for passive, 145.

- With, 38.

- Words in -ing, 240.

- Words used, as adjective or adverb, 59.

- as adverb or preposition, 60.

- as noun or adjective, 58.

- as noun or verb, 58.

- as preposition, conjunction, or adverb, 179.

- Would, as principal verb, 155.

- Yet, 179.

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Table of Contents

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PREFACE

CONTENTS

I. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

II. SIMPLE SUBJECT. NOUNS

III. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS

IV. VERBS

V. PRONOUNS

VI. COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE

VII. TRANSPOSED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

VIII. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

IX. ADJECTIVES

X. ADVERBS

XI. PHRASES. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

XII. PREPOSITIONS

XIII. TERM OF ADDRESS. EXCLAMATORY NOUN

XIV. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

XV. INTERJECTIONS

XVI. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES

XVII. CONJUNCTIONS

XVIII. CLAUSES. SIMPLE SENTENCES

XIX. COMPOUND SENTENCES

XX. DEPENDENT CLAUSES. COMPLEX SENTENCES

XXI. REVIEW: CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

XXII. REVIEW: PARTS OF SPEECH

XXIII. TRANSITIVE VERBS. OBJECT OF VERB

XXIV. INTRANSITIVE VERBS ASSERTING ACTION

XXV. INTRANSITIVE VERBS ASSERTING BEING. NOUNS AS SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS

XXVI. ADJECTIVES AS SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS

XXVII. REVIEW OF VERBS

XXVIII. NOUNS: NUMBER

XXIX. NOUNS: GENDER

XXX. POSSESSIVE NOUNS

XXXI. NOUNS: CASE

XXXII. NOUNS: THE APPOSITIVE

XXXIII. APPOSITIVE ADJECTIVES

XXXIV. INDIRECT OBJECT

XXXV. ADVERBIAL NOUN PHRASES

XXXVI. ADVERBIAL NOUN PHRASES

XXXVII. OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT

XXXVIII. PARSING OF NOUNS

Summary of Case Relations

XXXIX. PERSONAL PRONOUNS

XL. USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS

XLI. USES OF POSSESSIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS

XLII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS

XLIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

XLIV. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES

XLV. LIMITING ADJECTIVES

XLVI. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

XLVII. REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES

XLVIII. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

XLIX. VERBS: TENSE

L. THE INDICATIVE MODE

LI. THE INTERROGATIVE FORM OF THE INDICATIVE MODE

LII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

LIII. THE IMPERATIVE MODE

LIV. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

LV. VOICE

LVI. THE PASSIVE VOICE

LVII. THE PROGRESSIVE CONJUGATION

LVIII. THE EMPHATIC CONJUGATION

LIX. PARSING OF VERBS

LX. THE AUXILIARY VERBS SHALL AND WILL

LXI. DEFECTIVE VERBS. VERB PHRASES

LXII. DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURSE

LXIII. AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT. COLLECTIVE NOUNS

LXIV. REVIEW OF VERBS: PARSING

LXV. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. SIMPLE ADVERBS

LXVI. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

LXVII. SUMMARY OF ADVERBS

LXVIII. COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

LXIX. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

LXX. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME, PLACE, AND MANNER

LXXI. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CAUSE, PURPOSE, AND RESULT

LXXII. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONDITION AND CONCESSION

LXXIII. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON

LXXIV. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

LXXV. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

LXXVI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS

LXXVII. NOUN CLAUSES

LXXVIII. INTRODUCTORY WORDS OF NOUN CLAUSES

LXXIX. REVIEW OF CLAUSES

LXXX. REVIEW OF PRONOUNS

LXXXI. INFINITIVES

LXXXII. INFINITIVES AS SUBJECTS OR COMPLEMENTS

LXXXIII. INFINITIVES AS MODIFIERS OF NOUNS

LXXXIV. INFINITIVES AS PARTS OF “DOUBLE OBJECTS.” AS MODIFIERS OF VERBS

LXXXV. OTHER USES OF INFINITIVES

LXXXVI. SUMMARY OF INFINITIVES

LXXXVII. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES CONTAINING INFINITIVE PHRASES

LXXXVIII. PARTICIPLES

LXXXIX. PARTICIPLES MODIFYING NOUNS

XC. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES IN THE PREDICATE

XCI. ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

XCII. AGREEMENT OF PARTICIPLES. OTHER WORDS IN -ING

XCIII. SUMMARY OF PARTICIPLES

XCIV. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

XCV. ANTICIPATIVE SUBJECT

XCVI. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

XCVII. REVIEW OF ANALYSIS

GENERAL REVIEW

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

INDEX

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